Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Clean energy technologies are playing a vital role in energy transition, realization of Net-Zero emission goals, and
Renewable energy sources satisfying increasing energy demands. The objective of this work is to investigate the potentials of renewable
Hybrid energy system energy sources and propose a state-of-the-art new grid connected energy system model, which increases the
Solar
penetration of renewable energies in the medium-size Municipality of Perugia, Central Italy. The presented
Hydro
Biomass
energy system model integrates and optimises renewable energy sources mainly consisting of hydro, solar, and
Economic and environmental analysis biomass, by implementing new dispatch strategies and advanced mathematical model. The developed model
maximises the power generation of each source based on the least Net Present Cost and the lowest Levelized Cost
of Energy and balances the fluctuating load demand by using combined dispatch strategies. Furthermore,
demand-side load management strategies are implemented for efficient energy management. An economic and
environmental analysis has been performed to evaluate the impact of the proposed system. The results show that
a significant amount of clean energy (33.2 GWh/year) is produced at the lowest Levelized Cost of Energy of
0.067 €/kWh. Moreover, up to 78% of the energy demand of the selected community is covered by renewable
energies, which evades 13,452 tons of CO2 emission yearly.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Gul).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.03.051
Received 12 March 2022; Received in revised form 21 February 2023; Accepted 9 March 2023
Available online 13 March 2023
0960-1481/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E. Gul et al. Renewable Energy 207 (2023) 672–686
efficient demand side energy management. The variable and uncertain peak clipping, valley filling, and load shifting constitute important
nature of RES, especially wind and solar energy, makes the integration contributions to the efficient energy management and increase the
and maximization of the power generation more difficult [9]. With the economic and environmental benefits [18]. Load management methods
purpose of solving the integration issue in hybrid energy systems, are highly effective for renewable energy management, especially for
numerous studies have been implemented. A mixed-integer non-linear wind and solar energy because of their variable nature. However, hydro
model which integrates RES and introduces a simple optimization model and biogas plants can be used to supply the baseload or/and the peak
for the hybrid system is presented in Ref. [10]. Toopshekan et al. [11] load, as they are robust and easily manageable compared to solar and
performed an economic and performance analysis of a hybrid system wind sources [19,20]. Kang. et al. [21] presented a cascaded reservoir
consisting of PV, wind, diesel generator, and battery system for a single network model for short-term scheduling of hydrothermal by using a
house, and developed a dispatch strategy for a 24-h short term. A two-stage linear programming model. The authors implemented optimal
feasibility study and analytical techniques for modeling a small-scale scheduling of reservoirs for short-term and long-term intervals for seven
energy system for Popova Island and integration of solar and wind en cascaded reservoirs. In our previous work [22], a short-term hydro
ergy with diesel generators and 1 kWh battery is presented in Ref. [12]. thermal operation of 4 cascaded reservoirs was presented, with the
The optimal planning and scheduling of hybrid wind-PV model is pre implementation of the optimal scheduling of reservoirs. The imple
sented in Ref. [13], where different scenarios are proposed to combine mentation of effective water resources management techniques in
generators and meet the load demand. Integration and optimization of creases the hydroelectric power generation. Biomass is a key source for
RES with local grid station can increase the penetration and utilization energy production, as it is largely available from animals and plants.
