UNIT II: GRAMMAR

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

What is Voice of a verb?

The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject in the sentence has performed or received the
action.

For example,
• The watchman opens the door.
• The door is opened by the watchman.

Types of Voices of Verb: Verbs have two voices (i) Active Voice (ii) Passive Voice Active
Voice
● When an action performed by the subject is expressed by the verb, it is an active voice.
● Active voice is used when more straightforward relation and clarity is required between the
subject and the verb.
For example,
• Hens lay eggs.
• Birds build nests.
Conversion of Active and Passive voice examples:
● Rita wrote a letter. (Subject + Verb + Object)
● A letter was written by Rita. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject).
● She cooks food. (Subject + Verb + Object)
● The food is cooked by her. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject)

Rule #1

Identify the (S+V+O) Subject, Verb and object in the active sentence to convert to passive voice.
Example: He drives car. (Subject – He, verb – Drives, object – Car)

Rule #2
Interchange the object and subject with each other, i.e., object of the active sentence become the
subject of the passive sentence.

Example:

Active voice: She knits sweater. (Subject – She, Verb – Knits, Object – Sweater)
Passive Voice: The sweater is knitted by her. (Object sweater is interchanged with the subject
She).
Rule #3

In passive voice sometimes the subject is not used, i.e., the subject in passive voice can be
omitted if the sentence without it gives enough meaning.

Example: Milk is sold in litres.

Rule #4

Change the base verb in the active sentence into the past participle i.e., third form verb in a
passive sentence i.e., preceded by (By, With, to, etc).

Base verbs are never used in passive voice sentences.

Example:

Active voice: She prepares dinner.

Passive voice: The dinner is prepared by her.

Active voice: She knows him.

Passive voice: He is known to her.

Active voice: Juice fills the jar.

Passive voice: The jar is filled with juice.

Rule #5

While conversion of Active voice sentence to Passive voice sentence, the pronoun used in the
sentence also changes in the following manner.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Pronoun Pronoun

I Me

We Us

He Him

She Her

They Them
You You
It It
Rule #6

Use the suitable helping or auxiliary verb (is/am/are/was, etc.). The rules for using auxiliary
verbs in passive voice sentences are different for each tense.

Example:

● The letter is written by her.

● A book was not bought by her.
● Chocolates are being eaten by them.

Forms of Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses

Simple Present Tense:
Active Sentences Passive Sentences

He writes an essay An essay is written by him

Sheena does the housework The housework is done by Sheena

She cares for the rabbit The rabbit is being cared for by her

Jacob always plays the guitar The guitar is always played by Jacob

Present Continuous Tense

Active Sentences Passive Sentences

They are eating bananas The bananas are being eaten by them

Bob is drawing a diagram A diagram is being drawn by Bob

Samta is playing the piano A piano is being played by Samta

She is waiting for Reema Reema is being waited for by her

Present Perfect Tense

Active Sentences Passive Sentences

Has he done the work? Has the work been done by him?
Have they left the apartment? Has the apartment been left by them?

He created this masterpiece. This masterpiece is created by him

He read the newspaper. The newspaper is being read by him.

Note: Except certain exemptions, no passive Voice formation for the following tenses can be
formed - Present Perfect Continuous Tense, Past Perfect Continuous Tense, Future Perfect
Continuous Tense and Future Continuous Tense.

Simple Past Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Ria paid the bills The bills were paid by Ria

The teacher called the student The student was called by the teacher

She did not buy the fruits The fruits were not bought by her

Past Progressive/Continuous Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

They were waiting for him He was being waited for by them

Astha was learning French French was being learnt by Astha

She was playing kabaddi Kabaddi was being played by her

Past Perfect Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

She won the match The match had been won by her
I had finished her work Her work had been finished by me

He had missed the last metro The last metro had been missed by him

Simple Future Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice
He will write a letter A letter will be written by him

He will repair her cycle Her cycle will be repaired by him

He shall start the meeting The meeting will be started by him

Future Perfect Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Meena will not have changed the bed sheet The bed sheet will not have been changed by
Meena

They will have won the match The match will have been won by them

Reena will have washed the skirt The skirt will have been washed by Reena

Impersonal passive voice:

Passive forms of the verb are of two types. Passive voice with the agent expressed and a passive
voice when no agent is expressed. The latter type is known as impersonal passive voice form.
When the doer of the action is not important or relevant to the context or when the doer is
unknown or is understood without mentioning:
• The room was well cleaned.
• The protesters were arrested.
In newspaper reports and scientific and technical writing and in research papers where the focus
is on the event or action rather that the doer.
• Three houses burgled on a single day. ( a newspaper caption0
• The actor was found murdered in his apartment. (a report)
• The solution is then poured into the flask. (science and research)
• A data was collected after the experiment. (research)
When it is a general procedure and the identity of the doer is not necessary:
• The information was circulated among the staff.
• The winners were given a rousing reception.
When we want to make a statement sound impersonal.
• The project has to be completed by next week.
• The annual budget will be presented tomorrow.
When the performers of action are people in general.
• Hindi is spoken in most of the states in India.
• A lot of money is spent during festival seasons.
TENSES:
It represents the form taken by the verb to comprehend the situation referred to in time. For
example, in the sentence, Yash walked for 2 hours and then he went to sleep, the past tense verb
form, walk(+ed) signals the time of the walk in the past. Tense is used to assign a time factor to
the sentence. Tenses just like time are divided into 3 parts-
Past tense - I swam
Present Tense - I swim
Future Tense - I will swim
Before we start with the more complicated divisions there are three rules we should keep in
mind-

• Only indicative forms of verbs are tensed.

• All the tenses have progressive and non-progressive forms for eg, I work here/I am
working here, are both Present tense.
• When a verb form is a very important complex, which involves more than one auxiliary,
it is the first auxiliary that is marked for tense, not the main verb.
Types of Tenses
Present Tense
Simple Present Tense:It is used to express daily tasks, facts, and universal truths. The present
tense is used to express what is happening or happens daily or is a fact in itself. Adding the letter
s or es makes a simple present tense.
Like- Likes
You, We, They: Like to play outside.
He, She, It: likes to play outside
For example-
• She writes a book.
• Moon comes out at night.
• New Delhi is the capital city of India.

Present Perfect Tense: The present perfect tense is used to describe actions that are completed.

• I, You, We, They: have killed time.

• He, She, It: has killed time.
For example-
• I have seen the movie you love the most.
• He has been to India

Present Perfect Continuous Tense: We use the present perfect continuous when the focus is on
an action that is not yet finished or completed.
I, You, We, They: have been playing for a day.
He, She, It: has been playing for a day.
For example-
• I have been waiting for the car for an hour.
• It has not been raining since last Friday.

Past Tense
Simple Past Tense: Used to indicate an action that happened in the past. It often comes with an
adverb of time. Sometimes it can be used without an adverb of time. Used for past habits.

For example-
• I went to school.
• You worked very hard in exams.
• She did not

Past Continuous Tense: The past continuous tense is a very important tense in English. We use
it to express what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.

I, she, he, it- was playing in the garden.

They, We - were playing in the garden
For example-
• I was cooking last night for my sister’s children.
• They were not playing scrabble when I checked on them.

Past Perfect Tense: The past perfect tense is easy to understand and to use in a sentence. This
tense talks about an event which happened in the past. If two actions happened in the past, the
past perfect tense is used to display the action that took place earlier.

I, he, she, it, we, they - had arrived at the station

For example-
• We were too late when the movie started.
• I thought I had seen the movie before but I was wrong.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense: Used to denote an event that started before a certain point in
the past and continued up to sometime in the past.

I, he, she, we, it, you, they - had been sleeping on the couch when I arrived.
For example-
• Sita was very tired. She had been dancing.
• Had the student been roaming outside the classroom?
Future Tense
Simple Future Tense: The period of time after speaking a sentence is considered future tense.

This tense is used to express future events and happenings.

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)
I, He, she, it, we, you, they - will/shall play the piano tomorrow.
For example-
• Sita will ask the questions tomorrow.
• They will never speak about this.

Future Continuous Tense: It is used to express an action that is going or continuing in the
future. E.g. He will be distributing promotion letters in the office tomorrow at 12 o'clock. In the
example, the action will commence in the future (tomorrow) and action is assumed to be
continued till sometime in the future.

