Asc205 Courtesy of Brian Ndubi 0111242804

COURTESY OF BRIAN NDUBI 0111242804
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING

IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT: SOCIOLOGY
ASC 205: RURAL SOCIOLOGY
WRITTEN BY: VETTED BY:

DR. JANE M. WANGARURO
Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2020

All Rights Reserved
Published By: KENYATTA
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Introduction
Rural sociology is a branch of sociology which is mainly

concerned with the study of the social and cultural factors affecting the
lives of those in rural and agrarian society. Rural sociology has its roots
from general sociology. However unlike general sociology, which is more
interested in the generation of social theories through basic research, rural
sociology makes use of the appreciation of social knowledge to practical
problems. It emphasizes experienced field research more than theory
construction and maintains a particular interest in rural people, their
patterns of interaction and social organization.
Course Objectives
Students understand and appreciate:

o social change as a concept and as a process – and the issue of socider.
By the end of this module, learners will be able to have a clear
o sources of social change
understanding of the concept and nature of Rural Sociology, the
emergence and development
o approaches of Rural Sociology as a subject. They should
to social change
also demonstrate a clear understanding of the theories associated with
o change management in a globalising world.
rural life and be able to describe the types of rural communities. Learners
should also be in a position to describe important aspects linked to Rural
Sociology including; inequality, rural labour, rural poverty and land tenure.
They should also demonstrate an understanding of social change and rural
development and be able to critically show the future of Rural Sociology.
3
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3
Course Objectives ......................................................................................................... 3
LECTURE ONE: THE CONCEPT OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY............................................. 9
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 9
1.2 Lecture objectives.................................................................................................. 9
1.3 What is rural sociology?........................................................................................ 9
1.3.1 What is Rural?................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Sociology............................................................................................................ 10
1.3.3 Defining Rural Sociology: ................................................................................ 11
1.4 The nature of Rural Sociology ........................................................................... 12
1.5 The importance of Rural Sociology ................................................................... 14
1.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 15
1.7 Activities ................................................................................................................ 15
1.8 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 15
1.9 Self-Test Questions ............................................................................................. 15
LECTURE TWO: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF RURAL LIFE ............... 17
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Lecture objectives................................................................................................ 17
2.3 The sociological view of rural sociology ........................................................... 17
2.4 Rural Demographics ............................................................................................ 19
2.4.1 Economically Dependent Groups and Rural Dependency .......................... 20
2.4.2 Rural Feminization............................................................................................ 21
2.4.3 Rural Ageing...................................................................................................... 22
2.5 Summary ............................................................................................................... 22
2.6 Activities ................................................................................................................ 22
2.7 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 23
4
LECTURE THREE: EMERGENCE, GROWTH AND TYPES OF RURAL COMMUNITIES

........................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 24
3.3 The emergence and development of Rural Sociology ................................... 24
3.4 What triggered the emergence of Rural Sociology?....................................... 26
3.5 Why study Rural Sociology? ............................................................................... 27
3.6 Types of rural communities................................................................................ 27
3.6.1 Peasantry:.......................................................................................................... 27
3.6.1.1 Who are the Peasants? ................................................................................ 28
3.6.1.2 Characteristics of peasant farming: ........................................................... 29
3.6.2 Pastoralism ........................................................................................................ 30
3.6.3 Rural community leadership ........................................................................... 31
3.6.3.1 Types of Community Leaders...................................................................... 32
3.6.3.2 Functions of Community Leadership.......................................................... 33
3.6.3.3 Theoretical Background to Leadership ...................................................... 33
3.6.4 Qualities of good Community Leaders .......................................................... 36
3.6.5 Factors to consider while selecting a Good Community Leader ............... 36
3.6.6 The Future of Community Leadership: ......................................................... 37
3.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 38
3.8 Activities ................................................................................................................ 38
3.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 38
3.10 Self-Test Questions ........................................................................................... 39
LECTURE FOUR: RURAL INEQUALITY......................................................................... 39
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Types of inequality .............................................................................................. 43
4.4 Effects of high levels of inequality .................................................................... 43
4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................... 45
4.5 Activities ................................................................................................................ 46
4.6 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 46
LECTURE FIVE: THEORIES OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY ................................................. 47
5
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 47

5.3 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY ................................................................................... 48
5.4 THE FUNCTIONAL MODEL.................................................................................. 48
5.5 THE CONFLICT THEORY..................................................................................... 50
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 50
5.7 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 51
5.8 self-Test Questions .............................................................................................. 51
LECTURE SIX: LAND TENURE....................................................................................... 52
6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 52
6.3 What is land tenure? ........................................................................................... 52
6.4 Land tenure systems in Kenya........................................................................... 53
6.4.1 Customary Land Tenure .................................................................................. 53
6.4.2 Statutory Tenures............................................................................................. 55
6.4.3 Public Tenure .................................................................................................... 56
6.4.4 Other Interests ................................................................................................. 57
6.5 The importance of studying Land Tenure........................................................ 57
6.6 Land tenure issues can be studied through: ................................................... 58
6.7 Reasons for the existence of landlessness and Squatters............................. 59
6.8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 60
6.9 Activities ................................................................................................................ 60
6.10 Further Reading ................................................................................................. 60
LECTURE SEVEN: RURAL LABOUR............................................................................... 61
7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 61
7.3 Characteristics of rural labour............................................................................ 62
7.4 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ............................................................................... 63
7.5 Factors that lead to reverse (urban-rural) migration in the current society
....................................................................................................................................... 65
7.6 The effect of technology on rural labour ......................................................... 66
7.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 68
6
7.8 Activities ................................................................................................................ 68

7.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 68
LECTURE EIGHT: RURAL POVERTY ......................................................................... 71
8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 71
8.3 Factors which influence rural poverty............................................................... 72
8.4 Policies for Reducing Rural Poverty .................................................................. 73
8.5 Solution to the Problems of Rural Society ....................................................... 76
8.6 Key Policy Components Needed To Reduce Problems of Rural Society...... 76
8.6.1 Information gathering...................................................................................... 77
8.6.2 Focus on building assets ................................................................................. 77
8.6.3 The right to adequate land and water .......................................................... 77
8.6.4 Basic health care and literacy......................................................................... 77
8.6.5 Local involvement............................................................................................. 77
8.6.6 Providing infrastructure ................................................................................... 78
8.6.7 Targeted credit ................................................................................................. 78
8.6.8 Public works ...................................................................................................... 78
8.6.9 Decentralized food programs ......................................................................... 78
8.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 79
8.8 Activities ................................................................................................................ 79
8.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................... 79
LECTURE NINE: SOCIAL CHANGE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ............................. 80
9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 80
9.3 Factors which cause division of people into groups and societies ............... 81
9.4 Characteristics of a Stratified System ............................................................... 83
9.5 Social and Attitude Change ................................................................................ 84
9.6 Concept of Social Change................................................................................... 84
9.7 Types of Social Change....................................................................................... 85
9.7.1 Planned change ................................................................................................ 85
9.7.2 Unplanned/ unintended plan/ natural change ............................................. 85
7
9.8 Sources of Change............................................................................................... 86

9.8.1 Invention............................................................................................................ 86
9.8.2 Discovery ........................................................................................................... 86
9.8.3 Diffusion............................................................................................................. 86
9.8.4 Religious institution .......................................................................................... 86
9.8.5 Government policies......................................................................................... 86
9.8.6 Application of Science and Technology......................................................... 86
9.8.7 Natural physical forces .................................................................................... 87
9.8.8 Urbanization ...................................................................................................... 87
9.9 Rural development schemes in Kenya.............................................................. 87
9.10 Summary............................................................................................................. 88
9.11 Activities .............................................................................................................. 88
9.12 Further Reading ................................................................................................. 88
TEN: THE FUTURE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY ............................................................... 90
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 93
8
LECTURE ONE: THE CONCEPT OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Lecture objectives
This lecture introduces Rural Sociology and explores the different

meanings of the concept. The nature of Rural Sociology and what
characterises rural life will also be described.
By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

• Explain the concept of Rural Sociology
• Identify the characteristics of Rural life
1.3 What is rural sociology?
In every part of the world, particularly in predominantly rural based societies,

there is growing consciousness that unless villages are uplifted and developed
there cannot be any real national level advancement.
It is the village which is the economic base of industrial development and

preserver and protector of ancient civilization and cultural heritage. This is
the reason why the study of Rural Sociology is assuming profound importance
day-by-day.
For one to understand Rural Sociology, it is important to understand what the

terms rural and Sociology mean.
9
1.3.1 What is Rural?

Rural areas are usually defined in many ways in different countries with regard
to different perspectives:
Population or statistical definition

The U.S. Census Bureau in 1950 classifies an area as rural if it has fewer than
2,500 residents—a definition established early in the 20th century. Most other
developed countries utilize this definition. Persons who live in the country or
towns of less than 2,500 people are said to be rural.
Practice of agriculture
Areas largely dedicated to agricultural production and landscape
Degree of isolation from or inability to participate in the programs of

larger society
Access to services such as: Level of Education, quality of medical services,

employment, Transportation and social services.
Administration definition
The area that is not the capital or center is considered rural
1.3.2 Sociology
This is the scientific study of people in group relations. Sociologists use scientific
methods in their research studies to develop a body of accurate and reliable
knowledge about human relationships.
Sociology is scientific and is concerned with people not as individuals but as
members or groups.
10
Sociologists study people organized in families, networks, schools,

manufacturing, and other organization.
1.3.3 Defining Rural Sociology:
Different scholars have defined rural sociology differently:
According to Sanderson (1942), Rural Sociology is the sociology of rural life in

the rural environment.
Desai (1969) holds that Rural Sociology is the science of the laws of the
development of Rural Society.
Chapin (1939) argues that Rural Sociology is the study of the rural population,
rural social organisation, and the social processes comparative in Rural Society
In its broadest definition, Bertrand (1958) holds that Rural Sociology is the
study of human relationship in rural environment
In view of the above definitions:
• Rural Sociology is the study of rural environment, social facts and social
interactions that are to be found in Rural Society.
• It is the study of the country‘s rural population in general. It is concerned

with answering important questions confronting the country at large as
they affect that population.
• As a scientific study it studies the social organisations, structure and set

up. It provides us that knowledge about the rural social phenomena which
can help us in making contribution to the development of Rural Society.
• Rural Sociology (RS) is the study of human social interaction in rural communities
• It deals with problems affecting communities and endeavors to solve those
problems – drought, famine, refugees, IDPs
• Research carried out in rural sociology is aimed at understanding the communities
in question, their problems and how they can be solved – how meaningful change
can be brought about for the benefit of the affected people
11
• Study of social organization, action, interaction, and institutions in a rural setting –

aim to alleviate rural problems like poverty
For many people rural sociology is a discipline that studies agricultural

communities. Although this is true, it is only a part of the whole picture. This is
because rural sociology is the sub-discipline of sociology concerned with all
aspects of rural social structure. Rural sociologists study all aspects of the social
organization of rural life. Therefore, besides agricultural production, distribution,
and exchange we also need to reflect on other forms of rural economic structure,
such as the fisheries. Additionally in rural sociology, we should also be aware of
natural resource extraction of all kinds like mining, oil, and gas. It is also
important to note that there are many people who live in rural areas who are not
necessarily farmers, and there are many people who live in urban or suburban
areas who are part of the agro-food complex.
Rural sociology therefore is one of the several subfields of sociology; it is the

scientific study of rural people in group relationships. Rural sociology is more
often applied to the solution of social problems because of its focus on social
change and problems.
1.4 The nature of Rural Sociology