of RES, as well as reduce the GHG emission and the cost of energy. Kim Different kinds of feedstock are available, ranging from waste food to
et al. [14] proposed an optimization model for the RES energy man agricultural residues and animal manures such as: maize crops, silage
agement and performed a comparative analysis for the on-grid and grass, olive pomace, agricultural waste, animal manures and municipal
off-grid using the software Homer [15]. The results showed that the waste for energy production [23,24]. Evans et al. [25] presented a
on-grid hybrid system can accommodate a higher amount of energy, and comprehensive research on the sustainability of electricity production
efficiently manage the load demand. The new power system models can from biomass, illustrating the types of feedstocks and different tech
reliably integrate intermittent sources and demonstrate high flexibility nologies for power generation. Lauer et al. [26] showed an economic
and sustainability. Moreover, they effectively manage the connected evaluation of a biogas plant used for electricity production, and they
load centers and simultaneously increase the renewable energy utiliza performed an assessment of different types of biogas plants for a period
tion at the lowest LCOE [16]. Energy storage technologies are playing a of 20 years, from 2016 to 2035, where they determined the biogas
significant role to improve the flexibility and reliability of grid stations. extension path, modes of operation, and economic analysis. An opti
Energy storage systems integrated with the grid such as hydrogen en mization model for the waste food collection and biogas production
ergy, lithium-ion batteries, hydroelectric pump storage and from the waste food is reported in Ref. [27] The authors also presented
thermo-chemical storage systems can accumulate the curtailed renew an LCA analysis of biogas production from the waste food. At the aim of
able energy and supply back the power, especially during high demand performing a comparative analysis of the proposed research work with
time [17]. the recently published articles, Table 1 presents the latest discoveries
Demand side load management techniques such as flexible load, and advancements in renewable energy systems in different regions.
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Plan 2020 [40]. Baldinelli et al. [41] realised the energy and environ Table 2
ment plan for the Municipality of Perugia, which represented the core of Annual Electricity load demand of Municipality of Perugia from 2016 to 2020
the EU LIFE + Project MuSAE to developed strategies for the growth of [48].
RES, energy savings, and information sharing between the Municipal Year Industrial Agriculture Domestic Total Load
ities and in the Umbria region. This research work is carried out in the (GWh) (GWh) (GWh) (GWh)
city of Perugia to evaluate the feasibility of renewable energy systems 2016 657 21 227 905
for medium size cities. The second reason is the geographical location: 2017 651 23 231 906
moderate climate conditions and reasonable availability of natural re 2018 685 23 230 938
2019 708 23 231 962
sources, used to investigate the impact of renewable energy sources.
2020 659 34 234 928
Furthermore, this research is conducted under the scheme of the Euro
pean Commission Green City Accord [42] and Green City Initiative [43]
as the city of Perugia is the part of EU-Green city accord. This accord is 2016 to 2020, while Table 3 reports the annual energy generation from
the movement of European mayors committed to safeguard the natural the RES, divided by sources, for the same period.
environment and accelerate the energy transition within the cities and
small communities. 3. Methodology
As far as the Perugia hydropower potential, two hydroelectric plants
are currently operational in Ponte San Giovanni and Ponte Felcino dis This section presents a methodology to achieve the set objectives of
tricts. with an installed capacity of 4 MW; another potential site for the this research. The developed energy system model integrates and opti
hydropower plant is located in the Pretola suburb over the river Tevere, mises the power produced by the solar, biomass, and hydroelectric units.
and it is estimated that an installed capacity of 630 kW hydroelectric The Homer Pro software implements combined dispatch strategies Load
plant can be built, which would annually produce 1333 MWh/year of Following and Cycle Charging, to optimally combine and schedule the
electricity. Besides, it is also possible to install mini and micro-plants integrated energy sources. Meanwhile, Homer micro-grid balances the
alongside the same river [44,45]. Biomass has enormous potential in power generation with the load demand to meet the residential and
the municipal territory: the current biogas cogeneration plants installed commercial requirements of the selected area. The developed model is
capacity is 7.0 MW for electricity and 10.3 MW of thermal energy. The interconnected with the local grid station for energy trading, and, during
annual growth potential of bioenergy is estimated as 1.6 MW electric the high load periods, the required energy is purchased from the grid
and 3.3 MW thermal, with the energy production of about 10,000 MWh station, while the excess energy is sold to the grid station, with a flat-rate
and 32,450 MWh [44,45] respectively. The territory shows also a wide tariff. For effective load management at demand side, the total load is
potential for solar energy, as it relies on around 2100 sunny hours considered as shiftable and non-shiftable load. The test and validation of
annually [46], with a daily average solar radiation of 3.2 kWh/m2, and a the developed model results are executed by using a simulation and
clearance index of 0.5. The current installed capacity of solar PV plants optimization software Homer Pro, developed by the National Renewable
is 61.4 MW, and it produce around 87,000 MWh/year. with an annual
growth potential estimated as 750 MWh/year [44,45]. Within the
municipal territory a significant potential of wind energy is available. Table 3
However, in this study the wind energy is not included because the delay Electricity production by the RES in the municipality of Perugia from 2016 to
in the legislative processes, the proposal of the development of wind 2020 [44].