I, he, she, you, it, they, we- will be arriving at the airport tomorrow.
For example-
• I will be playing football on the ground tomorrow.
• She will be writing a letter.

Future Perfect Tense: It is used to express an action that will happen/occur in future and will be
completed by a certain time in future. We use the future perfect to say that something will be
finished by a particular time in the future.
I, he, we, she, they, it - will have dinner at 10 pm
For example-
• She will have forgotten him by then.
• She will not have written a letter.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense: It is used to talk about actions that will start at a fixed point
of time in the future and will go on for some time in the future.
The future perfect continuous focus on the duration of an activity that will be in progress before
another time or event in the future.
Example:
• Tomorrow at 4 pm, I will be on my way to Kolkata.
• It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.
• Relatives will be staying at Aunt Mina’s house.

Verbs: Modals and Auxiliaries

An auxiliary is a helping verb. It is used with a main verb to form a verb phrase. For example,
• She was calling her friend.
• Here the word calling is the main verb and the word was is an auxiliary verb.
• The words be, have, do, can, could, may, might, shall, should , must, will, would, used,
need, dare, ought are called auxiliaries.
• The verbs be, have and do are often referred to as primary auxiliaries.
• They have a grammatical function in a sentence.
• The rest in the above list are called modal auxiliaries, which are also known as modals.
They express attitude like permission, possibility, etc.
Note the forms of the primary auxiliaries.
Auxiliary verbs Present tense Past tense

be am, is, are was, were

do do, does did

have has, have had

The table below illustrates the application of these primary verbs.

Primary auxiliary Function Example

be • used in the formation of She is sewing a dress.

continuous tenses I am leaving tomorrow.
• in sentences where the
action is more important The missing child was
than the subject found.
• when followed by an
infinitive, it is used to We are to leave next week.
indicate a plan or an
arrangement.
• denotes command You are to see the
Principal right now.

have used to form the perfect The carpenter has worked

tenses well.
used with the infinitive
to indicate some kind of I had to work that day.
obligation

do used to form the He doesn’t work at all.

negative and Did you work that day?
interrogative of the
simple present and the
simple past
 in the imperative form, Do sit down quietly.
it makes the statement
more forceful

The functions of modal auxiliaries.

◆Can usually expresses potential or ability. It is also used to indicate permission.
For example,
• Ram can bake a cake. (ability)
• Can you break this door? (ability)
• The doctor said, ‘You can play basketball again.’ (permission)
◆Could is used as the past tense of can in indirect speech. It is used to indicate ability in the
past. Could is also used to suggest a weak possibility in the future. For example,
• Rob said that he could solve the problem. (ability in indirect speech)
• He could drive a car when he was young. (ability in the past)
• She could leave on Friday. (weak possibility)
◆May is usually used when we ask for permission. It is also used to express a wish or to indicate
a strong possibility. For example,
• May I borrow your copy of Julius Caesar ? (permission)
• May you always prosper! (wish)
• There may be a road block today. (possibility)
◆Might is used as the past equivalent of may. It suggests a weak possibility. For example,
• We might leave town next week.
◆Shall/Should is used in the second and third person to express a promise or even a threat.
• You should receive your wages tomorrow. (promise)
• He shall not remain the captain anymore. (threat)
• Which pen should I buy? (seeking advice)
Note
Shall is used in the first person to express the future tense. For example,
• I shall be happy to see you.
◆Will is used in the second and third person to express simple future time. Would is used to
make polite requests. For example,
• You will not speak.
• He will come here.
• Would you like to have a cup of tea? (polite request)
Will is used in the first person to express willingness, determination, promise, habit, intention or
even a threat.
• I will do the work. (willingness)
• I will achieve my goal. (determination)
• We will help you. (promise)
• He will watch TV for hours. (habit)
• I will go to meet her today. (intention)
• We will sue him. (threat)
◆Must expresses necessity or obligation. For example,
• We must reach on time.
Note
The expression Will you…? suggests an invitation.
For example,
• Will you have dinner with us?
It can express fixed determination. For example,
• I must be allowed to express my wish.
◆Ought expresses moral obligation and desirability. It is always followed by to + verb . For
example,
• We ought to put in our best effort.
• We ought to win.
It can be used to indicate present or future time. For example,
• I ought to apologise to him.
◆Used to indicates a discontinued habit. For example,
• We used to go swimming in the evenings.
◆Need denotes necessity or obligation. For example,
• We need to visit this place once.
It is commonly used in negatives and interrogatives.
• He need not give up studies.
Need as a finite verb means want or require .
• He does not need your money.
◆Dare means be bold enough to. It is commonly used in interrogatives and negative sentences.
For example,
• How dare you argue with me?