The term ‗nature‘ refers to the essential qualities or characteristic features of
a phenomenon. Any discussion about the nature of an intellectual discipline
necessarily takes into account two complementary questions.
The first one is related with the characteristic and features that make the
discipline a distinct and special branch of human knowledge. The second one is
concerned with the question of the scientific status of the discipline under
discussion.
12
Taking these two aspects into consideration, the nature of Rural Sociology can
be described as follows:
1. Rural Sociology is relatively a new branch of science. As a special branch of

science, it is in the emerging state. It originated in USA during the last quarter of
nineteenth century. After the Second World War the discipline acquired rapid
popularity in the developing nations. In India, the discipline has got distinct
recognition only after independence.
2. Rural Sociology is an empirical discipline. It is more an empirical science

than an abstract one. It is not concerned with abstract phenomena. It asserts
propositions and builds up theories neatly on the basis of observed facts of
rural life.
3. Rural Sociology is essentially problem-oriented. Rural studies are conducted

with the prime intention of solving rural social problems. The analysis of
structure, change and evolution are undertaken to understand the real nature of
rural problems.
The knowledge derived from the rural studies is directly applied in stimulating
changes in a desired direction.
4. Rural Sociology is concerned with comparative study. The studies

conducted in the rural context are of immense help to both rural sociologists and
urban sociologists in explaining the similarities and differences between the rural
community and the urban community.
Further, a rural sociologist also tries to apply the findings of the studies
conducted in one rural society to other rural settings. He tries to compare
between different factors and variables so as to find out their inter-relations and
to what extent they are responsible in producing a particular effect in rural social
life.
5. The comparative analysis in Rural Sociology becomes inevitable because of a

large number of micro level studies. Establishing grand theories universally
applicable to all the regions in the rural context is, indeed, a heroic task.
13
The reason is possibly attributed to diversities in rural social life and differences
among various rural communities. A rural sociologist is, therefore, more apt to
take up micro- level theoretical studies.
6. The analysis and interpretation of data in the rural context are not influenced
by any ideological orientation.
A rural sociologist does not profess any particular ideology. He develops positive
approach in understanding rural institutions and associations. He explains rural
institutions as they are. He unfolds the real picture of the social institutions and
types of actions as they are found in rural society.
7. Rural Sociology is cumulative. The theories in Rural Sociology are the

cumulative results of different micro level and middle-range theories. The
theories build upon one another, new theories amending or expanding the
applicability of the older ones.
8. Science is the theoretical study of a problem while its application is an art or

technology. Rural Sociology possesses the characteristics of science such as
universality, generality, ethical neutrality, predictability, verifiability etc. Hence it
is definitely a science. Several rural sociologists have conducted fieldworks
pertaining to caste, family, agrarian relations, land reforms etc.
In a certain sense, Rural Sociology assumes the nature of an art or technology.
The art of dealing with problems of rural life is necessarily a technology involving the
application of many sciences and disciplines just as the technology of bridge building
involves: mechanics, geologists, sociologists etc for the determination of the method of
constructing a particular bridge.‖ Every problem in a village requires the collaboration of
more than one science.
1.5 The importance of Rural Sociology
14
1. It brings light to the main characteristics and problems of rural areas, the
understanding of which is invaluable in dealing fully with rural issues.
2. It provides information about rural people‘s needs to the government for

rural development programs so that it can be properly designed.
3. It provides feedback to the change agency as to the progress made and

the modifications needed in their change programs.
4. It exposes the change agents, who have to interact with the rural people
with sociological knowledge on issues such as leadership, power, roles,
morals, culture, family organization etc, which they need for the effective
performance of their work.
1.6 Summary
The foregoing lecture has introduced the concept of rural sociology, has
looked at the different definitions of the concept from different scholars. The
importance and characteristics of rural sociology have also been described
1.7 Activities
Examine any rural area which you are familiar with and highlight the
major characteristics
1.8 Further Reading
1 9 Mbithi,
Self-Test Questions
P. M. (1974) Rural Sociology and Rural Development: Its‘
Application in Kenya - Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau.
Define rural sociology 15

Explain why the study of rural sociology is important in the society
16
LECTURE TWO: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF RURAL LIFE
2.1 Introduction
This lecture examines the Sociological perspective of rural life. It examines

the rural life and rural demographics in general. Through this, the lecture
explores the link between Sociology and rural life.
By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

• Explain the Sociological view of Rural Sociology.
• Describe rural life
• Explain the demographics of Rural areas
2.3 The sociological view of rural sociology
Rural sociology is a specialized application of sociology. It is therefore, very

important to study rural life from this perspective. When the economists study
rural life, naturally, they focus on activities related to production, distribution,
exchange and consumption.
Similarly, when a historian enquires about the village life, his approach definitely,
is to identify the conditions which have constructed the village. Each of these
disciplines deals more or less exclusively with its own perspective.
17
When sociologists approach rural life they are concerned with the human
relationships taking place among the village people. It would not be
wrong to say that no other discipline focuses attention primarily on human
relationships. It is here that sociology differs from all other social sciences.
According to Sanderson (1942), sociologists‘ interests themselves in human

relationships simply because they are social in nature and not because they are
related to economic, political, religious and other types of activities. It must
further be stressed that sociology does not study the unique. The study and
exposition of the unique and particular are left to other sciences which have a
special interest in such phenomena.
Rural sociology studies human relationships. But these relationships pertain only
to rural; physical, social and cultural environment. In definite terms it should be
said that rural sociology analyses social relationships which take place within the
boundaries of rural society.
According to Bertrand (1958), rural sociology is the study of human relationships

in the rural environment. This definition correctly implies that it is no more or
less than the sociology of life in rural setting. The systematized knowledge of
rural social relationships could more aptly be called the sociology of rural life.
The social relationships which take place in what we call rural society are
manifested in family, caste, class, economy, i.e., agriculture, politics, religion,
etc. These social relationships are found in production relations, party politics
and other institutions.
Although family, caste and class are not only found in villages but also found in
urban communities including the metropolitan cities, the operation of family,
caste and class that we find in village communities is characteristically different
18
from urban communities. For instance, inter-caste marriage (like in India) in

villages immediately gets contempt from the community.
However, in urban life, such an affair largely goes unnoticed. What we want to
argue is that several of the social institutions that we find in rural communities
are specific to the communities as far as their functioning or operation is
concerned.
It is with this locality approach that rural society is analyzed. In other words, the
subject critically looks at the web of social relationships found in the village
communities from a sociological perspective. The rural social relationships found
in social institutions become the focus of this analysis.
2.4 Rural Demographics
As countries develop, life expectancy increases, as health services and their

coverage improve, and lifestyles change reducing the risk of death. At a later
stage, as countries continue developing, the fertility rate drops, as family
planning services become available and / or, due to cultural and economic
reasons, females reduce the amount of children they have during their fertility
life-span (in demographic terms 15 – 49 years). These are well established
features of development in the dynamics of populations, and are generally
described together in what demographers call the demographic transition (Lee
2003). One manifestation of the demographic transition is a change in the
age/sex population pyramid shape, from properly a pyramid shape to a cylinder
shape as countries move through the four stages of demographic transition: as
the fall in the fertility rate manifests in a lower relative size of the younger
cohorts, and the reduction of mortality rates shows in a higher relative size of
older cohorts.
19
2.4.1 Economically Dependent Groups and Rural Dependency
More than 50% of the variability in the share of the old population (in
demography, older than 64 years), and the share of children in the population
(14 or younger) can be explained by differences in the level of development
alone. The variability in the national share of children is explained by the
differences in per capita income.
The demographic transition model tells us that countries, starting from high
levels of mortality and fertility (first stage), first experience reductions in their
mortality rates (second stage), which manifests in longer life-expectancy. Later
as countries continue developing they move into the third stage when fertility
rates fall and the share of children in the population falls as well. As people live
longer, the share of older population starts increasing. However, the fall in the
share of children is much faster than the rise in the share of the older
population. This should not come as a surprise, because at earlier stages of the
demographic transition younger population are a larger share of the total
population, and it takes time for these cohort to reach the old-age cohorts, while
the fall in fertility immediately manifests in the share of children in total
population.
This means is that:
Since the larger share of economically dependent population is children, and this
share is larger in rural areas, it follows that dependency ratios are higher in rural
areas. Fertility rates are higher in rural areas. As the larger share of economically
dependent population falls with income, it follows that the economic dependency
ratio also falls with income
20
The fact that rural dependency ratios are higher than their urban counterparts
has important welfare implications. One finding in poverty studies around the
world is that household dependency ratios are positively correlated with poverty.
2.4.2 Rural Feminization
The issue of rural feminization can be of concern from two different perspectives.
First, the absence of adult males can be a hindrance to agricultural development,
where raw man-power is an important input in agricultural production. This risks
being a male chauvinist concern, for, as a matter of fact, in many cultures it is
females that generally attend the agricultural activities of the household.
However, in other communities the absence of able bodied adult males can be a
serious obstacle to agricultural growth.
The other aspect of feminization is at the household level. If female-headed

households are consistently over-represented among the poor, then the increase
in femininity should be of concern. Female headed households generally have
higher dependency ratios, lower average earnings for the ―bread earner‖, many
times are forced to take lower paying jobs to accommodate to household-duties‘
generated time constraints; all of which contribute to higher poverty levels
(Buvinic and Gupta (1997)).
Furthermore, even if measured poverty does not indicate that female-headed

households are poorer, their welfare position is still likely to be lower due to the
leisure time sacrifices that they have to trade for equivalent income (Lipton
and Ravallion (1995). In conclusion, although female headed households are
likely in a disfavored position, the situation varies considerably by country and
developing region.
Rural feminization is also caused by HIV/AIDS and also issues related
to migration
21
2.4.3 Rural Ageing
At what point does population ageing become a hindrance for rural

development? This is usually depends on many factors: on whether the country
has a well funded pension system, on whether older people are holding to land
as insurance thus blocking efficient land transactions, on whether households
headed by older people are consistently poorer.
Rural ageing may be a hindrance to rural development in some particular

communities, but at aggregate levels the share of old population, under 10% in
all development regions, is unlikely to be a barrier to the development of rural
economies. This is more valid the less developed the country is (Anríquez and
Bonomi 2008).
2.5 Summary
This lecture has explored the sociological view of rural sociology. It has
answered the question of what is sociological about rural sociology.
.
2.6 Activities
Describe the nature of sociology
22
2.7 Further Reading
Galeski B. (1972) Basic Principles of Sociology, Manchester

University Press
Anríquez G. and Bonomi G. (2008) Long-Term Farming and Rural

Demographic Trends ; Background Paper for World Development Report
2.8 Self-Test Questions
Describe the sociological perspective of rural sociology

What are the demographics of rural life?
23
LECTURE THREE: EMERGENCE, GROWTH AND TYPES OF RURAL

COMMUNITIES
3.1 Introduction
This lecture examines the emergence and growth of Rural

Sociology, delving also into the types/nature of rural communities,
and the importance of Rural Sociology.
By the end of this lecture, the learners should be able to:

• Explain the development of Rural Sociology
• Describe reasons behind the emergence of Rural Sociology.
• Identify and describe the different types of rural communities.
3.3 The emergence and development of Rural Sociology

Rural Sociology started in the USA. It was offered in 1892 in the University of
Chicago as a subject. About 1900, the first sociology department was founded at
the University of Chicago to study social problem resulting from industrialization,
urbanization, and other social changes. By 1913, the first book on the subject
had been published, before then, only manuals had been published. By 1916, the
Congress of American Sociological Society devoted a whole week to discuss rural
research.
24
By 1920, Rural Sociology in the USA had developed to researchable size due to modern
technology. In 1930 the American Rural Sociology as a science had fully developed and
was accepted in the Universities as a discipline. By 1935 an association of Rural Sociology
was formed in the USA – ARSA – American Rural Sociological Association and funds were
advanced to the association to help find solutions to problems in rural areas.
In Europe, a lot had been done by this time. In Poland, for example, there were a lot of
peasant movements and development of modern technology. By 1936 the Annals of rural
sociology had started to be published in Poland. A science of peasant studies was started
in the same country. It was concerned with the impact of agricultural expansion in Poland.
Solid Rural Sociology had by then started as a discipline. By the same year, Germany,
France and England had broad developments of sociology of rural areas.
After World War II, Rural Sociology had become a very important subject in European
Universities and in 1957 the European Society for Rural Sociology was founded. By 1960
the Journal called „Sociologia Ruralis‟ was started.
From 1960 to 1964 the first world congress on Rural Sociology took place in France and it
was organized by European and American sociologists. First, they wanted to look at
rural communities, the effect of peasant movement from rural societies, that is, peasant
migration. Second, they wanted to look at the impact of agricultural expansion on
peasants by examining how they deal with the development of modern technology.
Unlike in America, rural sociology was taught in Europe as from 1800 as part of
Agricultural Economics and more so in peasantry. It was studied under agricultural
extension studies. The fact is that Rural Sociology was taught in different forms – e.g.
Demography (study of population) involved the study of rural sociology, Agrarian
structures also involved the study of rural sociology (Shama 1972)
25
In East Africa, Rural Sociology was started in 1965 in Makerere University in Uganda. It
was aimed at teaching students taking agriculture to appreciate farmers and their unique
characteristics including their problems.
The main purpose was to equip graduates with skills to enable them to communicate
technical agricultural practices and to transfer knowledge to small scale farmers who are
usually Rural People. A sub-department dealing with general sociology was started which
gave birth to rural sociology.
In 1971, Rural Sociology was introduced in the University of Nairobi by Professor Philip
Mbithi as part of general sociology. Several years later, rural sociology as part of general
sociology was appreciated, adopted and is currently being taught in most of the
universities in Kenya.
3.4 What triggered the emergence of Rural Sociology?
• Industrial development and the rate of urbanization had an impact on rural

communities. There were lots of social problems/upheavals, for instance,
normlessness/deviance that accompanied industrialization.
• Rural sociologists and the US government wanted to know why there was anomie in
rural societies during World War I. They were trying to come up with solutions to
problems that were brought about normlessness in the society.
• There was an urgent need to try to understand the social structure of rural
communities so as to give direction to the urban structures.
• There was also an immediate need to know the effect of rural-urban migration on
agriculture. This is because agriculture was seen as the basis of urban
industrialization through the provision of raw materials and it was important to
preserve this.
26
• Industries had started arguing that agriculture is not important for industrial growth
and there was an imminent fear that rural communities/farmers were being destroyed
by urbanization
• Sociologists were concerned about the death of rural societies and therefore there
was need to study the effects of technology on rural communities
3.5 Why study Rural Sociology?