farm is still pending. Year Bioenergy (GWh) Solar PV (GWh) Hydro (GWh) Total (GWh)
Fig. 1 indicates the sites where RES can be produced by using Solar
2016 61 73 31 165
and hydro resources in the municipality of Perugia. 2017 62 78 31 171
The total installed capacity of RES in the municipality is 72.4 MW, 2018 59 83 31 173
and 21.5% of the load demand is supplied by RES. In Table 2, the annual 2019 59 85 31 175
electricity consumption of Perugia is reported, divided by sectors, from 2020 60 87 32 179
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Energy Laboratory (NREL) USA [15]. A flowchart of the model is pre biogas engines and hydroelectric units stepwise. However, if the load
sented in Fig. 2, which describes the multiple stages of the research work demand increases the system turns on each biogas engine and hydro
conducted. The flowchart indicates the four different stages of the electric unit to maximize its power generation to meet the load demand.
developed system. At stage 1, the required data for the calculations are Moreover, if the developed system operates at its maximum capacity but
collected from the Italian National Electricity Distribution Company the load demand is still above the produced power, system export energy
(TERNA), Ente Nazionale per l’Energia Elettrica (ENEL), and Italian from local grid station to meet the load demand.
green energy company (Italgen Italy) websites [48–50]. The power
generation data for the hydro, solar and biogas were obtained from the 3.1.1. Objective function A
Italian energy company Gestore dei Servizi Energetici [44]. Further Maximization of the total power generation and guaranteed rated
more, at stage 1, the annual electricity generation data of hydroelectric output power of the Homer micro-grid
stations, solar PV systems, and biogas plants, is used for the system
∑
M
modeling. Moreover, the capital expenditure (CAPEX) values such as Ptmax = PHm + PSm + PBm (1)
replacement cost, operational and maintenance cost and cost of fuels are m=1
also used to model the system. In stage 2, mathematical techniques are ( )
developed to maximize the power generation, and operational strategies # PHm + PSm + PBm ≥ PHSB
micogrid
are implemented for the optimal scheduling and operation of hydro Qtmax = (2)
M
power, PV system, and biogas units. In stage 3, the collected data and the
developed strategies are fed into the optimization software to perform In eq. (1), Ptmax represents the sum of output power of all components
the optimization process. At stage 4 the obtained results are elaborated during operational periods in (MWh), while PHm , PSm , PBm are respectively
and analyzed. the power produced by hydro, solar PV, and biogas units in (MW). In eq.
(2), Qtmax is the guaranteed active rated output power of Homer micro-
grid, PHSB is the output power of hybrid system while
3.1. Model formulation micogrid
#(PHm +PSm +PBm ≥ PHSB
micogrid ) indicates that the combined power plants
The developed energy system pursuits two main objectives: the first output power is equal or higher than the Homer micro-grid output
objective A integrate and optimally combines all energy sources to power during the entire operational period M.
maximize of the power generation (Ptmax )see eq. (1), while the Homer
micro-grid supplies the active rated output power (Qtmax ) to the load 3.1.2. Objective function B
centers, as described in eq. (2). The second objective B consists of Balance of the load demand:
balancing the load demand presented in eq. (3). The model is con ∑
M
structed based on two objectives, A and B presented in eqs. (1)–(3). The PtD = Qtmax + Ptgrid (3)
Homer software follows these objectives and optimally combines all the m=1
sources. It performs optimization to maximize its power generation and In eq. (3), the guaranteed power supply by the Homer micro-grid
employe operational strategies based on the anticipated load demand. mixed with the power purchased from the local grid must balance the
At first step, the software follows the first objective A as shown in eqs. instantaneous load demand PtD , at any interval t.
