Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03207-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Near‑surface characterization and delineation of 2‑D shear wave

velocity profile from geologically complex landscape of Kangra Valley,
NW Himalaya, India
Ambrish Kumar Mahajan1 · Praveen Kumar1,2

Received: 24 February 2022 / Accepted: 4 April 2023 / Published online: 24 April 2023
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The geotechnical characterization for delineating stiffness parameters is important to aid safe engineering foundations. The
Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) was utilized to estimate shear wave velocity (Vs) profile and near-surface
material characterization. The initial reconnaissance surveys allow optimization of acquisition parameters for seismic data
recording that controls signal penetration and attenuation. The gathering of multiple records with several receivers in the
surface-wave inversion technique progressively enhanced the dynamic characterization of the sediments. The 2-D genetic
algorithm was used for the inversion of dispersion curve. The seismic data was processed to prepare multiple 1-D and 2-D
share wave velocity (Vs) profiles. The depth of exploration in 2-D profiling varied from 25 to 52 m. The average Vs of the
top 30 m soil column was used to classify the site as per National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) clas-
sification. The analysis reveals the majority of sites come under soil class D (­ Vs30 = 180–360 m/s) and class C (­ Vs30 = 360–
760 m/s). The response analysis performed for different sites reveals variation in spectral acceleration at 10 Hz (single-story
buildings) ranging from 0.09 to 0.5 g and at 5 Hz (double-story buildings) ranging from 0.13 to 1.7 g. The present study
also discusses the variation of stiffness parameters across the study region to understand the subsurface heterogeneities and
allowable bearing capacity for a safe engineering foundation for constructing earthquake-resilient in the area.

Keywords Geotechnical characterization · Multichannel analysis of surface waves · Seismic reflection · Site effect ·
Response analysis

Introduction unconsolidated sediments. Past earthquakes, such as Mexico

(1985) M 7.9, San Francisco (1989) M 7.1, Los Angeles
Natural disasters are inevitable events governed by natu- (1994) M 6.7, Bhuj (2001) M 7.7, and Nepal (2015) Mw 7.8,
ral forces that may lead to disastrous effects due to their have indicated the site amplification effect of soft sediments
abnormal intensity. Earthquake is one of the worst natural due to low-frequency waves and varied damage distribution
disasters that release intense energy in a short time and from epicenter to the far away from the epicentre (Goda
brings huge devastation to infrastructure and lifelines. Dur- et al. 2015; Prakash et al. 2016). This effect may arise due to
ing an earthquake, the young sedimentary basin may suf- the diverse geomorphological features, geological structures
fer unexpected damage due to varied site effects that arise such as faults, folds, and varied sediment thickness result-
from the accumulation of energy pertaining to the difference ing in varied impedance contrasts due to composition of the
in impedance contrast between the bedrock and overlying underlying material (Mahajan et al. 2007; Ning et al. 2018).
The Kangra valley is located in a geologically complex
region of the northwest Himalaya, India and had witnessed
* Praveen Kumar devastating damage on 4 April 1905 (Ms 7.8) and resulted in
[email protected] a death toll of 20,000 people (Middlemiss 1910). This region
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University is still vulnerable to upcoming seismic hazards as the area is
of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala 176215, India located in proximity to several active tectonic zones. Despite
2
Department of Soil Science, CSK HPKV, Himachal Pradesh, high vulnerability of the building to seismic hazard, only a
Palampur 176062, India few studies are available on Deterministic Seismic Hazard