Cause and Effect, Purpose and Reason

Study the following sentences:
1) The containers are made of low gauge and they develop crack after a single use. (cause and
effect)
2) Plastics need to be identified with a resin code in order to be sorted and processed property.
(purpose)
3) They are already of extremely low gauge and cannot be recycled ( Reason)
These sentences can be re-written as follows showing cause and effect purpose and reason
1) If we don’t clean the food scraps properly it results in these containers definitely not entering
the down-cycling stream( cause and effect)
2) There is need for plastics to be identified with resin code so that they can be sorted and
processed properly (purpose)
3) Since they are already of extremely low gauge they cannot be recycled (Reason)
Because the containers are made of low gauge, they develop crack after a single use.( Reason)
4) Because the containers are made of low gauge, they develop crack after a single use.(Reason)
The Expression given below help to show cause and effect use them in sentences of your own
Owing to, the effect of, results in , consequently, because, because of, as result of, caused by,
since, on account of ,causes, leads to, due to
Look at the following sentence:
A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
This can be written as follows
The purpose of using a barometer is to measure atmospheric pressure.
A barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
A barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
A barometer is used with a view to measure atmospheric pressure.

Question tags
Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
They are mainly used in speech when we want to:

• confirm that something is true or not, or

• to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.
Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the appropriate
subject.

A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.

• Jack is from Spain, isn't he?

• Mary can speak English, can't she?
A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

• They aren't funny, are they?

• He shouldn't say things like that, should he?

Exceptions
• Some verbs / expressions have different question tags. For example:
• I am - I am attractive, aren't I?
• Positive imperative - Stop daydreaming, will / won't you?
• Negative imperative - Don't stop singing, will you?
• Let's - Let's go to the beach, shall we?
• Have got (possession) - He has got a car, hasn't he?
• There is / are - There aren't any spiders in the bedroom, are there?
• This / that is - This is Paul's pen, isn't it?
Intonation
When we are sure of the answer and we are simply encouraging a response, the intonation in the
question tag goes down:

• This is your car, isn't it?

(Your voice goes down when you say isn't it.)
When we are not sure and want to check information, the intonation in the question tag goes up:

• He is from France, isn't he?

(Your voice goes up when you say isn't he.)

Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (he sings loudly), an adjective (very tall),
another adverb (ended too quickly), or even a whole sentence (Fortunately, I had brought an
umbrella). Adverbs often end in -ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly the same as their
adjective counterparts.
Tom Longboat did not run badly.
Tom is very tall.
Adverbs and verbs
Adverbs often modify verbs. This means that they describe the way an action is happening.
Phillip sings loudly in the shower.
The adverbs in each of the sentences above answer the question in what manner? How does
Phillip sing? Loudly. Adverbs can answer other types of questions about how an action was
performed. They can also tell when (We arrived early) and where (Turn here).
However, there is one type of verb that doesn’t mix well with adverbs. Linking verbs, such
as feel, smell, sound, seem, and appear, typically need adjectives, not adverbs.
Example
I feel badly about what happened.

Adverbs and adjectives

Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. Often, the purpose of the adverb is to add
a degree of intensity to the adjective.
The woman is quite pretty.
This book is more interesting than the last one.
You can use an adverb to describe another adverb. In fact, if you wanted to, you could use
several.
Phillip sings rather enormously too loudly.
The problem is that it often produces weak and clunky sentences like the one above, so be
careful not to overdo it.
Adverbs and sentences
Some adverbs can modify entire sentences— these are called sentence adverbs. Common ones
include generally, fortunately, interestingly, and accordingly. Sentence adverbs don’t describe
one particular thing in the sentence—instead; they describe a general feeling about all of the
information in the sentence.
 Fortunately, we got there in time.
Interestingly, no one at the auction seemed interested in bidding on the antique spoon collection.