It is important to study Rural Sociology due to the following reasons:
▪ The world‘s population is much more heavily rural especially in the

developing countries (Africa, Asia, and Latin America).
● About four out of five people live in rural areas.
● Rural sociologists are not only concerned with the study of the farmers,
but also rural-nonfarm population who live in rural areas
● Even though the number of farm people is decreasing, the amount of

farmland remains approximately constant. Number of livestock, amount of
fertilizers, machinery, and other resources per farm are increasing.
● There is therefore need for agricultural engineers, extension workers, and
agribusiness experts
3.6 Types of rural communities
3.6.1 Peasantry:
• Also referred to as peasant farming systems
• People in rural areas take farming as a cultural and economic activity
• Rural communities form sub-systems within systems
• These communities can be differentiated and face different environmental
situations
• Their households are dynamic and exist in a dynamic world – adapt and cope
with changing needs
• Contemporary societies must be seen as striving to meet certain needs e.g.
school fees, medical, clothes – as they pursue these needs, they have to
integrate to the community system which is complex – lineage, taboos, rites
27
• Peasant farming systems have been classified as part-societies, part-cultures

with a system of production values
• These may be different from those found in urban social systems but in most
cases are complimentary
3.6.1.1 Who are the Peasants?
Peasants are small scale agricultural producers who with simple tools and
equipments and using family labour produce primarily for consumption, and surplus
for sale to meet obligations of the holders of economic and political power
Family structure, labour structure, land resources, agricultural products are

normally taken into consideration in the study of peasantry. Peasants always
depend on the family which depends on what is to be produced. Peasants do not
hire labour as farmers do; they depend entirely on family labour. All peasants have
access to land and those who do not have are squatters or landless. Examples of
peasants: small scale farmers, fishermen, nomads/pastoralists
Peasants are located within the social and economic structures of a community and
normally rank at the bottom; they are socially, politically and economically
weak/poor. Teachers in rural areas cannot be referred to as peasants; they are
rural elites.
Peasants are also to be defined as those people whose ultimate security lies in the
access of family labour and land resources; they are those people whose lives are
so integrated as to emerge as a sub-culture with peculiar lifestyles, taboos, norms,
attitudes, values, and ideology.
28
3.6.1.2 Characteristics of peasant farming:

1. The family is the major/basic unit of production and consumption
2. Surplus production is encouraged for purposes of exchange either in community market
systems or in large urban centres
3. Their production activities are integrated into cultural values, beliefs, sanctions of the
society – their farming systems are rationalized by systems of observances, taboos, and
rituals.
4. Farming is of small scale but where cash crop is superimposed, the communities are
subjugated to more cosmopolitan areas
5. Division of labour is done in the family and is based on age and sex
6. Have strong linkages with urban areas
7. Peasants are economically and politically weak/poor or disadvantaged. This is usually
not out of their choice because:
8. They are resistant to change – especially social change – are conservatives – they do
not like taking risks
Less than a century ago, most African social systems consisted to a large extent of
autonomous isolated ethnic societies. The men headed the households with strong ties of
age-group affiliation. The extended community and the tribe reduced the importance of
the nuclear family.
The political system was communal and democratic although status, prestige, and
authority were still ascribed to age and sex.
N.B Since the subsistent economy supported a stable and slowly growing population,
colonization and contact with the West brought a new economic system that destabilized
the earlier economy based on subsistence. It also altered the value systems, needs and
consumption patterns.
29
Rural social systems were integrated into the world market economy – this rendered them
to exploitation and thus the explanation for some aspects of poverty found in the rural
social systems. Development based on aspects of modernization has not always been
beneficial to the rural social systems
3.6.2 Pastoralism
Pastoralism is an example of peasant farming. Largely, 81% of Kenya is classified as arid
and semi-arid lands which are not endowed with rain fed agriculture.
The predominant economic activity in such areas is pastoralism or nomadism, where

community members keep livestock. For pastoralists, livestock is the main economic
activity of their life producing – milk, meat, hides, skins, and urine.
Kloeber (1948), an anthropologist, defines Pastoralists as people who make their living
totally from their livestock without settling down to cultivation of crops. They are usually
free and they keep links with those who cultivate for exchange purposes
Herskovists (1926) defines pastoralism as a total way of life characterized by cattle

complex; that is, the intensity of values around cattle/livestock. Psychologically it means
that the pastoralists‘ view of the world revolve around cattle; to them life may be
meaningless without ownership of livestock. Economically cattle complex means that it is
all for social exchange – e.g. bride wealth, sacrifices.
Pastoralism can be studied as a land use system with its unique labour structure and
production techniques. Examples are: Turkana, Samburu, Orma, Borana, Rendille, Somali,
Maasai, and Pokot. In pre-colonial East Africa, pastoralists were the dominant group. As a
result, some scholars described East Africa as the sea of pastoralists according to Soja
(1968). Today, agriculturalists have dominated most parts of East Africa. Pastoralists are
politically and economically poor/weak and they are described as the most poor of rural
peasants. In the contemporary society, they have; poor schools, medical services, general
30
lifestyles, starvation, poor shelter, and poor clothing. Division of labour is evident and it is
based on age and sex. By 14 years of age, boys become warriors and they are involved in
raiding which is a show of manhood among pastoralists; they can kill an enemy and be
named after that incident.
Warriors are always in search of good pasture and water so that they can take their
animals there for the next stock movement; they defend their territories from enemies
who try to intrude. By the age of 25 warriors become junior elders and marry. They
usually live on what they have accumulated and then graduate to active elders and later
to senior elders. Retired elders usually occupy the last stage.
Women are the most overworked among the pastoralists, they never retire from their
activities which include; construction of homes – manyattas, preparation and cooking
food, giving birth and taking care of family members, they milk and store the milk, and are
water pipelines of the community/family. Their duties continue to death – never rest in
life.
In Kenya, the main concern is how development can be brought to the nomads who are
disadvantaged by unequal distribution of resources and services. They are mainly affected
by drought which brings famine to families and animals. Famine is the severe food
shortage that causes increased death rate of both the human and animal population.
Dangers of famine: studies (xxx, xxx) show effects of famine to be high death rate, low
academic performance, difficulties in conception, poor general health especially of
expectant and breast-feeding mothers, and food deficiency diseases like kwashiorkor.
3.6.3 Rural community leadership
Phillips and Pittman (2009) holds that a community leader is said to be a person who
initiates interaction in a social setting which has commonness e.g., rural community;
31
one who has initiative, is communicative, influential, arbitrative, and consultative to

the majority of individuals in the community. A community leader is also conceived as
anyone whose ideas help to give direction toward common goals of the group, or a
person in any situation in which his or her ideas and actions influence the thoughts
and actions of others. Leadership is also said to be the ability to help a group to make
decisions and act upon them.
In the past, leaders were regarded as ‗born‘. This myth was founded in older systems
of authority where sons or daughters often succeeded their fathers or mothers as
leaders. Such children of kings, queens or emperors were given training from their
early years of their lives.
❖ In those early years, majority of the people were limited from becoming leaders
owing to lack of knowledge and lack of mechanisms through which they could be
enlightened
❖ Today democratic societies are based on the philosophy that every member of the
society has potential to become a leader hence opportunity needs to be provided
for them to realize this potential.
3.6.3.1 Types of Community Leaders
1. The nominal leader is an individual who is in leadership by virtue of name – no legal

authority
2. The positional leader is one who derives leadership power or authority from his office –
what they do or have done for the community; recognition in this case is communal for
instance paramount chiefs
3. The status leader is one who has been positioned by virtue of role performance, for
instance tool makers, circumcisers
32
4. Symbolic leader – recognized as a symbol for something else – political kingpins, rain
makers
3.6.3.2 Functions of Community Leadership
1. Arbitration – settlement of disputes and solving of problems between members of a

community
2. Planning for social integration activities or development activities
3. External representation of the community in intercommunity activities e.g. peace meetings
4. Administration of rewards and punishments – enhance moral behaviour in a community –

establish negative and positive sanctions in a community
5. Control internal relationships – positive adherence to communal harmony and norms
3.6.3.3 Theoretical Background to Leadership
Marx Weber (1864 – 1920) was a Sociologist who argued that leadership originates from
authority and that authority is a group centred phenomenon. The Sociologist held that
leadership is based on: Authority, Power and Influence.
AUTHORITY:
❖ Is the right to make or implement decisions that have been made through some
accepted structural arrangements
❖ These arrangements are based on legitimacy – Weber – said that authority is

legitimate
33
❖ Legitimacy is based on the ability of those in authority to convince members of the

community that all prevailing conditions are good for them
❖ Authority determines the type of leadership that one has and Weber holds that leaders
have to be recognized by the community
Three types of Authority according to Weber:
Traditional Authority – based on generational order (monarchy) – handed over – seen

as semi-divine, sacred arbitration
❖ Based on the natural instinct and does not include legislation
Charismatic Authority – based on divine gift to lead which is known as charisma

❖ Not based on any legality or constitutional law
❖ based on the inner perception of the leader‘s power – nobody knows whether the
person can successfully lead
Legal and Rational Authority – this is the rule of law