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Analysis (DSHA) and Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis out the thickness of soft sediment and delineation of bed-
(PSHA) (Mahajan et al. 2009; Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta rock depth in terms of stiffness value of the soil column
2013; Patil et al. 2014), and some recent effort to find out (Park et al. 1999; Xia et al. 1999, 2002; Park and Miller
fundamental frequency (f0), amplification and bedrock depth 2004; Mahajan et al. 2007; Anbazhagan and Sitharam 2009;
(Mahajan and Kumar 2018; Kumar and Mahajan 2021). The Ismail et al. 2012; Gonsiewski 2015; Akin and Sayil 2016;
varied thicknesses of alluvial/glaciated sediments above bed- Anukwu et al. 2018). During dispersion analysis, some mode
rock may strongly modify the ground motion characteristics may not be present in experimental data due to very smooth
that have motivated to conduct site characterization studies. changes from one mode to another, resulting in mode kissing
Several geophysical methods, namely gravity, magnetic, elec- or osculation (Mi et al. 2020). Many researchers demon-
tric, electromagnetic, and seismic, are being incorporated and strated that mode kissing caused the higher mode energy is
reviewed by many researchers for shallow as well as deeper to be identified as fundamental mode, especially in the area
subsurface site characterization (Butler 2005; Milsom and with high strong velocity contrast and low-velocity layers
Eriksen 2011; Reynolds 2011; Sundararajan et al. 2018). (Boaga et al. 2013; Gao et al. 2016; Mi et al. 2018). In such
However, surface wave methods became quite popular in the conditions correct identification of multimodal dispersion
late 1980s, starting with two geophone setup, named Spectral curves are prerequisite for obtaining reliable results and
Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW). The SASW has been avoiding errors in near-surface shear wave characterization.
extensively modified with the multiple geophone set-ups to Many efforts have been made to improve the accuracy and
overcome the inherent drawback such as unwrapping error resolution of MASW method for near-surface characteriza-
and mode jumping associated with two geophone setup. In tion and detection of geological anomalies (Xia et al. 2003;
the late 1990s, multiple geophones were well popularized for Wang et al. 2015; Ning et al. 2018). Researchers have tested
smaller geotechnical engineering surveys and named Mul- many options for dispersion analysis, such as the use of
tichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) (Park et al. Full Waveform Inversion (FWI) that fully utilize waveform
1999; Lin et al. 2004). The MASW method made a valuable information (Pan et al. 2019) and the Multiscale Window
contribution to near-surface seismic measurement by over- Analysis of Surface Waves (MWASW) method that uses a
coming the disadvantages of other surface wave methods. forward algorithm for calculating the theoretical dispersion
These surface wave techniques utilize the dispersive proper- curves (Hu et al. 2021). The MWASW in smaller spatial
ties of the Rayleigh wave to delineate the shear wave velocity windows provide higher lateral resolution compared to the
(Vs) structure. Presently, the MASW method is non-invasive traditional MASW method. However, this method may over-
seismic survey widely used by many researchers to estimate estimate the low-velocity zone compared to MASW method,
stiffness parameters for site characterization in different so the MASW was used in the Kangra valley for near-surface
regions of the world (Park et al. 1999; Xia et al. 1999, 2002; characterization. The horizontal/lateral resolution is also
Anbazhagan and Sitharam 2009; Brahma 2011; Mahajan and important to detect the subsurface anomalies that depend
Rai 2011; Tokeshi et al. 2013; Anukwu et al. 2018; Nath upon many factors, such as the selection of data acquisi-
et al. 2018; Taipodia et al. 2018). The MASW method has tion parameters and near surface wave velocity structure that
also been tested in geologically complex environments to further show average results below the configuration of the
produce a shear velocity profile (Mahajan 2009; Mahajan recording array (Park 2005; Xia et al. 2005; Mi et al. 2020).
et al. 2011; Anukwu et al. 2018). The horizontal resolution depends upon receiver spread
The shear wave velocity (Vs) is the key input parameter length and source interval that decreases with increasing
for the geotechnical engineer to design, prepare and redefine depth and is “approximately one-half of the shortest Ray-
existing building codes for improved engineering structures leigh wavelengths” (Mi et al. 2017).
(Kanli et al. 2006; Borcherdt 2012). Despite site characteri- The present study aimed to delineate the 1-D (depth) as
zation and site response studies, the MASW method was also well as 2-D (depth as well as distance from the surface)
used for the delineation of fault zones (Ivanov et al. 2006), shear wave profile to delineate the lateral and vertical varia-
bedrock relief and geological structure (Park 2016; Owoc tion of sediments and the bedrock. The present study has sig-
et al. 2019) and evaluation of multiple disasters such as land- nificance for optimal engineering to estimate seismic param-
slides (Mihai et al. 2017), dissolution features, evaluation of eter stiffness value and response behavior of the soil column
seismic hazard by microzonation studies (Hanumantharao on which the structure is to be raised. The target stakeholder
and Ramana 2008; Martinez‐Pagan et al. 2014; Kalinina can use the surface wave velocities for future sustainable
and Ammosov 2015; Mohamed et al. 2016), and soil lique- earthquake-resistant development. The experimental results
faction potential and vulnerability analysis (Lin et al. 2004; obtained from the present study will help to recommend safe
Singh et al. 2017; De Franco et al. 2019). The technique engineering foundation as per National Earthquake Hazards
has wide acceptance in the geophysical community to find Reduction Program (NEHRP) site classification.