(1) and (2); where it optimises the power produced by the four hydro
electric units, solar PV, and three units of biogas units, presented in eq.
surplus
Ptsystem ⇄ Ptgrid (4)
(1). At the second step, the Homer micro-grid supplies the active rated deficit
output power to the load centers, described in eq. (2). At the next step, Equation (4) presents the energy trading between the model and the
the software pursues objective B to balance the power generation with grid station during the high load demand time; if the model system
the fluctuating load demand presented in eq. (3). Moreover, to meet the cannot meet the load demand, the required power is purchased from the
instantaneous load demand in the second objective, Homer microgrid grid; on the other hand, during the period of lower power demand and
uses load following strategies, which involve following the load curve high-power generation by the system, the surplus power is transmitted
and managing the power generation. In the event that if the load de to the connected grid station. Ptsystem shares the surplus/deficit power
mand decreases the system reduces its production by turning off the
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between the proposed system and the local grid station. design is presented in this section. Homer Pro is a powerful optimization
and modeling software used to design and evaluate the performance of a
3.1.3. Constraints hybrid energy system. Homer software optimally combines the con
The power produced by the system directly supplies to the load nected sources (hydro, solar, biogas) and performs an optimization
centers, and the surplus power is delivered to the connected grid station, based on setting operational strategies, supplying electricity to the
as presented in eq. (5). connected load centers, while as far as surplus load shifting and energy
{ t sharing the model is coupled with the grid station. Fig. 4 shows the
t sup
Psystem →
PLoad
(5) schematic diagram of the developed energy system model, where the
Ptgrid biogas plant and hydropower units are connected to the AC Busbar,
while the solar PV system is connected to the DC Busbar. Fig. 4 also
Equation (6) shows the annual maximum capacity shortage, which is
reports the average annual load demand of residential and commercial
due the degradation of solar PV systems and the efficiency of biogas
load centers. The power produced by the solar PV system is converted
units, while eqs. (7) and (8) present the minimum renewable fraction
into AC by using a system converter.
and the operating reserves of the developed system.
The electricity load demand data and hydropower generation data
CPshortage ≤ 2% (6) are downloaded from the Italian National Electricity Distribution
Company TERNA, ENEL website, and Hydroelectric station Ponte San
REfraction ≥ 30% (7) Giovanni websites [48–50]. The biomass resource data and power
{ generation data are obtained from the local biogas plants. Figs. 5 and 6
Hrload = 10% present the residential and commercial load demand profile of the
(8)
%
OPreserve →
PHrload = 2% selected area: part A describes the 24-h load curve, part B shows the
seasonal load profile and part C reports the yearly load profile of the
3.2. Demand-side load management strategies
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Fig. 5. Hourly, seasonal, and yearly residential load demand of selected area.
Fig. 6. Hourly, seasonal, and yearly commercial load demand of selected area.
Municipality of Perugia. ( )2 ( )2
Fig. 6. presents the same data for the commercial load. PtHj = C1j ⋅ Vjt + C2j ⋅ Qtj + C3j ⋅ Vjt ⋅ Qtj + C4j ⋅ Vjt + C5j ⋅ Qtj + C6j (9)
3.4. Hydro power model where PtHj is the actual power generated by the hydroelectric units, Qtj is
the rate of discharge of each reservoir and Vjt is the reservoir storage
The modeled hydroelectric power station is a run-off rive power
volume. The hydroelectric generation is a function of the reservoir water
station built over the river Tevere in Ponte San Giovanni, located in the
head and generating discharge, which in turn is a function of storage.