❖ usually laid down in hierarchical order
❖ usually found in bureaucratic type of organization
❖ This authority is usually salaried – chief
POWER
❖ According to Weber, power is the chance of a person or a group of people to realize

their will over others even against opposition.
❖ Is the ability of an individual to make another obey him without resistance
❖ Power is also conceived as a system of relationships; where the power exercised by an

individual is not personal but derives from sub-systems of power to which individuals
belongs.
34
❖ In modern society, occupation and economic status of individuals are regarded as

their main sources of power.
❖ In Third World countries like Kenya, ascribed factors like age, sex, physical strength,
and familial ties are also important sources of power.
❖ In these countries, education is also an important source of power as it is the elite

who hold important leadership positions in those countries
❖ Power is usually relative where some people have more power than others
❖ Power therefore is the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a
position to carry out his will with minimal resistance
Types of Power:
1. Coercive Power – based on the ability to use physical constraint – force e.g. Police
❖ Under this type there is no provision of room for alternative course of action
2. Discretionary power – is based on the authority to make decisions to a prescribed limit
– by law or tradition
3. Dispensing Power – based on authority to exempt individuals from rule of law – has
legal basis – president has that kind of power
4. Remunerating Power – type that is exercised through actual or threatened withdrawal
of possession or resources – by order – courts, president, minister – courts declaring
somebody bankrupt
5. Reference Power – based on the reference group theory – that because the rest of the
group is in power and so you are – based on admiration
6. Expert Power – based on expertise – preacher entertaining – doctor, lawyer
INFLUENCE
35
❖ Is defined as power involving persuasion – sum total of all resources that a

participant in a decision making situation can bring to bare in order to ensure the
outcome he favours
❖ Can be material based on money/finances
1. Ascribed Influence – refers to holding of position by a community member which

confers to the considerable approval by community members – to be approved by members
Based on position held but not the person holding it – inheritance
2. Attributive Influence – refers to an individual‘s ability of being admired by members of

a community – based on an individual‘s personal character traits to command respect from
members of the community
When persons in authority lack influence in their own right, members of such community lose
confidence in those persons as leaders
3.6.4 Qualities of good Community Leaders
❖ A good leader has to appear in a community when needed – one whose authority is
recognized by merely all members of the community he leads
❖ A good leader has to win influence over most of those he leads
❖ A good leader has to diagnose a situation all the time, that is make good
interpretation of the situation and look for solutions
❖ To be able to give information to community members on planned courses of action

and on government policy
❖ To be able to initiate action for a number of issues affecting the community, that is,
initiate action towards problem solving
❖ Should always strive to coordinate and integrate group behaviour. This means making
it better to appreciating and harmonizing
3.6.5 Factors to consider while selecting a Good Community Leader
1. Community oriented behaviour is to be considered than individual oriented behaviour – to

initiate communal development
36
2. Those who show high propensity to achieve things for the community – can push a
community towards positive change
3. High level of confidence – can stand firm for the community interests. This implies
someone who enjoys guiding or the leadership role
5. Has to possess special and rare skills e.g. oratory – can make you sing or cry – need
to be persuasive and able to convince
6. Individual insightfulness – foresight – can predict the future or what is likely to occur
e.g. drought
7. Able to win influence in any direction e.g. over the rich and the poor – elections
8. Intellect – has to be intelligent by tradition or education
3.6.6 The Future of Community Leadership:
Rural communities need creative leaders due to preference of status quo. These
communities are usually resistant to change; therefore creativity enables the leader to
come up with development strategies that will not greatly change the lifestyle of the
people.
Rural communities need leaders who can generate or stimulate members into accepting
original ideas that could lead to new development; Leaders who have ability to trigger self
evolution in the community. Leaders have to be individuals who can be listened to by the
community members with an intention to accept ideas meant for change.
Rural communities need daring leaders for new ideas so that they can implement them
with minimal resistance. Daring leaders are always experimental and want things to
happen regardless of the obstacles. As a result they:
o Treat goals experimentally; they do not fear to implement new ideas
o Treat the practice of double standards as transitional; they are ready
to synthesize both the traditional and the modern for the benefit of
the community
37
o Regard negative traditions as an enemy by nullifying myths,

taboos, habits, for instance the contemporary changes in attitudes to
male circumcision by the Luo community in Kenya and the
encouragement to do away with female circumcision among various
communities that uphold the practice.
3.7 Summary
The emergence and growth of rural development has been examined here.
Additionally the types of rural sociology including peasant farming, pastrolism
and the rural leadership have been explored. The future of rural leadership
and what needs to be put into consideration when developing rural leadership
is of great importance to rural studies.
3.8 Activities
Examine any rural area and list the major activities carried out.
What is the effect of leadership issues on the success of the activities you have
mentioned?
3.9 Further Reading
Shama P. C. (1972) Rural Sociology: Its Origin and Growth in the United
States, International Review of Modern Sociology Vol. 2 (2) pp. 282-284
38
Describe the factors that should be considered to enhance rural leadership

development
LECTURE FOUR: RURAL INEQUALITY
4.1 Introduction
This lecture is concerned with issues of inequality in the rural areas. It highlights
different types of inequalities, causes and reasons for their sustained existence.
By the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

• Define inequality
• Describe the main types and causes of inequality
• Highlight existing types of inequality in their communities
―
Although issues of rural poverty have been dealt with in another section in this
document, this chapter starts by painting a picture of poverty levels specifically
in Kenya before delving in inequality issues. This is because poverty issues are
closely linked to levels of inequality.
39
Poverty is defined as the absence of the basic necessities for survival and it is
usually characterized by malnutrition, disease, high mortality rate and low life
expectancy. The term poverty should be seen beyond the economic and income
consumption.
It should encompass a state of being income poor, lack of assets, physical

amenities and necessities. In Chambers (1994) poverty is a term whose common
usage connotes a whole spectrum of deprivation, vulnerability, powerlessness,
physical weakness, isolation and social inferiority. Despite declining levels
poverty in Kenya is a characteristic feature that is presented in various aspects of
its socio-economy. According to Integrated household budget survey (2005/06),
although poverty levels have considerably gone down, 46% percent of Kenyans
still earn and live on less than a dollar a day.
Government‘s data on Welfare Monitoring Survey (1992) revealed that poverty

levels were not the same in the general population. For instance they were
highest among subsistence farmers (47%), pastoralists (42%) and urban
workers in the informal sector (41%). Cash Crop Farmers, Private sector and
Public sector employees‘ socio- economic status ranked higher with lower
poverty levels of 31%, 36% and 16% respectively.
In rural areas, poverty is mainly worsened by high levels of inequality in

accessibility to land, a major means of production, credit facilities and input,
ineffective agricultural extension and lack of grassroots‘-based institutions. It is
also compounded by retrogressive administrative and agrarian acts which
include; the Chiefs Authority Act, the Special Administrative Act, the Tea Act, the
Coffee Act, the Co-operative Societies Act, the Crop Production Act and National
Cereals and Produce Act:
40
❖ These acts not only restrict rural communities from organizing themselves
economically but they also control production, distribution and exchange
of agricultural commodities
Despite government‘s efforts to revive the economy and improve the well being
of Kenyans, poverty still remains high. Kenya‘s economic recovery and growth
from 2002 has largely benefited the middle classes rather than the poor
consisting of the small scale farmers, informal business owners and traders.
Among the middle classes benefits of economic development have flowed

unequally mainly benefiting those in the rapidly expanding private service sectors
rather than in the retrenched and the capitalized public sectors.
In the report, Geographic dimensions of Wellbeing in Kenya: Who are the poor?
(2007), national poverty levels have been ranked as follows; Nyanza Province
was ranked as the highest with a Poverty rate of 65%, followed by North Eastern
with 64%, Western 61%, Eastern 58%, Coast 57.6%, Rift Valley 48%, Nairobi
44% and Central recorded the least with a 31% poverty rate.
On the other hand, inequality in Kenya is mostly expressed in resource

allocation; this can be traced to the amendment of the sessional paper number
10 of 1965 on African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya which
sought to integrate the ideals of African Socialism to policy.
In implementing development initiatives it was noted that development in Kenya

was geared to areas with the highest net output, this created a dichotomy of
„high potential zones‟ which were considered to have abundant natural
resources, good land and rainfall, infrastructure and services would therefore be
41
directed to these areas as opposed to areas considered to be „low potential

zones‟. Official laws and institutions have worsened inequality levels regionally
and among Kenyans. Built-in biases in the implementation of policy have resulted
in the exclusion of certain regions, the informal sector and rural poor.
Regional disparities in Kenya can be seen in the marginalization from mainstream

development more so in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL), with the highest
levels of poverty being experienced by pastoralist communities.
The unequal distribution of national resources has been cited as contributing to

the ethnic tension and increased sense of insecurity in these regions. Pastoral
communities struggle for basic necessities like food, water and health facilities;
this has created a sense of neglect and deprivation which provide fertile grounds
for ethnic groups to engage in violent confrontation.
To date these disparities still exist in regional, economic development, income

distribution, access to education among other development sectors. Additionally
the 2007 post-election violence has had negative implications on the
development of industry, tourism, agriculture and production activities essential
for economic growth with poverty levels predicted to increase considerably.
This is attributed to; increased job loss, reduced revenue in the tourism sector,
disrupted micro-finance activities essential for small and medium size enterprises
and increased inflation which negatively impacts on food prices and increases
cost of living both in urban and rural areas.
42
4.2 Types of inequality
•Political inequality, in which includes civic equality and equality before the
law
•Inequality of outcome or result, by which we mean primarily equality of
income and wealth
•Inequality of opportunity, this is often called equality of access or of life
chances
•inequality of treatment, which can be taken to include or at least help to
generate equality of agency and responsibility
•A type which is not often recognized as a kind of equality at all is inequality of
membership in society
4.4 Effects of high levels of inequality
a) Urbanization and Urban crime
❖ The urban population growth has resulted from both natural

population growth and rural and urban migration. Factors that have
been attributed to rural/urban migration include: youth
unemployment, landlessness and displacement of communities
either through government evictions or land disputes.
❖ In 1948 the urban population in Kenya stood at 5.1 percent of the total
population, it rose by 15, 18, and 34.8 percent in 1979, 1989 and 2000
respectively. This is according to government reports. Currently, the
population of Nairobi is over 2.5 million.
❖ Due to the complex social strata and economic disparity characteristic

in urban areas, incidences of crime are rampant. This is because urban
cities present more opportunities to commit crime and chances of
43
arresting criminals are considered to be lower, a fact that is blamed on

lower levels of community co-operation and suspicious attitude
towards law enforcement agencies.
❖ Crime and insecurity thus manifest themselves in high incidences of

mugging, robberies, carjacking, murder cases and gang violence.
Urban crime is also manifested in conflicts, mainly in the form of
landlord and tenants disputes; in Kenya these are more prevalent in
informal settlements.
According to 2002 Crime Survey Report, Nairobi province recorded for the
third year running the highest rate of robbery, this is supported by the 2005
and 2006 Kenya Police statistics in crime which indicate robbery and general
stealing incidences in Nairobi as the highest compared with other provinces in
the country.
b) Criminal gangs and vigilante groups
In Kenya, gangs arose in response to the security gap characteristic of many

low income residential areas and slums, the upcoming of which is caused by
increased rural urban migration. The existence of criminal gangs and
vigilante groups in urban areas is founded on public anxiety about
the levels of crime within their areas and ineffectiveness of police in
tackling criminal elements.
Gangs and vigilante groups, who are considered to have elements of criminal
behaviour, are seen as a source of the increasing incidences of violence
44
especially in the context of informal and slum settings. The rise of vigilante
groups in the low income areas also paint the picture of inequality as the
more affluent areas, such as Muthaiga, Runda and Lavington benefit from the
protection provided by private security as opposed to residents in
Kawangware, Mathare, Kibera, and Dandora, among others who are left
unprotected.
Criminal gangs have re-emerged in the city slum areas in the wake of post-
electoral violence that characterized the 2007 elections. In the areas hardest
hit by the violence, members of some communities have embraced gangs to
provide security. In Nairobi, prevalence of gang activity has been reported in
the informal settlement and slum areas of Kariobangi, Huruma and Mathare.
The Taliban and Mungiki gangs are cited to be providing security for residents
in these areas. Landlords have also hired gang members to ensure that their
property is not destroyed; property owners are also using the gangs to evict
tenants who have occupied their houses by force.
4.4 Summary
Regional disparities in Kenya can be seen in the marginalization from

mainstream development more so in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL)
The unequal distribution of national resources has been cited as contributing
to the ethnic tension and increased insecurity in these regions. Pastoral
communities struggle for basic necessities like food, water and health
facilities. To date these disparities still exist in regional, economic
development, income distribution, access to education among other
development sectors.
45
4.5 Activities
Do you think inequality in Kenya has been accorded the attention it

deserves at the political, academic research and policy levels? What are
the reasons behind your answer?
4.6 Further Reading
Mwagiru, M. & Oculli, O. (2006) Rethinking Global Security: An

African perspective, Heinrich Boll Foundation
Explain the different types of inequality that exist
Describe ways that can be used to address inequality issues
46
LECTURE FIVE: THEORIES OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
Different theories have been developed to explain Rural Sociology.