Adverbial clause
An adverbial clause, sometimes referred to as an adverb clause, is a group of words that,
together, functions as an adverb. This means that the clause describes or modifies a
verb, adjective, or another adverb. Unlike other types of clauses, an adverbial clause is always a
dependent clause. This means that it cannot stand on its own as an independent sentence.

Adverbial clauses make sentences richer by providing additional context and description that
standard adverbs cannot. See how adverbial clauses and adverbs compare in these examples:

• He bakes cakes weekly.

• He bakes cakes before he leaves for work every Sunday.

As you see in these examples, adverbial clauses can appear at any point in a sentence. They can
be literal or figurative, like the clause in the fourth example.

Every part of speech, as well as every kind of phrase and clause, is a tool designed for a specific
purpose. When you need to write a succinct sentence, use an adverb. When you need more
information, use an adverbial clause.

The difference between an adverbial clause and an adverbial phrase

An adverbial clause is similar to, but not the same as, an adverbial phrase. Both are groups of
words that play the adverb role, but with one key difference: An adverbial clause contains a
subject and a verb, while an adverbial phrase does not.

Here are a few examples of adverbial phrases:

• Andrei eats his lunch with gusto.

• We thought, through logic, that the next bus would come at 3:10.

And here are similar examples of adverbial clauses:

• Andrei eats his lunch faster than everyone else eats.

• We thought, because the bus has been so predictable lately, that the next one would come at
3:10.

Types of adverbial clauses: Adverbial clauses come in many different forms. Each of these forms
is characterized by the nature of the information the clause is communicating.
 Adverbial clauses of manner

An adverbial clause of manner describes how the action described in the sentence’s main clause
is taking place or previously took place. Here are a few examples:

• She addressed the crowd as she had practiced in the mirror.

• They designed the new product the way innovators problem-solve around design flaws.

Adverbial clauses of place

Adverbial clauses of place describe where the action in a sentence’s main clause takes place. See
how they work in these examples:

• My son told me another fight broke out where he eats lunch at school.

• They drove beyond where the city ends.

Adverbial clauses of condition

With an adverbial clause of condition, you can communicate the conditions related to the verb,
adverb, or adjective in the sentence’s main clause. These examples demonstrate a few ways to
use adverbial clauses of condition:

• We’ll be sitting in the conference room until they tell us to leave.

• Whether my husband likes it or not, we’ll be celebrating Thanksgiving at my parents’ house.

Adverbial clauses of reason

Adverbial clauses of reason tell us the reason for the action being taken in the sentence’s main
clause. These clauses generally use subordinating conjunctions like because, unless, and since.
Here are a few examples of sentences that include adverbial clauses of reason:

• We adopted these two cats because they are a bonded pair.

• He’s amazing at billiards since he spent his youth working in a pool hall.

Adverbial clauses of time

Adverbial clauses of time communicate when the action in a sentence takes place:

• Before she got home, she called and ordered a pizza.

• They assembled, dressed, and marched out as the band played.

Adverbial clauses of purpose

Like adverbial clauses of reason, adverbial clauses of purpose frequently involve subordinating
conjunctions. These two kinds of clauses can look similar, but they have one key difference:
While adverbial clauses of reason give the reason why something is happening, adverbial clauses
of purpose explain the reason to take a specific action. Here are a few examples:

• We studied all night so we would pass the exam.

• So that they could ease the traffic flow, the event organizers split the group into three cohorts.

Adverbial clauses of comparison

Adverbial clauses of comparison are clauses that communicate how the subject of the dependent
clause compares to the subject in the main clause. There are two types of adverbial clauses of
comparison: adverbial clauses of comparison of degree and adverbial clauses of comparison of
manner.

Here are a few examples of adverbial clauses of comparison of degree:

• Felix is as good at video games as he is good at weight lifting.

• We expected the afternoon class to perform better on the test than the morning class did.

Here are a few examples of adverbial clauses of comparison of manner:

• The events unfolded as the oracle prophesized.

• My wedding vows went as well as I’d hoped.