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 3 of 13 184

Geological setting Jawalamukhi Thrust (JMT) to the south with lots of variations
in lithology, due to folded mountain belt (Fig. 1). The compres-
The long-term Cenozoic shortening in the foreland basin sional and the active tectonic resulted in the varied topographic
resulted in the formation of Kangra valley as a piggyback inter- features such as ridges, valleys, and areas of moderate topogra-
montane basin. The study area is a part of the Kangra re-entrant phy. The tectonic setup is also intervened by the steeply dipping
that covers a sedimentary infill accumulated mainly in the last conjugate wrench faults that extend from the Outer Himalayan
glacial period with the exhumation of the Dhauladhar Range to Lesser Himalayan region (Mahajan et al. 2021). The fragile
(Deeken et al. 2011; Dey et al. 2016). The area comprises sedi- lithology and active tectonics trigger fast erosion and subsequent
ment derived from Shiwalik Group, namely Miocene-Pliocene deposition in the low land area. The long-term sedimentation
boulder conglomerate (Upper Siwaliks), late Miocene sandstone and the climatic oscillation resulted in generation of fans with
(Middle Siwaliks), and middle Miocene claystone-siltstone glacial, interglacial, and quaternary deposits. The presence of
(Lower Siwaliks). The long-term convergence of the Indian active tectonic and steep slopes triggers the development of fans,
plates results in generation of the major thrust system, such terraces, and erosional features in the northern and central parts
as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the north and the of the basin. The fan area under Kangra Valley is classified in

Fig. 1  Map showing underly-

ing geology and location of
the sampling sites and selected
profiles in black dotted lines
with respect to Himachal
Pradesh, India. Abbreviations:
MCT = Main Central Thrust;
MBT = Main Boundary Thrust;
JT = Jawalamukhi Thrust; BrT
= Barser back Thrust; PT =
Panjal Thrust