This lecture looks into the theoretical approaches to studies of rural communities.
These theories include: evolutionary, functional, and conflict.
By the end of this lecture, students should show an understanding of theoretical

explanations existing in relation to Rural Sociology.
Sociology is the scientific study of human social activity. In the effort to study
human social activity, sociologists break it down into objects of analysis. All
theories in sociology are interested in explaining the ways in which social life is
organized and ordered as well as the ways in which change comes into the
society. In explaining social order and social change various school of thought
have asked similar questions but were given different answers. The three general
sociology theories discussed here that link to rural sociology are; the
evolutionary theory, functional theory and conflict theory.
47
5.3 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
Evolutionary theory concentrates more on the explanation of how societies

change over the course of time rather than on how it achieves order. The
proponents of evolutionary theory are Auguste Comte, William Summer, Hebert
spencer and Vilfredo Pareto. Comte argued that societies develop over three
horizontal stages namely theological, metaphysical and scientific and each of
these stages represents advancement in men‘s knowledge of their world. To
sponsor the development of human society can be equated to the evolutionary
development of biological organisms from simple to complex as earlier stated by
Charles Dawin. He also held a view that just as biological organisms are made up
of different interdependent organs, the interdependence of which is
indispensable for the holding together of the organisms as a system, so also the
society is made up of institutions such as the family, the economy, and the polity
which discharge the vital functions of regulation, production and sustenance.
Emile Durkeim saw societies as evolving from small communities with minimal
division of labour and in which members are held together by a mechanical
solidarity (i.e. solidarity based on difference and interdependence).
Evolutionary model has been used to rationalize class differentiation in society.
To the earlier evolutionists, social change was guided by natural laws rather than
human intervention.
The theorists‘ ideas have been dispelled by western education, advancement in

technology, industrialization and globalization all of which have combined to
break caste and class boundaries in most countries.
5.4 THE FUNCTIONAL MODEL
This model likens society to a living organism with each part being indispensable
to the survival of the system. In other words, each part or structure of the
48
system has and performs some functions. The society is always striving to
maintain the stability or equilibrium through constant exchanges with its
specialized structure (institutions) and sub structure.
The society, as a social system, has four basic problems which can be classified
into two groups, instrumental and expressive functional imperatives. The
instrumental are problems given from external and it include those of adaptation
to the environment and goal attainment, while the expressive problems that are
internal factors include pattern maintenance and tension management and
integration. The society is especially a moral entity imbued with norms and
values, statuses and roles. The specific norms (rules of behavior) which guide
and influence particular behaviours are in turn influenced and supported by the
general system of values which characterize a particular society.
The merit of functional model is that it is very important in the explanation of the
internal dynamic of the society as a system while its demerits are;
• The ideal of attributing functions or purpose to institutions is improper as

social institutions are not conscious beings and so cannot perform
functions on their own
• It assumes a commonness of interest in society whereas, what might be
functional to one group in society might be dysfunctional to another in the
same society
• It tends to be conservative and reduces the concern of the actual
dynamics of a social change.
49
5.5 THE CONFLICT THEORY
The conflict theory holds that society is a stage for class struggle. It holds that
there is no single interest but a variety of interests which therefore divide people
and groups. The theory also shows that social relations involve domination and
exploitation of one group by another and that social unity is maintained through
coercion. It emphasizes that man is naturally good but social institutions distort
the basic nature of man. Conflict theory suggests that inequality promotes
conflict and is therefore unnecessary. Furthermore, the theory agrees that class
is a distinct social group with different interests mainly economic and that the
state is invariably an instrument of oppression.
The proponents of conflict theory are George Simmel and Karl Marx. George
Simmel is interested in the explanation of social order. He viewed social order as
an outgrowth of competing forces of harmony and disharmony. The society
persists only according to the proponents because of the existence of external
threats. In addition, points of conflict determine the line of cleavage between
groups and that conflict in everywhere and its resolution gives rise to other forms
of social relationship.
5.6 Summary
The sociological theories that have been examined here are important in
explaining the social relationships that exist in rural sociology. Although there
are many perspectives in sociology, three main theories including; evolution,
function and conflict theories have been described in this lecture
50
5.7 Further Reading
Bealer, B. (1990), Paradigms, Theories, and Methods in Contemporary Rural

Sociology: A Critical Reaction to Critical Questions. Rural Sociology, 55: 91–
100
5.8 self-Test Questions
Explain how the following theories are used to describe rural sociology;
Evolutionary theory Functionalist theory and Conflict theory.
51
LECTURE SIX: LAND TENURE
6.1 Introduction
The issue of land tenure is a critical one in Kenya not only in the rural
areas but also in the urban. Land tenure will be explored in this lecture including
types of land tenure systems in Kenya
By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

• Demonstrate an understanding of land tenure issues and their effects in rural
lives
• Describe land tenure systems existing in Kenya
6.3 What is land tenure?
The term Tenure is used to refer to “the right to hold and use unchallenged”
Land tenure, according to Mbithi (1974), means ―the rights to hold, use and possess the
natural resources found in the land profile from the atmosphere (roof height) to a
few meters below the land surface.” Land tenure is therefore the right to possess and
control all the natural assets and resources that are tied to the land surface. The right to use
implies; rear animals, tend crops, breed fish, use resources on land. It is not easy to study
land tenure issues because of the normative definitions upheld by different cultures.
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6.4 Land tenure systems in Kenya
Studies of land tenure were started immediately after the Second World War. These studies
were started by British Social Anthropologists. They were following the work of Gluckman
(1962) and wanted to know the significance of land especially on the social and economic
sides of the people.
By 1902 and 1915 in Kenya, the Crown Lands Ordinance (Act) was passed by the colonial
government. This ordinance defined different types of land ownership including; white
settler, unoccupied, underutilized e.g. water catchment areas, game parks/reserves and
forest land/reclaimed areas and land for special purposes. This differed greatly with the
customary law on land ownership and created issues some of which have not been resolved
to date.
Interests in land broadly fall into two groups. Rights that are held through traditional African
systems and rights that derive from the English system introduced and maintained through
laws enacted by colonial and then the national parliament. The former is loosely known as
customary tenure bound through traditional rules (customary law). The latter body of law
is referred to as statutory tenure, secured and expressed through national law, in various
Act of parliament e.g. Government Land Act (cap 280), Registered Land Act (cap 300),
Registration of Titles Act (cap 281), Trust Land Act (cap 288) of the Laws of Kenya.
6.4.1 Customary Land Tenure

This refers to unwritten land ownership practices by certain communities under customary
law. Kenya being a diverse country in terms of its ethnic composition has multiple customary
tenure systems, which vary mainly due to different agricultural practices, climatic conditions
and cultural practices. However most customary tenure systems exhibit a number of similar
characteristics as follows:
53
First, individuals or groups by virtue of their membership in some social unit of

production or political community have guaranteed rights of access to land and
other natural resources (Ogendo 1979). Individuals or families thus claim
property rights by virtue of their affiliation to the group.
Secondly, rights of control are rested in the political authority of the unit or
community. This control is derived from sovereignty over the area in which the
relevant resources are located. Control is for the purpose of guaranteeing access
to the resources and is redistributive both spatially and across generations. Its
administrative component entails the power to allocate land and other resources
within the group, regulate their use and defend them against outsiders (Ogola
and Mugabe 1996). Thirdly, rights analogous to private property accrue to
individuals out of their investment of labour in harnessing, utilizing and
maintaining the resource. Thus the present cultivator of some piece of land has
the greatest rights to it. These rights encompass transmission and in some
communities transfer (Elias 1956).
Lastly, resources that do not require extensive investment of labour or which by

their nature had to be shared, for example, common pasturage are controlled
and managed by the relevant political authority. Every individual member of the
political community has guaranteed equal rights of access thereto. The
regulatory mechanisms imposed by the political units such as exclusion of
outsiders, seasonal variations in land use and social pressure ensured sustainable
resource utilization.
This mode of ownership in Kenya is currently governed by the Trust Land Act by
which all land in the rural areas which is neither government land nor individually
owned is vested in the county council in trust for the residents living there.
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6.4.2 Statutory Tenures

i) Freehold Tenure
This tenure confers the greatest interest in land called absolute right of
ownership or possession of land for an indefinite period of time, or in perpetuity.
Freehold land is governed by the Registered Land Act (RLA) Cap 300 of the Laws
of Kenya. The Act provides that the registration of a person as the proprietor of
the land vests in that person the absolute ownership of that land together with
all rights, privileges relating thereto. A freehold title generally has no restriction
as to the use and occupation but in practice there are conditional freeholds,
which restrict the use for say agricultural or ranching purposes only.
Land individualization was demanded by the colonial settlers who required legal
guarantee for the private ownership of land without which they were reluctant to
invest. The principle for privatization was hence laid down and implemented as
from 1956 mainly in central province. To date most of the agricultural regimes
with high potential such as western province, Kericho, Uasin Gishu, Embu, Meru,
Machakos and Kisii districts have been completely adjudicated and registered
(Ogolla and Mugabe 1996). With regard to the areas with lower agricultural
potential, mostly arid and semi arid parts of the country where the dominant
land use as pastoralism, a different registration system was instituted in 1968.
This is the regime of land (group representatives) Act. Here the registration of
group ranches was viewed as a compromise between individual ownership and
the need for access to wider resources in dry lands. Under this system
‗communal lands‘ are divided into smaller units ‗ranches,‘ which are then
registered in the names of group representatives (three to ten members) elected
by the members of the group (Wanjala 2000).
Every member of the group has rights in the ownership for the group land in
undivided shares. The members are entitled to reside therein free of charge with
their family and dependants and make exclusive use for the grouped ranches
55
resources. This appears to a marriage between the need to have exclusive use of
an area of land and the communal ownership and use of land in these areas.
ii) Leasehold Tenure

Leasehold is an interest in land for a definite term of years and may be granted
by a freeholder usually subject to the payment of a fee or rent and is subject
also to certain conditions which must be observed. e.g. relating to developments
and usage.
Leases are also granted by the government for government land, the local
authorities for trust land and by individuals or organizations owning freehold
land. The maximum term of government leases granted in Kenya is 999 years for
agricultural land and 99 years for urban plots. There are few cases of 33 years
leases granted by government in respect of urban trust lands. The local
authorities have granted leases for 50 and 30 years as appropriate (GOK 1996).
6.4.3 Public Tenure

This is where land owned by the Government for her own purpose and which
includes unutilized or unalienated government land reserved for future use by
the Government itself or may be available to the general public for various uses.
The land is administered under the Government lands Act Cap 280.These lands
are vested in the president and who has, normally through the Commissioner of
Lands, powers to allocate or make grants of any estates, interests or rights in or
over unalienated government land. Categories of government land include forest
reserves, other government reserves, alienated and unalienated government
land, national parks, townships and other urban centres and open water bodies
(GOK 1996). The Government Lands Act does not contain any notion of
trusteeship by government of the land to her people. Indeed the government at
times acts as a private owner and allocates parcels to those in its favour.
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6.4.4 Other Interests

Other interests related to land tenure include:
Reservations of other government or trust land to government ministries,
departments or parastatal for their use. Minor interest such as easements, way
leaves or temporary occupation licenses. Non formalised defacto tenure by which
people, individually or in groups invade and occupy other people or government
land particularly in major urban centres of Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu.
6.5 The importance of studying Land Tenure
Land tenure is important to social scientists because it gives indication as to who owns land
and the implication of such to the community/society. The study of land tenure became
important after the 1915 Crown Lands Ordinance due to:
• Unbalanced agricultural commercialization – due to taxes/rates
• Marketing and capitalization of land
• Competing land tenure systems – agricultural/pastoral – individual/customary land
ownership
• Issues arising from land left after independence by the white settlers – whose land?
• The whole issue of demarcation/consolidation of land and how this affects family,
community and society
We study land tenure because the possession and control of land is tied to social life since
people live on land.
Economic development of a community is also tied to land
Land is a major political tool; political leaders utilize land reforms to control the masses
Land is a major resource to sustain rural agriculture which is Kenya‘s backbone – strategy for
rural economic reconstruction
Land is used to address rural unemployment; rural people occupy and work on land
Helps government to settle the landless/squatters
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Land is also seen as a cultural artefact; people‘s wellbeing depend on land – cultural
practices – placenta, burial – practice of cultural occupations like peasantry, pastoralism
Land needs to be exploited for the benefit of the people who live on it and also those who
depend on it without necessarily living on it
Land changes the social status of women – traditionally, women did not own land but
they gain the rights to land after marriage – unmarried, divorced or separated women are
landless. However, provisions have been made even in the new constitution of Kenya for
women to inherit property including land but it remains to be seen if it will be accepted by all
communities.
Power and authority has been tied to land for a long time; settlers, government, officials,
politicians
Land relates individuals with their ancestors; kinship ties- as demonstrated by some
communities‘ traditions of pouring a little beer to the ground before drinking to appease the
ancestors.
Land has been associated with the continuity of generations (living, dead, living dead) –
there are usually sacred areas on land where rituals are conducted to appease the dead
6.6 Land tenure issues can be studied through:
• Transactions people make on land