Adverbial clause of concession

In an adverbial clause of concession, the writer acknowledges or admits a factor that modifies the
main clause. Take a look at these adverbial clauses of concession:

• Despite how I had good intentions, the interaction went horribly wrong.

• The department head hired the first person they interviewed, though twenty people applied for
the job.
 Examples of adverbial clauses

Previously, we demonstrated how adverbial clauses can appear at the beginning or at the end of a
sentence. They can also appear in the middle, as they do in these examples:

• Our team, whenever they win a match, acts like a swarm of bees and comes together as a
cohesive unit.

• Udarsh sat, because his usual spot at the table was taken, in a chair in the corner.

Adverbial clauses can be long, sometimes even longer than their sentences’ main clauses:

• Because there was ice on the road and I’d already slipped and fallen twice in the last week,
I stayed home from school.

• My sister, although she showed more patience than I’ve ever seen her have before, still
rushed ahead.

They can also be quite short:

• I took out the trash because it stunk.

• It was dark in the hallway, so Nina illuminated it after she found a match in her backpack.

Conditional Sentences

• There are four types of conditional sentences.

• It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different conditional sentences
because they express varying meanings.

• Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.

• Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical situations and

their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (often referred
to as the if-clause) and the consequence. Consider the following sentences:
 If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.

I would travel around the world if I won the lottery.

When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

Different Types of Conditional Sentences

There are four different types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a different

degree of probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain

circumstances.

• Zero Conditional Sentences

• First Conditional Sentences

• Second Conditional Sentences

• Third Conditional Sentences

Zero Conditional Sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—a situation in which one thing always causes

another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general truth rather than a

specific instance of something. Consider the following examples:

• If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

• When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

There are a couple of things to take note of in the above sentences in which the zero conditional

is used. First, when using the zero conditional, the correct tense to use in both clauses is

the simple present tense. A common mistake is to use the simple future tense.

When people smoke cigarettes, their health will suffer.

Secondly, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these zero

conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will always be the same, so it doesn’t matter

“if” or “when” it happens.

First Conditional Sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but not

guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

• If you rest, you will feel better.

• If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense in the main

clause—that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we indicate that under a

certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific result will likely happen in the future.

Examine some of the common mistakes people make using the first conditional structure:

• If you will rest, you will feel better.

• If you rest, you will feel better.

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

• If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it.

• If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Explanation: Use the zero conditional (i.e., simple present + simple present) only when a certain

result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first conditional (i.e., simple present + simple

future).

Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic
or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the examples below:
 • If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.
• If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Notice the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple past tense in

the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the main clause

(the one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely outcome). The following sentences illustrate a

couple of the common mistakes people make when using the second conditional:

• If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

• If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in the if-clause.

• If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more.
• If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the second conditional

mood to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually happen.

Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different if

something different had happened in the past. Look at the following examples:

• If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
• If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually happen in the

past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early, but did not. Along these

same lines, the speaker in the second sentence was capable of cleaning the house, but did not.

These are all conditions that were likely, but regrettably did not happen.
Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past participle) in

the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, should, etc.) + have + past participle in the

main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have happened.

Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

• If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
• If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb in the if-

clause.

If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.

If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

Explanation: The third conditional mood expresses a situation that could have only happened in

the past if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use the modal auxiliary verb + have

+ the past participle.

Concord- Subject Verb Agreement:

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a
subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be
plural.

1.When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.
• She and her friends are at the fair.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular
verb.
• The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined
by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
• The boy or his friends run every day.
• His friends or the boy runs every day.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is
a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule
appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these
pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.
• He doesn't like it.
• They don't like it.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
• One of the boxes is open
• The people who listen to that music are few.
• The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
• The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
• The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
• Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
• Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
• Either is correct.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
• The news is on at six.
Note: The word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a
singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
• Five dollars is a lot of money.
• Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)
• These scissors are dull.
• Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since
"there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
• There are many questions.
• There is a question.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular
and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
• The team runs during practice.
• The committee decides how to proceed.
• The family has a long history.
• My family has never been able to agree.
• The crew is preparing to dock the ship.
This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg Reference
Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb agreement (section 10: 1001).
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well
do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
• The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
• All of the books, including yours, are in that box.