Municipality of Perugia. At the aim of increasing the power generation
C1j, C2j, C3j, C4j, C5j, C6j are the power generation coefficients.
capacity and to assure a better water management, a cascaded reservoir
network model is used presented in our previous article Ref. [22]. The
3.4.1. Generation limits of hydropower
power produced by the hydroelectric power station is estimated by the
The power generated by the hydroelectric units PtHj depends on the
following Eq. (9).
physical limits of the reservoir storage volume and the discharge of
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reservoirs. Equation (10) describes the generation limits of the plant, historical weather data for the solar system are obtained from the NASA
while the power produced depends on the physical limits of reservoir surface meteorology dataset [52] for the city of Perugia.
storage volume and the discharge of reservoirs. ( )[
Rm
Ppv = Epv 1 + αp (Tc − Tstc ) (15)
Pmin t max
Hj ≤ PHj ≤ PHj (10) Rstc
Ppv is the actual output power, Epv is the rated power output, while
3.4.2. Hydraulic network constraints Rstc and Rm represent the radiation intensity under Standard Test Con
The operational constraints of the hydraulic reservoir network ditions (STC) (1000 W/m2) and actual radiation intensity (W/m2)
consist of the water balance equations for each hydro unit, the bound respectively. Tstc is the temperature of the STC (25 ◦ C). Tc is the solar cell
aries on the reservoir storage and the release levels, as reported in Eqs. real temperature while ap is the temperature power coefficient of solar
(11)–(14). These limits include the Stj spillage of the reservoir at time t, cell module (− 0.35%/◦ C). Fig. 8 shows the hourly solar beam irradiance
the discharge rate Qtj , and Vjt is the storage volume of the reservoir: (W/m2), the global horizontal irradiance (GHI) (W/m2) and the diffuse
horizontal irradiance (DHI) (W/m2) at the selected location.
(a) physical limitations on reservoir storage volumes and generating
discharge: 3.6. Biogas plant model
Vjmin ≤ Vjt ≤ Vjmax (11) Three biogas power units are used to supply power to the inter
connected system, 500 kW each, for a total power of 1.5 MW. The
Qmin
j ≤ Qtj ≤ Qmax
j (12) feedstock used in these units is maize crops (80%) and olive pomace
(20%); however the monthly average available feedstock in the Mu
(b) the continuity equation for the reservoir network: nicipality of Perugia is 80 tons. Fig. 9 presents the efficiency curve of the
biogas plant, showing that the plant efficiency increases when the plant
Ruj
∑ ( t− τlj )
operates at its maximum rated capacity. Fig. 10 presents a simplified
(13)
t− τlj
Vjt+1 = Vjt + Ijt − Qtj − Sjt + Ql + Sl schematic sketch of the proposed biogas plant: the raw feedstock is
collected in the storage tank and then supplied to the influent tank for
l=1
the mixture. After the mixture preparation, the material is fed into the
(c) the initial and final reservoir storages: digestor tank, where the biogas is produced and supplied to the con
nected generators for electricity production. The biogas generator yield
Vj0 = Vjini VjT = Vjend (14)
is determined by the eq. (16) [53], which estimates the biogass pro
Fig. 7 presents the cascaded reservoirs network model of the Ponte duction per unit feedstock, while the overall biogass produced by the
San Giovanni hydroelectric unit. The flow-in waters I1, I2, I3, and I4 are biogas plant is estimated by the eq. (17).
stored in the reservoirs and go through the hydro turbines to produce the p
YBG,j = YBG,j × VSD− (16)
electricity. The cascade reservoirs are also considered for hydro units to
flowrate,j
increase the power generation efficiency and improve the water utili
EBG,j = MVS,j × YBG,j (17)
zation of the existing water resources.
p
YBG,j is the yield of produced biogas, YBG,j is the potential biogas yield.
3.5. Solar PV system model While the VSD− flowrate,j is the flowrate of volatile solid digestor. The EBG,j is
the biogas production from the feedstock, and MVS,j is the mass flow ratio
The new solar PV system is developed in the engineering campus of of volatile solid. The power PBG of biogas plant is estimated by eq. (18).