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upper fan with glacial moraines and clay-rich debris-flow depos- Seismodule Controller (GCS) software for a sampling inter-
its, middle fan is dominated by sandy fill deposits and the lower val 0.5 ms and a recording length of 1.024 s. The seismic
fan is characterized by sand, silt, and mud deposits (Sah and waves were generated with the impact source located at near
Srivastava 1992). (1 m), middle (13 m), and far (25 m) offset. Figure 2 rep-
resents the field configuration in roll-along technique with
different offsets to cover the linear spread of approximately
Study area 100–150 m on the ground. The seismic data was acquired
from 24 shot locations by activating the 12 geophones simul-
The study area is part of the Kangra valley situated in the taneously and deactivating the rest. This was achieved by
foothill region of Dhauladhar ranges, exposed as a rocky incrementally activating and deactivating the 12 set of geo-
batholithic body covered with seasonal snow. Geomor- phones from each offset while moving source towards the
phologically, the region is characterized by high hills in end of the seismic array. Figure 3 demonstrates the seismic
the northern extreme and moderate topography towards data acquisition from different offsets by activating 12 geo-
the south. The southward flowing drainage from the steep phones (green color) and deactivating the rest (red color).
mountain brings huge sediments deposited to lower-fan In each shot, location hammering was done 8–15 times to
region. The broad alluvial fans and fluvial terraces result increase the signal-to-noise ratio.
from long-term sedimentation as supplemented by tectoni-
cally driven erosional processes. The northern zone near the Data processing
Dharamshala and the surrounding area gained more atten-
tion due to recent development as a major tourist place, air- In data processing, Surfseis 5 software developed by the
port, and stadium. Figure 1 shows the site covered under University of Kansas, USA, was used. The first step was
the MASW survey in the area extending from the southern configuring the raw seismic data acquired in SEG-2 format
slope of the Dhauladhar ranges to the moderate topography into Kansas Geological Survey (KGS) format. The preproc-
and flat area. The data was recorded using an active seismic essing includes the removal of body waves and the higher
survey from 67 sites. mode from the collected seismic record using filtering and
muting technique. The software allows adding the field con-
figuration used during data acquisition to generate walk-
Methodology away for each location by combining seismic records from
near, middle, and far offset. This allows the synconization
Data acquisition of multiple seismic records collected from the scanning of
the ground for better results. Finally, the walk-away for each
The research methodology comprises seismic data collection shot gather was used in dispersion analysis. Several meth-
in the field and its processing for the generation of shear ods can be used to generate dispersion or overtone images
wave velocity profiles. The locations of sites were recorded and some of these methods have already been discussed by
with the handheld Global Positioning System (GPS; Fig. 1). many researchers (Heukelom and Foster 1960; Park et al.
The seismic data was acquired using an engineering seismo- 1998; Zhang et al. 2003). The transform-based methods are
graph and 24 geophones connected to a portable, rugged lap- most commonly used in active seismic surveys, where the
top (Panasonic Toughbook). A set of 24 geophones (4.5 Hz) space–time domains are transformed to different domains
deployed in a linear array with an inter-geophone spacing to provide the dispersive properties of the recorded sur-
of 1 m. The seismic data was collected using Geometrics face waves (Socco et al. 2010; Olafsdottir et al. 2018). The

Fig. 2   Instrumentation and the

layout for seismic data acquisi-
tion with active MASW method
showing a) geophone spread
with engineering seismograph
b) Propelled Energy Generator
(PEG-40) c) optional handheld
hammering with sledge hammer
along the survey line from dif-
ferent offset

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 5 of 13 184

Fig. 3  Layout of the Multi-

channel Analysis of Surface
Waves (MASW) with roll-along
technique

reference phase velocity and phase frequency was assigned site response analysis. The method developed by Schnabel
for the dispersion analysis. This allows extraction of the et al. (1972) to calculate response spectra in single degree
fundamental mode from overtone image. The data analysis of freedom (SDOF) system to predict response under par-
in multichannel analysis consists of three steps (Park et al. ticular input motion. The software was run with input object
1999; Xia et al. 1999; Xia 2014) comprises (1) data acquisi- motion for the earthquake with magnitude 7.5 mb to produce
tion with multichannel recording system along a linear array amplification and response spectra.
using roll along technique; (2) extract dispersion curves
from Rayleigh wave; and (3) invert Rayleigh wave disper-
sion curves to obtain near-surface 1D Vs profiles. Finally, Results and discussion
pseudo-2D Vs sections are constructed by aligning 1D mod-
els (Miller et al. 1999). The varied thickness of the sedimentary cover can affect the
Many researchers have encountered non-unique and non- frequency, amplitude, and duration of vibration, causing huge
linear optimization problems associated with inversion. The devastation in strong-motion excitation. This study provides
inversion with the fundamental mode is easier to perform the major outcomes regarding shear wave velocity, which
and computationally more efficient (Olafsdottir et al. 2018). was used as a direct proxy for characterizing the underlying
As the fundamental mode mainly prevails in those sites lithology and subsurface heterogeneities. The MASW used
where the shear wave velocity varies with depth (Socco et al. in active seismic survey provides the capability to explore
2010), so the inversion was performed with fundamental 1-D and 2-D, Vs profile. The potential of the active seismic
mode with few exceptions. The higher mode provides impor- method was explored in the following subheading:
tant information in certain frequency ranges with irregularly
varying stiffness profiles due to sudden presence of the soft Subsurface characterization and bedrock depth
and stiffer strata, which is characteristic of the study area.
In the next step, the entire dispersion curve was extracted The near-surface material properties, particularly the top
for each location to generate 1-D shear-wave velocity (Vs) 30-m soil significantly modify the earthquake shaking,
profile using generalized inversion algorithm (Fig. 4) given ground motion, response analysis, and damage distribu-
by Xia et al. (1999). The 1-D, Vs profile is representative tion in any area. Therefore, the MASW method was utilized
of the stiffness parameter for the underlying lithology just for subsurface characterization and delineation of bedrock
below the center of the geophone spread. The quality of depth. Table 1 represents the shear wave classification as
the dispersion curve is assessed by the signal-to-noise ratio per the hazard reduction program that was further used
(S/N), which represents the quality of the dispersion image. to understand the subsurface lithology with the varying
Further, the derived 1-D, Vs profile for each site was inter- shear wave velocity. The importance of shear wave veloc-
polated to produce the 2-D, Vs profile (Fig. 5; MASW-59) ity profiling has been discussed in the literature by many
as discussed in detail by Mahajan et al. (2007) and Mahajan researchers (Asten et al. 2005; Kanli et al. 2006; Borcherdt
and Kumar (2018). The outcomes of the dynamic soil prop- 2012). Therefore, there is a need to explore the capability
erties obtained from 2D, Vs profile such as soil layer thick- of MASW method in a complex geological environment.
ness and shear wave velocity were used in SHAKE2000 for Looking in to the fact total 67 sites were investigated in the