• The decisions which are made on land
• Directives of land plans – e.g. land consolidation, alienation, adjudication
• Tenure Acts such as the 1915 Crown Lands Ordinance – freehold, leasehold (99/999
years)
Land tenure has been justified in Kenya by policymakers because it is only through it that
people can utilize and develop their own land. Due to general increase in population, we
need to understand the pressures exerted on land and also those caused by land.
Not everybody can access land due to:
• Significant change in indigenous land tenure systems
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• Significant change in the land market structure; selling of land
In Kenya land has continually been a sensitive issue. There is a lot of conflict associated with
land especially in the Rift Valley province and its neighbours; cosmopolitan province;
tribalism. While some of the land related conflicts arise from families and villages, others are
caused by government especially in relation to land related policies that are usually
formulated.
The main point is that land is a scarce resource for individuals, families, villages,
communities, government agencies and government – land is not and will never be enough
6.7 Reasons for the existence of landlessness and Squatters

Traditionally, no person was landless but in the contemporary society, landless people and
squatters have continued to increase due to:
• Individualization of land ownership, as a result no more family or community

ownership of land in the contemporary society.
• Alienation – the land which was alienated has continued to be alienated up to now
• Creation of settlement schemes
• High population which causes the rate of land inheritance to be high and this
ultimately causes a lot of pressure on land
• Squatter mentality; some people want to be squatters, taking it as a way of life. This
was triggered first by the colonialists, then white settlers and independence through
political leaders
• Because of landlessness, the government has always come up with settlement
schemes, unfortunately many times the schemes end up in the hands of those who
are powerful and in positions of authority.
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6.8 Summary
Land tenure types and policies tend to determine the nature of agriculture and
influence other land use practices. In order to achieve sustainable agriculture a
country needs to adopt policies and strategies that promote conservation of
natural resources. This should be by devolving the natural resources to local
communities and encouraging local level sustainable resource management.
6.9 Activities
Describe the land tenure systems that exist in Kenya
6.10 Further Reading
Define the term land tenure and discuss the reasons why it is studied
LECTURE EIGHT: PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SOCIAL CHANGE AND
DEVELOPMENT
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LECTURE SEVEN: RURAL LABOUR
7.1 Introduction
This lecture explores rural labour systems, rural-urban migration and

the effect of new technologies in rural labour.
By the end of the lecture, learners should be able to demonstrate a clear

understanding of rural labour systems, rural-urban migration processes
and the effect of new technologies on rural labour.
Labour is the energy spent on one‘s consciously defined roles and can be mental or
physical. Mental energy involves the use of the brain whereas physical energy involves the
use of muscles. Labour is measured in terms of man-hours, man-months or man-years.
Labour force is a concept associated with labour and it refers to the part of a population
that is economically active. Kenya‘s labour force ranges between 15 and 49 years.
Dependency ratio is a concept of labour that compares those who are working and
those who are not. It is usually a case of a few hands working to feed many mouths.
Scholars argue that rural labour is usually in abundance but it is not fully utilized in that
setting. However, rural labour is not available for farm use only. There are other non-farm
activities that are also important and that account for about 48% of the activities found in
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rural areas. Those activities include ceremonies like weddings, burials, visiting and
community barazas. Communal labour and self-help activities are also examples of
utilization of rural labour.
7.3 Characteristics of rural labour
In comparison with urban labour rural labour has the following characteristics:
1. It has high dependence ratio due to high population; women and children less than 15
years are the majority in providing rural labour and this implies the dependency ratio is
very high.
2. There is skewed division of labour which means it is not equitable; some sections of
labour are overworked while others are underworked or do not work at all. Women and
children are the main victims who are usually overworked in the rural areas.
3. Rural labour is not as differentiated and equitable as urban labour
4. There is increased takeover of male tasks by women in the rural areas, mainly due to an
increase in women headed households
5. Rural labour involves hard work. It is usually monotonous and boring. Rural work is usually
endless and does not stimulate mentally.
6. Rural labour usually has peaks and lows seasons; it has up and down movements.
Sometimes the demand for labour is high (peak) and sometimes the demand is low. During
sowing, weeding, and harvesting, the labour is intensive and highly needed unlike during
other seasons. The trouble is that sometimes peak seasons coincide with low levels of food
availability in terms of protein and calories. This eventually leads to low productivity.
7. There is no labour specialization in rural areas as in urban areas
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8. Rural labour does not require intensive training as urban labour. In urban areas, skills are
gained after a long period of education and training
9. There are no regular pays for activities in a rural setting as compared to urban labour
which has various pay points like through Banks and Cheques
10. Rural labour has no extra attractions like urban labour which many times is accompanied
by benefits and allowances like medical, house and hardship.
11. In rural settings, activities are usually undertaken in the open with workers being exposed
to elements of nature like; rain, cold, sun and high levels of insecurity
Due to the nature of rural labour, there is evident rural-urban migration in the contemporary
society. The schooled youth do not want to be associated with tasks of rural labour; they
want an easy way out.
7.4 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
The young adults and men generally constitute the highest percentage of the people
migrating from rural areas to urban areas. Those who are able-bodied move to towns –
looking for jobs, reside with relatives, attend college, get to know town life and discover
many things for themselves.
Due to this migration, the distribution of manpower is affected with the rural regions losing
labour to the urban areas. Power and authority in the rural areas is also affected; for
instance, authority of the man declines in the rural areas as the numbers of men who
migrate to the urban areas continue to increase.
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The role of the traditional family is put into question. The role performance is
affected/curtailed as there is no clarity as to who does what and there is lack of good role
models in the rural areas.
There are changes of interpersonal relationships; for instance, unfriendly faces in urban
areas; Breakdown of the common bond; the communal aspect; based on familial ties; that is
a move towards oneness. There is little parental control of the youth in urban areas.
There is great influence of the mass media and general technology – TV,
There is a high level of awareness of corruption in urban settings
Urban life is marked by long working or job searching hours
There is decline in the role of the elders as opposed to the traditional African Society/Family
There are high crime rates in urban areas; mainly involving the youth as offenders
There is also involvement in dangerous groups/gangs in the urban and especially in the
slums which are breeding grounds for criminals. Different issues highlighted in the urban
areas include; Human rights issues – ‗haki yetu!‘ ; Involvement in political activities – mass
action; Contact with law enforcement agents especially the police – ID business – coming
face to face with the reality of the law of the land.
In terms of culture – values, beliefs, practices, material and non-material are totally different
in urban and rural areas as urban areas are said to be melting pots of cultures as compared
to rural areas. Many cultures lose meaning in the urban areas.
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7.5 Factors that lead to reverse (urban-rural) migration in the current

society
• High level of technology use thus reducing no muscular jobs as in the traditional rural
settings
• Environmental issues associated with urban life; for instance contamination of

horticultural products by open sewage.
• Currently there are no readily available jobs in the urban areas as it has always been
presumed in the past
• Individual property ownership: many people tend to reside in the rural areas to tend
their resources even as they commute to work
• This is linked to improved road infrastructure in the country e.g. Thika Road Super
Highway
• Changes in service provisions; eg in the education sector – one can now access
education regardless of where they reside; including housing; water; and electricity
• The devolvement of the government into counties as contained in the new

constitution
• High cost of living in urban areas: food, housing, travel expenses, and education
• High levels of congestion in urban areas: traffic, housing etc
• Introduction of modern farming methods; green houses, aqua culture which are cheap
to start up and profitable
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7.6 The effect of technology on rural labour
Given that improving the efficiency of agricultural production is a key to pro-poor

economic growth, improvements in agricultural technology are the principal
means of doing this. Agricultural technology can affect smallholder income,
labour opportunities for the poor, food prices, environmental sustainability, and
linkages with the rest of the rural economy:
• Agricultural technology has been a primary factor contributing to increases in
farm productivity in developing countries over the past half-century. Although
there is still widespread food insecurity, the situation without current technology
development would have been unimaginable.
• New technology can provide additional rural employment, but there are always
countervailing pressures to reduce labour input and lower its costs.
• Food prices are demonstrably lower because of technology, but the distribution
of benefits between consumers and producers depends on the nature of the local
economy and trade patterns.
The adoption of technology requires adequate incentives for producers.
Investments in labour or cash will not be made unless there are adequate
returns. One of the most important supporting factors is the adequacy of
markets for outputs and inputs.
Although there is much academic debate regarding the nature and impact of
technological change, the important issues for development assistance agencies
are related to other uncertainties which include:
• Identifying the most effective planning procedures for directing agricultural
technology to poverty reduction
• Establishing the role of agriculture in national development strategies
• Deciding the degree to which agricultural investments are appropriate for
marginal areas
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• Identifying the correct mix of public, private and civil society to support
agricultural technology generation
• Identifying the types of technology that warrant support.
Because agricultural technology addresses multiple, and at times conflicting,

objectives, there is a need for careful planning. But there is a trade-off between
investment in micro-level technology screening, on the one hand, and support to
basic institutional capacities and political responsiveness, on the other. The
rhetoric of technological revolutions should be avoided in favour of consistent
attention to building technological capacity in response to changes in the rural
economy. One of the most difficult choices is that facing the appropriate level of
(agricultural) support for poverty reduction in marginal areas.
Among the most important policy challenges related to support for agricultural
technology are:
• The identification of an effective investment portfolio of technologies
• Structuring interchange among producers, consumers, public institutes
(national and international), civil society and the private sector to elicit effective
pro-poor demand
• Structuring assistance to recognise the long-term, incremental nature of
technology generation
• Locating technology policies in a wider policy arena
• Setting and articulating clear policy goals that relate technology generation to
food price, labour, trade, and regional development.
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7.7 Summary
.
This lecture has dealt with rural labour, its‘ characteristics and especially in
comparison with urban labour. The issue of rural-urban migration and how it
affects rural labour has also been addressed. The current trend of migration
from urban to rural areas has also been explored.
7.8 Activities
List down the factors responsible for reverse rural-urban migration in the
contemporary society
7.9 Further Reading
. Mbithi, P. M. (1974) Rural Sociology and Rural Development: Its Application

in Kenya - Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau.
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Illustrate how the transition from farming/rural to an industrial workforce

affects relationships between parents and their children
Analyse rural and urban communities by explaining the similarities and

differences that prevail in these settings
69
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LECTURE EIGHT: RURAL POVERTY
8.1 Introduction
This lecture introduces and explores poverty issues linked to

rural communities. This is done by examining factors that
influence rural poverty, policies for reducing poverty in rural
areas, and solution strategies for rural poverty.
By the end of the lecture the learner should be able to:

• Demonstrate a clear understanding of rural poverty
• Describe factors that influence rural poverty
• Talk about policies for reducing rural poverty
• Explain solution strategies for rural poverty
It is not refutable to stress that rural people live in abject poverty. The cause of
their poverty is not because they take agriculture as their main occupation but
because agriculture is still being practiced in a crude manner and with crude
instruments. This results in poor yield and smallness of farm size. Poverty in the
rural area is therefore manifested in their ability to satisfy their daily surviving
requirements.
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8.3 Factors which influence rural poverty
Numerous characteristics of a country's economy and society, as well as some

external influences, create and perpetuate rural poverty:
• Political instability and civil strife