Perugia University Italy, and the fixed axis PV system is installed on the CVBG is lower calorific valueand ηsystem is biomass system overall effi
roof of the campus buildings, while its direction is 180◦ (South) and the ciency [53].
tilt angle is 25◦ . The solar PV system is coupled with the DC Busbar and PBG = EBG × CVBG × ηsystem (18)
the system converter transforms DC into AC power, feeding the system
micro grid. The solar system model developed by the NREL is used to The power produced by the three generators is combined at the AC
estimate the power produced in Eq. (15) [51]. The solar radiation busbar and supplied to the Homer microgrid. The Homer microgrid
performs scheduling of the connected units and optimises the power
generation to meet the connected load demand. The lower heating value
of the biogas is 5.5 MJ/kg, the density is 0.720 kg/m3, and the carbon
content is 5.0%. Fig. 9 shows the efficiency curve of the biogas engine,
which operates near its full load capacity during the operational period.
It emerges that, when biogas engines operate at its full load capacity, the
engine efficiency increases. The values highlighted in the blue area from
780 to 1500 kW show the best operational ranges of biogas generator,
increasing engine performance and efficiency as well as its operational
life.
As far as the annual operational strategies of the biogas units,
because of the limited availability of feedstock, the operational time is
set to 17 h a day. During night time, from 2 a.m. to 6 a.m., and at day
time, from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m., the plant stops its operation; for the rest of
the period it produces power. After 1000 operational hours the plant is
stopped for 24 h for maintenance purposes. The total operational period
of the biogas plant in the first year is 6069 h.
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mine which will be used first for power generation. HOMER calculates
the NPC and LCOE of each component and of the system as a whole, then
according to these parameters it chooses a source to produce power. The
system takes into account the calculations for costs such as capital,
replacement, operation and maintenance, and fuel. The NPC of this
project is the present value of all costs including the capital, O&M, fuel,
and replacement cost of all components, minus the profit cost. The NPC
cost is determined by using eq. (19), presented in Ref. [54].
)
∑N=t
(
NPC = Fdis Ccaptal + CO&M+Fuel− cos t + Creplacment − Cprofit (19)
N=1
Fdis is discount factor, while t is lifetime of the project, and N is the nth
year of computation. Cprofit is the present value of all incomes that
developed system gain during the project lifetime. The LCOE defines the
cost of energy produced by the proposed system; at the aim of deter
mining the LCOE of this project, the annuitizing method is implemented,
Fig. 9. Efficiency curve of the proposed biogas plant. as presented in eq. (20). LCOE is the ratio of the total annual cost divided
by the average annual output power of the system [55].
( n )
∑ Ct ( r )
(1+r) t
1− (1+r)− n
Annual(cos t)
LCOEAnnuitizing = = t=0( n )/ (20)
Average(output) ∑
Et n
t=1
5. Results
4. Economic analysis
This section presents the results of the developed energy system
One of the core objectives of the proposed work is to perform an
model. Table 5 shows the total energy produced by the renewable en
economic analysis of the developed system to investigate the project
ergy sources during the first year operation and their share of energy
socio-economic feasibility. The economic parameters such as CAPEX,
with respect to the total load and energy purchased from the local grid.
operational cost, fuel cost, replacement cost and maintenance cost are
Furthermore, Table 6 shows the annual AC primary load demand of the
used to determine the operation of each source/component. Homer
municipality of Perugia is also reported, divided in residential and
software used the parameters NPC and LCOE of each source to deter
commercial loads. A significant amount of surplus electricity is supplied
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Table 4 production. Furthermore, in the summer season, the load demand in
First year electricity trading between the developed system and the grid station. creases and during this period, a higher amount of energy is purchased
Month Energy purchased (kWh) Energy sold (kWh) Peak load (kWh) from the local grid station to balance the load demand, even if the solar
PV system supplies a significant quantity of energy.
Jan 354,241 476,461 6173
Feb 328,714 400,269 4238 One of the key objectives of this project consisted of increasing the
Mar 486,965 325,940 5357 penetration and utilization of RES and this model adopted a maximi
Apr 671,251 168,156 6355 zation approach by means of an effective energy management and
May 714,584 214,522 6717 operational strategies of the system. Results of Table 7 indicate that the
Jun 1,136,630 89,003 9453
Jul 1,364,298 72,958 9399
renewable fraction and the total renewable energy generation is
Aug 1,281,949 85,025 8333 significantly high, and a big amount of renewable energy has been uti
Sep 895,393 162,113 7593 lized to balance the load demand (78.8%); the rest of the load demand is
Oct 734,351 209,916 7061 met by the power purchased by the local grid.