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Fig. 4  The dispersion curve and the 1-D shear wave velocity profile deduced from the inversion technique (MASW-59)

Kangra valley (Fig. 1). Few sites are discussed for brevity 10 m soil column represents an average shear wave velocity
showing their importance in near-surface characterization of ~ 350 m/s correlated with the stiff soil sediments (Fig. 5).
and exploration of bedrock depth. Further moving to the deeper depth, the Vs reaches > 760 m/s
presented in dark red color may represent the bedrock depth.
2‑D shear wave velocity profiling and depth of bedrock The vertical and lateral variation of the shear wave velocity
profile in 2-D reveals a layer of low-velocity inversion in 20
The shear wave velocity has been successfully utilized for to 25 m. Further moving down to the deeper depth, the shear
exploring the depth of bedrock for seismic soil classifica- wave velocity increases by more than 1000 m/s at isolated
tion and microzonation studies (Hanumantharao and Ramana locations, which can be correlated with presence of erosional
2008; Martinez‐Pagan et al. 2014; Kalinina and Ammosov features covered by the presence of igneous boulders derived
2015; Mohamed et al. 2016). Two sites (MASW-17 and 59) from Dhauladhar ranges in the soil. The second site MASW-
were chosen to depict the variation in shear wave velocity 59 reveals the two distinct layers with the major contrast in
and estimation of bedrock depth. The first site MASW-17 shear wave velocity profile approximately at 8 and 20 m. The
present in the study area shows the site underlain by alluvium top 8 m of the soil is covered with stiff soil sediments under-
sediment followed by Dharamsala Group of rock. The top lain by very dense soil and soft rock up to 20 m. Below 20 m

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 7 of 13 184

Fig. 5  2-D shear wave velocity

profile showing variation of
overlying material and bedrock
depth

depth, the site has shear wave velocity of more than 800 m/s dense soil to bedrock. The site is located in the alluvium
depicting bedrock level. underlain by Dharamsala Group of rock with a thick clay
deposit at the surface represented by Vs of 300–400 m/s.
Characterization of soft sediments The depth of penetration using active seismic survey could
be from 30 to 40 m; however, the passive survey allows it
The MASW results were used to predict thickness of sedi- to penetrate deeper, but the resolution of lateral and vertical
ments above bedrock. Figure 6 represents the 2-D, Vs profile variation is well reflected in MASW method rather than any
of site MASW-38, which shows a low-velocity zone in light passive seismic survey. The characteristics of near-surface
blue, indicating soft sediment with Vs ranging from 220 to material with the passive seismic survey and the results are
340 m/s. Further moving down to the deeper depth, the Vs also presented in detail for the Kangra valley (Mahajan and
increased up to 700 m/s at 40 m which corresponds to very Kumar 2018; Kumar and Mahajan 2020; Kumar et al. 2023).