• Systemic discrimination on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or
caste
• Ill-defined property rights or unfair enforcement of rights to agricultural land
and other natural resources
• High concentration of land ownership and asymmetrical tenancy arrangements;
• Corrupt politicians and rent-seeking public bureaucracies
• Economic policies that discriminate against or exclude the rural poor from the
development process and thereby putting emphasis on the effects of other
poverty-creating processes
• Large and rapidly growing families with high dependency ratios
• Urban bias in public investment for infrastructure and provision of safety
market imperfections owing to high concentration of land and other assets and
distorted public policies
• External shocks owing to changes in the state of nature (for example,
climatic changes) and conditions in the international economy
Biases in national economic and social policies can contribute to rural poverty by
excluding the rural poor from the benefits of development and thus heightening
the effects of other poverty-creating processes. Policy biases that generally work
against the rural poor include:
• Urban bias in public investment for infrastructure
• Implicit taxation of agricultural products through prices and an overvalued
exchange rate
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• Direct taxation of agricultural exports and imports subsidies for capital-

intensive technologies
• Favoring export crops over food crops; and bias in favour of large
landowners and commercial producers with respect to rights of land
ownership and tenancy, publicly provided extension services, and access
to (subsidized) credit.
These policies can have both short and long-term effects on the rural poor.
The effects are particularly significant in the context of the structural adjustment
programs that many developing countries have undertaken to restore
macroeconomic stability and expand the capacity of the economy to increase
production, employment, and incomes.
8.4 Policies for Reducing Rural Poverty
To design policies that have a chance of effectively helping the rural poor, the
focus of policy should be on four major groups:
• Small landowners who cultivate their land
• Landless tenants who cultivate other people's land
• Landless labourers who depend on casual or long-term employment in the farm
or nonfarm sectors
• Women, who could also be part of any of the three preceding groups
All of these groups will benefit from good macroeconomic management which
helps keep inflation in check and maintains unsubsidized prices, because it
facilitates sustained economic growth through private investment and
competitive markets. Needless to say, unfair laws or poor enforcement of
existing laws, exclusion of the poor from decision making and pervasive
corruption in the public sector are no less detrimental to the well-being of the
poor than they are to the country's overall economic growth.
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Achieving agricultural growth by applying new technologies is one of the most

important ways to reduce rural poverty. The impact of such efforts on the rural
poor, however, depends on initial conditions, the structure of relevant
institutions, and incentives. Research shows that agricultural stagnation has
harmed the rural poor in sub-Saharan Africa by creating food shortages and
higher prices that have reduced their ability to buy food and find work.
Conversely, experience with the Green Revolution showed that rapid agricultural
progress made a big difference in reducing rural poverty in parts of South Asia.
Researchers have found that higher crop yields reduce both the number of rural
poor and the severity of rural poverty. But these effects are strong only if certain
conditions are met:
• Land and capital markets are not distorted by a high concentration of

ownership of natural resources (agricultural land), including unfair tenancy
contracts, and repression in the capital markets (with restricted access to
finance)
• Public policy on pricing, taxes, and the exchange rate does not penalize
agriculture and encourage or subsidize labor displacement
• public investment in basic education and health care is high and used
effectively; farmer literacy and good health have great influence on farm
productivity
• Public sector support for agricultural research is strong and resulting
improvements are made available to small farmers is effective
• Physical capital, like irrigation systems, access roads, is adequately
maintained
• Safety nets and social assistance are available for the very poor,
particularly the landless (casual) workers and rural women, in the form of
public works programs, microfinance, and food subsidies
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• The rural poor are directly involved in the identification, design, and
implementation of programs to ensure effective use of resources and
equitable distribution of benefits.
Since the rural poor are a varied group, we need to understand how
macroeconomic changes and policies affect them. The three major ways in which
policies affect the rural poor are through markets, infrastructure (including
public services), and transfers.
The markets in which the rural poor participate are those for products, inputs
(labor and non-labor), and finance (from formal and informal sources). Several
important features of these markets can affect conditions in rural areas.
The infrastructure that directly affects the rural sector's productivity and the
rural poor's quality of life includes the economic (transport, communications,
extension services, and irrigation) and the social (education, health care, water,
and sanitation). Given that most elements of a country's infrastructure are
provided through public funding, the level of spending, cost effectiveness, quality
of service, and access of the rural poor to infrastructure and public services have
important effects on human capital and productivity in rural areas.
Transfers, which are both private and public, provide some insurance against
anticipated and unanticipated economic shocks. Most of the rural poor depend
on private transfers among households, extended families, and other kinship
groups. Public transfers can take the form of redistribution of such assets as
land, employment on public works projects, and targeted subsidies for inputs and
some consumer products. These transfers supplement or displace private
transfers, depending on the policy instrument and how it is used. But these
channels markets, infrastructure, and transfers do not work in the same way for
all of the rural poor because each group has quite different links to the economy.
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8.5 Solution to the Problems of Rural Society
The rural poor depend largely on agriculture, fishing, forestry, and related small-
scale industries and services. To understand how poverty affects these
individuals and households and to delineate the policy options for poverty
reduction it is important to know that the rural poor are not a homogeneous
group. One important way to classify the rural poor is according to their access
to agricultural land:
Cultivators have access to land as small land owners and tenants, and non
cultivators are landless, unskilled workers. There is, however, much functional
overlap between these groups, reflecting the poverty mitigating strategies of the
poor in response to changes in the economy and society.
8.6 Key Policy Components Needed To Reduce Problems of Rural

Society
So, what are the key elements when crafting a policy to reduce rural poverty?
Competitive markets, macroeconomic stability, and public investment in the
physical and social infrastructure are widely recognized as important
requirements for sustained economic growth and reduced poverty. In addition
the first requirement of a strategy to reduce rural poverty is to provide the
enabling environment and resources for those in the rural sector who are
engaged in the agricultural production and distribution system.
Other policy components for national strategies—involving the government, the

private (for-profit) sector, and civil society—to reduce rural poverty can include:
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8.6.1 Information gathering The rural poor face many different problems and
are not a homogeneous group. Therefore, a sustained effort must be made to
gather information about the particular problems they face so that they can be
adequately addressed.
8.6.2 Focus on building assets The government should assess what assets
the poor need most to help them to earn more. This could be agricultural land or
other resources, access to credit, or improvements in health and education.
Dependence on raw labor, without a focus on building other assets, is the single
most important source of persistent poverty.
8.6.3 The right to adequate land and water A broad-based land reform
program—including land titling, land redistribution, and fair and enforceable
tenancy contracts—is critical for reducing rural poverty. It can make small
(marginal) landowners and tenants more efficient producers and raise their
standards of living.
8.6.4 Basic health care and literacy The rural poor need to build and
strengthen their human capital so they can get out of poverty and contribute
more to the economy and society. Basic health care (immunization, provision of
clean water, and family planning) and education (literacy, schooling, and
technical training) particularly for women and children—are essential building
blocks and should be accessible at reasonable cost.
8.6.5 Local involvement The infrastructure and services associated with

health and education can be funded and maintained best if the target groups are
involved in making decisions about the design, implementation, monitoring, and
accountability.
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8.6.6 Providing infrastructure The rural poor cannot make the best use of
their resources, including human capital, if either the quantity or the quality of
some of the key parts of the country's physical infrastructure (irrigation,
transport, and communications) and support services (research and extension) is
inadequate. The social and physical infrastructure and services can be funded
and maintained best—that is, they will be cost-effective and of reasonable
quality—if the target groups are involved in designing, implementing, and
monitoring them, as well as in ensuring accountability of the government officials
responsible for them.
8.6.7 Targeted credit Informal and formal sources of credit often are too
costly for, or unavailable to, the rural poor. Targeted public sector rural credit
programs, especially if they are subsidized, benefit the non-poor far more than
the poor. The poor want credit that is available on acceptable terms and when
they need it. Recent experiments with community-based credit programs, in
which the poor actively participate in the making of lending decisions that are
subject to peer accountability, have been successful in reaching target groups at
reasonable cost.
8.6.8 Public works A large and increasing proportion of the rural poor depends
on wage labor, because they have either no asset other than raw labor or very
few assets: limited quantities of land and domestic animals. A flexible public
works program can greatly help the near landless and the landless smooth out
household consumption and avoid transient poverty. If it is used on a sustained
basis, it can also strengthen the bargaining power of the poor in rural areas.
8.6.9 Decentralized food programs Some of the rural poor, both individuals
and households, suffer from inadequate nutrition most of the time. They need
different kinds of support, depending on their circumstances. These may include
food supplement programs; food assistance provided through schools, health
78
care clinics, and community centers; and cash transfers. Decentralized and
targeted programs seem to work best.
8.7 Summary
This lecture has examined rural poverty by exploring how it is displayed in the
rural areas, the causes of rural poverty and how this problem can be addressed
through establishment of relevant government policies.
8.8 Activities
• Examine the rural area of the county you belong to and explain the
factors that you would identify as causes of poverty
• Describe three policies used as a means of reducing rural poverty
8.9 Further Reading
Republic of Kenya (2001) Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper for the Period
2001-2004, Nairobi
Discuss the biases (preconceived ideas) linked to the hidden rural poverty
which hinder rural development
79
LECTURE NINE: SOCIAL CHANGE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
9.1 Introduction
Rural Development is an important part of Rural Sociology. This lecture

explores social change, planned and unplanned development while
delving into important case studies of rural development in reference to
African countries and specifically Kenya.
By the end of the lecture learners should be able to;

• Demonstrate the link between social change and rural
development
Social Structure
• Establish theof Ruralexamples
various AgrarianorSystem
casestudies of rural
development regionally or nationally
Society is the term used to describe a group of people who have had and worked
together long enough to get themselves organized and to think of themselves as
a social unit. Social stratification concept is as old as mankind; this is because
the poor and the rich have always existed in society and this is an element of
minimum stratification.
80
The structure or organization of a society is the way in which the society is

organized into families, clans, tribes, communities, and clubs. Social structure of
a community contains primary channels of communication. These channels
therefore, have to be discovered and probably be inferred from previous
knowledge of social relationships and the expectations that people have certain
incumbents.
Social structure consists of those relations between men and women that have
achieved a certain definiteness of form and relative permanence. Mbithi (1977
defines social stratification as the division of a population into two or more
layers each of which is relatively homogeneous and between which there are
differences in privileges, restrictions, obligations and rewards. There are
three main kinds of social structure, which are; the economic structure, the
cultural structure and the regulative structure.
The economic structure is concerned with the means of life while cultural
structure has to do with the intrinsic values of society (that is, those institutions
and associations concerned with knowledge, art, religion and recreation). The
regulation or control of human relations is served by what may be called the
regulative structure, which includes the machinery of law, the moral and
religious codes as well as conventions and fashions.
9.3 Factors which cause division of people into groups and societies
(a) Sex division Traditionally some jobs are carried out by men while some
others are done by women. Each sex has customary duties or roles in village life
and agriculture. Men are mainly engaged in production of crops while majority of
females do engage in the processing and marketing of crops. Change agents
must be conscious of the changes that best fit each sex.
81
(b) Religion and ceremony groups members of certain religious groups have
common loyalties and attitudes. This must be considered while introducing a
change to believers of each sect of religion.
(c) Division based on age Age grade is usually used in dividing a society into
groups such as the youth, adult and the elders. These three age grades have
diverse interests and characteristics. When considering change, agents must
consider what age grade will be targeted by the change to be proposed or even
more consider through needs assessment what age grade is in dire need of
change.
(d) Groupings on the basis of common residence This grouping refers to

small units, such as family homesteads or hamlets of a few houses grouped
together to form the main village. Such villages usually have a headman or
village head who directs the affairs of the community. The fact that they are
living close together forces people to cooperate and develop similar attitudes to
common problems. The group may split into fractions to form new homesteads
or hamlets.
(e) Kinship groups These are groups of closely related people and are bound
together by blood and marriage. The bonds make the members to conform to
the groups‘ behavior, attitudes and responsibilities otherwise called kinship ties.
The head of the groups makes decisions which are binding on its members.
Kingship heads are well respected among the members as they have the final
say over most matters concerning the members.
Also members of a kinship group have the responsibility to help each other. This
may be in the form of helping the aged and the less privileged members of the
society by trying to alleviate their poverty and avert serious misfortunes.
82
d) Economic status Community members find themselves in different

economic levels depending on a number of factors, for instance wealth
accumulation & level of education.
Social structure or organization exists in all societies but the form and the basis
may differ from one society to another. It is therefore necessary for an agent to
be familiar with the structure of the society in which he is going to work so as to
be effective in discharging his or her duties.
9.4 Characteristics of a Stratified System
1. In a stratified system, all social groups are ranked in a hierarchical manner
2. The social stratifications are relatively permanent
3. Stratification is associated with control of power and is based on economic, political,

ethnic, racial or religious differentiation
4. A stratified system has sub-cultural distinctions and social distance distinguishes one
stratum from the other. There is homogeneity of views in each class
5. Individuals develop a sense of identity within their stratum/class
6. There is always an ideology to justify the stratification in existence – stratification can be

measured by the extent of rigidity
Stratification systems range from highly impermeable to highly permeable classes. The highly
impermeable are rigid and there is no social mobility e.g. in caste system. In the highly
permeable systems, there‘s high social mobility; social categories have more mobility. Rigidity
in a stratified system can be measured using the degree of mobility of members of lower
strata to high strata in terms of the classifying factor e.g. in terms of income.
83
9.5 Social and Attitude Change