Nov 470,277 342,020 6821
Demand-side energy management is a key strategy to balance the
Dec 454,316 409,227 5320
Annual 8,892,967 2,955,609 9453 load demand and the high-fluctuating energy demand outpaces the ca
pacity of the power station and may cause shutdowns. The designed
model used this strategy; the results in Figs. 12 and 13 show the hourly
and annually energetic profile of the total electrical load and the energy
Table 5
trading between the developed system and grid station. The graphs show
First year net energy produced by the renewable sources and grid purchased.
also the power produced by each component over a daily and yearly
Component kWh/year Percentage (%)
horizon, and their share to meet the load of the Municipality of Perugia.
Solar PV 3,713,910 8.81
Biogas 3 × 500 kW 9,102,683 21.6 5.1. Power produced by the solar PV system
Hydro Electric 20,437,166 48.5
Grid Purchases 8,892,080 21.1
Total 42,145,839 100 The results in Table 8 and Fig. 14 indicate that the PV system pro
duces a significant amount of energy, playing a vital role to supply
power to the load centers, especially during the summer season. Table 8
shows the technical parameters of the PV system, and the results indi
Table 6
Primary AC energy demand and grid sales. cate that the capacity factor of solar PV system is 17%, while the LCOE
and operational hours (4375/year) of the system show the importance of
Component kWh/year Percentage (%)
the PV system integration with the network. Furthermore, Fig. 14 shows
AC Primary Load 39,004,160 93.0 the seasonal variation of the power production of the solar system. As
Deferrable Load 0 0
the load demand increases during the summer period, the PV system
Grid Sales 2,955,984 7.04
Total 41,960,144 100 helps to meet this load demand.
Fig. 11. Monthly average energy produced by the system and energy purchased from grid.
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Fig. 12. Hourly Electricity produced by the Renewable energy sources and grid exchange.
Fig. 13. Total electricity load served and power purchased and sold to the local grid station.
The hydropower system plays a key role to supply power to the load This section deals with the results of the economic analysis model
center. Due to the efficient utilization of water resources, the results presented in section 4. Table 11 describes the economic values of the
demonstrate the high efficiency of the hydroelectric system. Table 9 developed project. The economic analysis shows the lowest NPC, LCOE,
shows the technical parameters and generation values; results show that CAPEX, operation cost, and the electricity price with and without sys
the consistent amount of power produced by the hydro units: its capacity tem. In contrast to the latest research studies presented in Table 1, the
factor is 58.3%, and the LCOE is also significantly low as compared to introduction section show that this research study significantly reduces
the other components. Because of the rise and fall of the water level in the cost of energy of hybrid system. The LCOE of the developed system is
the river Tevere (Fig. 15), the highest production is guaranteed in found to be 0.067 €/kWh, which is much lower than that reported in
winter, while in summer the production is minimum. other studies. For example, the cost of energy was reported to be 0.088
€/kWh, 0.090 €/kWh, 0.37 €/kWh, 0.15 €/kWh, 0.57 €/kWh, and
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The research work presented in this paper contributes to the accel Table 12
eration of the energy transition process for the achievement of the UN Greenhous gases emissions during the first year of system operation.
and EU’s 2050 Net-Zero CO2 emission goals. The study proposes original Quantity Value Unit
approaches for socio-economical, sustainable, and feasible solutions Carbon Dioxide 3,958,919 kg/year
aimed at reducing the dependence on fossil fuels and increasing the Carbon Monoxide 2185 kg/year
renewable energy utilization in urban and sub-urban communities. It Unburned Hydrocarbons 137 kg/year
Particulate Matter 81.9 kg/year
investigates the potential of renewable energy sources in the selected
Sulfur Dioxide 24,367 kg/year
area in order to identify the suitable sites for renewable energy in Nitrogen Oxides 11,951 kg/year
frastructures. To increase the renewable energy generation, the study
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Declaration of competing interest
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