Delineation of subsurface heterogeneities

Table 1  Site categories for geotechnical characterization as per National
Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) The sedimentary architecture of the valley and the varying
NEHRP Average shear wave General description subsurface heterogeneities can have many environmental
site class velocity to 30 m (m/s) and engineering implications. Many studies utilized the 2-D,
Vs profiling to delineate the subsurface characteristics, such
A > 1500 Hard rock
as underground cavities, identify anomalies, and dissolu-
B 760–1500 Rock
tion features (Rahnema et al. 2020; Durdag et al. 2023). The
C 360–760 Very dense soil and soft rock
outcomes were also used to delineate the subsurface hetero-
D 180–360 Stiff soil
geneities as discussed for the site MASW 37, representing
E < 180 Soft soil
the top 11 m soil column covered with stiff to very dense

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Fig. 6   2-D shear wave velocity

profile representing soft sedi-
ments from the central part of
the study area

soil. Further, in the deeper strata, the soil column between represent subsurface heterogeneities and dissolution features
11 to 22 m is covered with a very high Vs extending up to for the sites MASW-3, 7, 19, 22, 47, 50, 54, and 57, clearly
1300 m/s (Fig. 7). The lateral and vertical variation of the visible from the varying Vs in different strata. Few sites
shear wave velocity represents the possibility for the layer such as MASW-4, 6, 18, 22, 46, and 65 also represent low
of boulder conglomerate that may cause unexpected damage velocity zone with Vs = 200 to 360 m/s represented as light
in strong-motion excitation. Extending more to the deeper to dark blue depicting soft sediments over bedrock.
depth, the Vs gradually decreases to < 360 m/s, indicating Figure 9 represents the shear wave velocity of top 30 m
low-velocity inversion and the bedrock depth is much deeper ­(Vs30) of the Kangra valley, indicating the study area falls
than the exploration depth achieved through the active seis- under soil class C ­(Vs30 = 360 and 760 m/s) and soil class
mic survey. The results of the 2-D profiling with the active D ­(Vs30 = 180 and 360 m/s) and a few areas under soil class
survey and response analysis are presented in Fig. 8. The B ­(Vs30 = 760–1500 m/s) as per NEHRP classification. The
three profiles were chosen across the study area (Fig. 1) rep- southern part of the Dhauladhar ranges and the area encir-
resenting the 2-D, Vs profile, and exploration depth for the cling the center portion of the study area represent the high
surveyed site and their corresponding amplification ratio and shear wave velocity may be attributed to soft rock or the
period. The bar graphs also show the variation of the char- bedrock (red color). While the central part and southern por-
acteristic site period (0.11–0.54 s) and amplification ratio tion of the study area represent the Vs > 400 m/s that can
(5.6–16.8). The 2-D section of the Vs profiles represents correlate with soft to stiff soil in the 30 m soil column and
the clear bedrock depth for the sites MASW-1, 4, 8, 9, 14, soft rock. In general, the bedrock depth is shallow in north-
16, 25, and 66 with the Vs > 760 m/s. These sections also east portion compared to the central and far west portions

Fig. 7  2-D shear wave velocity

profile showing vertical and
lateral variation for stiffness
parameters for subsurface char-
acterization

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 9 of 13 184

Fig. 8  Selected profiles (Fig. 1) representing the variation of shear wave velocity with depth in the lower bar for each profile, while the upper
bars represent the peak amplification and corresponding dynamic site period from response analysis

of the study area. Many researchers demonstrated that the also reported heavy damage in the study area with varied
shear wave velocity profiles are successfully correlated with damage distribution (Middlemiss 1910). The earthquake
borehole data to confirm the reliability of MASW methods damaged to municipal dispensary, the Thana, area occupy-
in varied geological environment (Xia et al. 2002; Khaheshi ing the European barrack, treasury buildings, temple, and
Banab and Motazedian 2010) and for the study area, the church were some of the important areas affected due to high
MASW results were found consistent with multichannel impedance contrast or high-frequency wave vertical motion.
simulation with one receiver (MSOR) and borehole records The present results are also in line with the previous find-
(Mahajan and Kumar 2018). ing that the varied damage distribution due to near-surface
The few areas in an isolated location in the northern anomalies, glacio-fluvial deposits and soft sediment may
extreme (green color) represent the pothole and depression have substantial effect during earthquake hazards (Kumar
with soft soil infill, while a wide continuous patch of low et al. 2023). The multiple and broad horizontal to vertical
Vs in the southern and western extreme represents the val- spectral ratio (HVSR) peaks obtained from the passive seis-
ley sub-regions within the Kangra basin. The results also mic survey (Mahajan et al. 2021) also signify a good agree-
represent the presence of velocity inversion with a sudden ment with the fundamental frequency spatial distribution
decrease or increase of Vs contrast resulting in high variabil- map of the study area.
ity in fundamental frequencies. The 1905 Kangra earthquake