Social change as a process lays emphasis on what happens to people socially and
psychologically in the course of community development. Within this scope, they plan and
act together for the satisfaction of their felt needs. In this process, individuals are assisted,
through organized efforts to acquire the attitudes, the skills and concepts required for their
effective participation in programmes designed to promote their well being. In discussing
social and attitude change further, you will be intimated with its concept, forms, types and
sources.
9.6 Concept of Social Change

The basis behind social change is that all societies are changing at times. Social change can
be defined as the modification in social systems and their sub-units in terms of their
functioning or structure for a specified period of time i.e. it involves the change in the way
people interact socially, in the structured relationships and in the functions performed by
these relationships.
Social change is the significant alteration of social structures including consequences and
manifestations of such structures embodied in norms, values, cultural products and symbols.
Social change may take any of the following forms.
1. Modification in human attitudes and behavior pattern as a result of education

for example, a farmer changing his system of farming as a result of innovation
received from the extension agent.
2. Alteration in social conditions as a result of changes in policies of a social

organization
84
3. Effecting reforms in major legal and functional systems of a society. Whenever

laws are passed, they call for changes in the ways and conduct of people and
which usually demands for adjustment.
4. Changes in material culture involve the change in the arts and artifacts of
cultures. It is the outwards manifestation of changes in the non material aspects
of culture.
9.7 Types of Social Change

There are different types of changes and it is imperative that change agents
should get acquainted with them so as to know which one apply for its rural
development projects. The major types are planned and unplanned change.
9.7.1 Planned change

Planned change is the one in which deliberate intervention effort is made to alter
existing practice. It entails mutual goal setting by one or both parties. Goals and
objectives must be clear to minimize trial and error. Planned change is used to
correct some of the consequences of unintended or unplanned changes. It is also
used in improving the rural system and for seeking assistance from outside.
9.7.2 Unplanned/ unintended plan/ natural change

This type of change has no apparent deliberation or goal getting. It involves
operations or activities which human being has no control over. For example,
unplanned change may involve natural disaster such as flood or earthquake
which can make people to shift from their locations to the other.
Other types of change are; Total change, segmental change, coercive change,
emulative change, technocratic change and indoctrination
85
9.8 Sources of Change

The major sources of social change are through invention, discovery, and
diffusion. Others include religions, urbanization, and government policies,
application of science and technology and natural physical forces.
9.8.1 Invention Is the recombination of existing cultural traits to design new

things and the rate at which it takes place is directly related to the existing
cultural base.
9.8.2 Discovery Is an act of sharing with others a perception of fact object or

relationship which has always existed but was not known. This method is used to
enhance the cultural base in a society.
9.8.3 Diffusion This entails the spreading of cultural traits from one group to
another. Cultural diffusion involves both material and non material things and
that is facilitated through the use of efficient technology communication gadgets,
interaction facilities, telephoning and specialists, who are well trained for the
diffusion of innovation and other sources.
9.8.4 Religious institution Brought changes through formal preaching,

indoctrination and the use of metaphors and phrases to change people from one
mode of life to another and also through the provision of education.
9.8.5 Government policies Many changes have been brought about in the
society through governmental policies. This is done through the different layers
of government including; executive, legislature and the National Assembly as in
the Kenyan case.
9.8.6 Application of Science and Technology The patterned daily life in

most rural settlements have changed considerably today as a result of new road
86
construction, rural electrification and water supply schemes. Many varieties of

foreign food and cash crops have been introduced within traditional farming
system including raising and enjoying exotic breeds of livestock as a result of
research and improved technology.
9.8.7 Natural physical forces These includes natural forces like water flood,
erosion, and fire disaster, erosion and flood have necessitated the relocation of
villages while excessive drought have caused the migration of the entire
population within a region.
9.8.8 Urbanization The growth of town/cities or urbanization has led to the

attraction of youths and schools leavers away from rural areas. In the cities there
is increase in populations, in industries, in trades thereby resulting in water and
light shortages. This has called for tremendous adjustments on parts of urban
dwellers.
9.9 Rural development schemes in Kenya
Currently in Kenya, the government and different stakeholders have goals and objectives
that are geared towards rural development.
• Constituency Development Fund
• Youth and Women Enterprise Funds
• Rural Electrification
• Roads construction
• Rural Health Care; free maternal health care
• Education
• Rural Cooperatives/Microfinance
• Water for all
• Uwezo funds
87
9.10 Summary
Rural development is a fundamental social and economic change in agrarian societies.

The main goals of rural development are; reduction of poverty among the majority of
the rural people; reduction of the level of unemployment with the assumption that
employment is a source of livelihood; satisfaction of the basic needs of a people- food
shelter, clothes and attainment of self-reliance among the rural people
9.11 Activities
In the environment you live in, mention five things you observed that have
changed in the past ten years?
9.12 Further Reading
Wilkinson, K.P. (1991) ―The future of the community in rural areas‖ Pp. 73-89 in
Kenneth E. Pigg (ed.) The Future of Rural America: Anticipating Policies for
Constructive Change. Boulder, CO: West view Press.
88
Discuss why it is important for a change agent to study the social structure
of the society he or she is going to work with
Describe the factors that account for the division of people into social groups and
societies
89
TEN: THE FUTURE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY
The new rural sociology and the critical perspective it embodies, have insisted on
a research agenda that confronts the actual problems transforming the rural
reality today. In the future, this will mean broadening further our research to
encompass new and pressing issues. Clearly one of these issues is that of rural
environment, and specifically how present land use practices, of which
agriculture is the most important, are destroying the rural eco-system and
contaminating the food we eat.
The wonderfully rich top soils of what were once the natural rural regions of
represent a resource of incalculable value to nations, and yet agricultural
practices since the turn of .the century have caused the loss of much of it, and
the growing salinization of the soil that remains. The dependence on the use of
agricultural chemicals that has occurred since the Second World War has brought
with it dangers of a different kind.
Pollution of river systems, lakes, and ground water used for drinking by pesticide
factories and through run-off from agricultural land is becoming increasingly
evident in the populated rural regions. The contamination of a wide range of
foodstuffs produced in rural areas by residues of chemical pesticides, a number
of which were approved decades ago using standards that today are considered
inadequate, has provoked increasing public concern. And while public skepticism
over the safety of our food grows, so too does the concern of farm operators
who fear that increasing regulation of agricultural / chemicals will impair their
ability to compete with produce imported from abroad. The European Union has
in the recent past warned Kenya about high levels of chemical residues in some
of the horticultural products exported from Kenya.
90
Irrational and destructive practices are not confined to the agricultural sphere of
rural areas. The fisheries on coastal regions are endangered.
Another issue of our time .is the complex of practices often referred to as
biotechnology. As the ability of science in the industrialized world to manipulate
genetic material advances, it is also increasingly determining the options for
development in the Third World. Biotechnology has the potential, for example, to
displace traditional agricultural commodities on a massive scale.
Today corporations in the industrialized world are using biotechnology to develop

substitutes for such essential Third World cash crops as vanilla, cocoa, and
sugar. While private corporations in North America and Europe stand to profit
handsomely from the industrial production of sugar substitutes, for example, it is
estimated that the livelihood of 8 to 10 million people in the Third World would
be threatened by the loss of their sugar markets and a depression in world sugar
prices (Jamal 1988).
Rural Sociologists can play a role in helping to solve this issue of food complex,
by analyzing the powerful vested interests that underpin the current destructive
and irrational methods of food production and distribution, interests that
continue to dictate government policies that jeopardize the welfare of
consumers. They can, and some would argue should, use their knowledge to
assist those who are attempting to achieve change in this sphere of our society,
change that will reverse environmental degradation, enhance the purity of the
produce of the land and the sea, and reduce the inequalities and injustices that
today characterize the agro-food complex.
91
Although some progress has been made towards a definition of the rural, in the
contemporary society this must be seen as a work in progress and part of a
range of perspectives on the rural. Underpinning all of these is the recognition
that rural communities are characterized by difference and complexity.
Sociologists can take their specialist interests (such as the sociologies of
education or work) and apply them more readily to rural concerns in order to
engage with these complexities. This would avoid some of the narrowness of
early community studies work in the 1950s and also enable sociology of the rural
to be more engaged with contemporary debates, issues and trends within rural
studies.
92
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Anyanwu, John C, (2012) Accounting for Poverty in Africa: Illustration with

Survey Data from Nigeria, Working Paper Series N° 149, African Development
Bank, Tunis, Tunisia.
Baulch, B. and J. Hoddinott eds. (2000) Economic Mobility and Poverty Dynamics
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Bealer, B. (1990), Paradigms, Theories, and Methods in Contemporary Rural

Sociology: A Critical Reaction to Critical Questions. Rural Sociology, 55: 91–100
Bertland, L. (1958) Rural Sociology, McGraw-Hill education
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Chitamber, J.B. 1997. Introductory Rural Sociology. Wiley Eastern Limited, New
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Desai, A. R. (1969) Rural Sociology in India, 5th ed. Bombay: Popular

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Galeski B. (1972) Basic Concepts of Rural Sociology, Manchester University Press
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INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e-LEARNING

ASC 205: RURAL SOCIOLOGY

WRITTEN BY: VETTED BY:

Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2020

Rural sociology is a branch of sociology which is mainly

Students understand and appreciate:

LECTURE THREE: EMERGENCE, GROWTH AND TYPES OF RURAL COMMUNITIES

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 47

7.8 Activities ................................................................................................................ 68

9.8 Sources of Change............................................................................................... 86

LECTURE ONE: THE CONCEPT OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY

1.2 Lecture objectives

This lecture introduces Rural Sociology and explores the different

1.2 Lecture objectives

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

1.3 What is rural sociology?

In every part of the world, particularly in predominantly rural based societies,

It is the village which is the economic base of industrial development and

For one to understand Rural Sociology, it is important to understand what the

1.3.1 What is Rural?

Population or statistical definition

Degree of isolation from or inability to participate in the programs of

Access to services such as: Level of Education, quality of medical services,

Sociologists study people organized in families, networks, schools,

1.3.3 Defining Rural Sociology:

Different scholars have defined rural sociology differently:

According to Sanderson (1942), Rural Sociology is the sociology of rural life in

In view of the above definitions:

• It is the study of the country‘s rural population in general. It is concerned

• As a scientific study it studies the social organisations, structure and set

• Study of social organization, action, interaction, and institutions in a rural setting –

For many people rural sociology is a discipline that studies agricultural

Rural sociology therefore is one of the several subfields of sociology; it is the

1.4 The nature of Rural Sociology

1. Rural Sociology is relatively a new branch of science. As a special branch of

2. Rural Sociology is an empirical discipline. It is more an empirical science

3. Rural Sociology is essentially problem-oriented. Rural studies are conducted

4. Rural Sociology is concerned with comparative study. The studies

5. The comparative analysis in Rural Sociology becomes inevitable because of a

7. Rural Sociology is cumulative. The theories in Rural Sociology are the

8. Science is the theoretical study of a problem while its application is an art or

In a certain sense, Rural Sociology assumes the nature of an art or technology.

1.5 The importance of Rural Sociology

2. It provides information about rural people‘s needs to the government for

3. It provides feedback to the change agency as to the progress made and

1.8 Further Reading

Define rural sociology 15

LECTURE TWO: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF RURAL LIFE

This lecture examines the Sociological perspective of rural life. It examines

2.2 Lecture objectives

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

2.3 The sociological view of rural sociology

Rural sociology is a specialized application of sociology. It is therefore, very

According to Sanderson (1942), sociologists‘ interests themselves in human

According to Bertrand (1958), rural sociology is the study of human relationships

from urban communities. For instance, inter-caste marriage (like in India) in

2.4 Rural Demographics

As countries develop, life expectancy increases, as health services and their

2.4.1 Economically Dependent Groups and Rural Dependency