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Fig. 9  Spatial distribution

map of the average shear
wave velocity for the top 30 m
­(Vs30) derived from 2-D shear
wave velocity profiling

Conclusions was used as an input object motion possible in the Indian

Himalayan Region. Spectral acceleration variation at 10 Hz
The essence of this study was to demonstrate the potential of (single-story buildings) ranged from 0.09 to 0.5 g and at 5 Hz
the MASW method for delineating subsurface heterogenei- (double-story buildings) ranged from 0.13 to 1.7 g. Further-
ties with shear wave velocity profiling. Optimizing surface more, the MASW measurement from the 67 sites represents
wave methods enhances the spectral resolution and avoids the Vs30 ranges from 348 to 933 m/s. The variation of Vs30
the risk of lateral variations due to higher frequency surface indicates the possibility of a small sub-basin or valley sub-
wave and spatial aliasing. After some preliminary reconnais- region within the study area. The target stakeholder can use
sance survey, the experiment was optimized with the verti- the surface wave velocities to verify the strength and allow-
cal geophone to achieve desired resolution for near-surface able bearing capacity of the ground for recommending sus-
characterization. Active seismic data was acquired with 1 m tainable earthquake-resistant designs in the valley.
geophone spacing using roll-along technique that progres-
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
sively enhances quality of 2-D shear wave velocity profil- tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 10064-0​ 23-0​ 3207-2.
ing. The resolution depends upon the geophone spacing,
subsurface condition and powers of the impact source, such Acknowledgements The authors greatly thank Central University,
as sledge hammer or Propelled Energy Generator (PEG-40) Himachal Pradesh (CUHP) for providing basic logistics. This research
was done under the project entitles “Subsurface Characterization and its
and the result reveals the depth of exploration varied from Environmental Implications using Engineering Seismograph and Ground
25 to 52 m. The 2-D shear wave velocity profiling was quite Penetration Radar” with financial assistance from Ministry of Earth Sci-
effective in complex geological environments in exploring ences, Govt. of India under project no. MoES/P.O.(Seismo)/1(206)/2013.
the depth of bedrock, dissolution features, evaluation of soft
Author contribution All authors contributed to the study conception
soil cover and subsurface heterogeneities. These 2-D sec- and design. Dr. Praveen Kumar performed material preparation, data
tions from MASW also provide information on sedimen- collection and first draft preparation. Prof. Ambrish Kumar Mahajan
tary architecture and subsurface heterogeneities to reduce did the conceptualization, guidance, and editing of the manuscript.
earthquake damage. The shear wave velocity profile was
Funding This work was supported by Ministry of Earth Sciences under
also used to classify the site as per NEHRP classification project no. (MoES)MoES/P.O.(Seismo)/1(206)/2013.
in class D ­(Vs30 = 360–180 m/s), C ­(Vs30 = 360–760 m/s),
and a few locations in class B ­(Vs30 = 760–1500 m/s). The Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are
subsurface characteristics were also used in response analy- available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
sis with SHAKE2000 software for a magnitude of 7.5 mb

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 11 of 13 184

Declarations Gonsiewski JP (2015) Bedrock mapping using shear wave velocity

characterization and H/V analysis. https://​cores​cholar.​libra​r ies.​
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surface waves with fundamental and higher modes. J Appl Geophys exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the
52(1):45–57. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S0926-​9851(02)​00239-2 author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
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Apparent phase velocities and fundamental-mode phase velocities such publishing agreement and applicable law.
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