[Unit 3] Introduction to SQL

Introduction
SQL (Structured Query Language)
● SQL is a language to specify queries in structured
manner.
○ Structured means relational data.
○ SQL is a language to specify queries in a
relational database.
● SQL (Structured Query Language) is a computer
language for storing, manipulating, and retrieving
● data stored in relational databases. SQL allows
users to communicate with Relational Databases
and retrieve data from their tables
● SQL is the standard language for RDBMS.
○ All Relational Database Management Systems
(RDBMS) like "MySQL, MS Access, Oracle,
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Sybase, DB2, Informix, postgres and SQL

Server" use SQL as standard database
language.
○ The data in RDBMS is stored in database
objects called tables.
○ A table is a collection of related data entries
and it consists of columns and rows.
● IBM implemented the SQL language, originally
called SEQUEL (Structured English Query
Languagas part of the System R project in the
early 1970s.
● SEQUEL is renamed/shortened to SQL (Structured
Query Language)

● SQL became a standard of the American National

Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in

1987.
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● ANSI and ISO standard SQL has different

versions:SQL-86, SQL-89, SQL-92, SQL 1999,
SQL-2003, SQL 2006, SQL 2008, SQL 2011, SQL
2016
● SQL is a Domain-Specific Language.
● SQL is Declarative language i.e. a non-procedural
language.

Question: How the query is actually performed in

SQL?

● SQL is based on Relational Algebra and Tuple

Relational Calculus.

What Can SQL do?

● SQL can execute queries against a database

● SQL can retrieve data from a database
● SQL can insert records in a database
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● SQL can update records in a database

● SQL can delete records from a database
● SQL can create new databases
● SQL can create new tables in a database
● SQL can create stored procedures in a database
● SQL can create views in a database
● SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures,
and views

SQL Sub-languages

1.Data Definition Language (DDL)

2.Data Manipulation Language (DML)

3.Data Control Language (DCL)

4.Transaction Control Language (TCL)

Types of SQL Commands

1.Data Definition Language (DDL) commands are

used to define the structure and schema of the database.
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● CREATE - to create new table or database

● ALTER - to alter the structure of table
● DROP - to delete a table from database
● TRUNCATE - to delete all records from table
● RENAME - to rename a table

2.Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands

are used for accessing and manipulating the data stored
in the database.

● SELECT - to retrieve data from the database

● INSERT - to insert a new row into a table
● UPDATE - to update existing row in a table
● DELETE - to delete a row from a table
● Programmers call these DML operations "CRUD".
● CRUD stands for Create, Read, Update, Delete
INSERT,SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE
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3.Data Control Language (DCL) are the commands

to control the access of the data stored in the database

● GRANT - grant permission to user for database

access
● REVOKE - take back granted permission from
user

4.Transaction Control Language (TCL) commands

are used to manage the changes made by the DML
statement.

● COMMIT - to permanently save the transaction

● ROLLBACK - to undo transaction
● SAVEPOINT - to temporarily save a transaction so
that you can rollback to that point whenever
necessary

Note: TCL Commands are used for only DML

commands while DDL and DCL commands are auto-
commited.

SQL Rules
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● SQL is NOT case sensitive.

For example: select is the same as SELECT

● But names of databases, tables and columns are

case sensitive.
● For example: In given SQL query, ACCOUNT is
different from account
● SELECT * FROM ACCOUNT;

SELECT FROM account;

● SQL statements can use multiple lines

○ End each SQL statement with a semi-colon;

SQL: Data Definition Language (DDL)

● Data Definition Language (DDL) is used for

creating and modifying the database objects such
as tables, indices, views and users.
● DDL Commands are used to define the structure
and schema of the database
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● All the command of DDL are auto-committed that

means it permanently save all the changes in the
database.
● Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands:

1.CREATE - to create new table or database

2.ALTER - to alter (or modify) the structure of

table

3.DROP - to delete a table from database

4.TRUNCATE to delete all records from table

5.RENAME to rename a table

1. CREATE

● CREATE statement is used to create database

schema and to define the type and structure of the
data to be stored in the database.

● CREATE statement can be used for

○ Creating a Database,
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○ Creating a Table, etc.

Creating a DATABASE:

CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a

database in RDBMS.

Syntax:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

Example:

CREATE DATABASE my_db;

Note:

SHOW statement: To see existing databases and tables

SHOW databases;

SHOW tables;

*USE statement: To use or select any existing database

Syntax

USE database_name;

Example:
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USE my_db;

SHOW tables;

CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new

table in a database.

It specifies column names of the table, its data types

(e.g. varchar, integer, date, etc.) and can also specify
integrity constraints (e.g. Primary key, foreign key, not
null, unique).
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Note:

DESC (or DESCRIBE) statement: To describe the

details of the table structure

Syntax:

DESC table_name;

Example:

DESC Emp;

SQL DATA TYPES

● Each column in a database table is required to have

a name and a data type.

● The data type is a guideline for SQL to understand

what type of data is expected inside of each
column, and it also identifies how SQL will
interact with the stored data.
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● Note: Data types might have different names in

different database. And even if the name is the
same, the size and other details may be different!
Always check the documentation!

SQL Constraints

● SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the

data in a table.
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● Constraints are used to limit the type of data that

can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the table. If there is any
violation between the constraint and the daia
action, the action is aborted.
● Constraints can be column level or table level.
○ Column level constraints apply to a column
○ Table level constraints apply to the whole
table.
● Constraints can be specified:
○ when a table is created with the CREATE
TABLE statement, or
○ we can use the ALTER TABLE statement to
create constraints even after the table is
created.

SQL Constraints:

NOT NULL: Ensures that a column cannot have

NULL value.
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DEFAULT: Provides a default value for a column

when none is specified.

UNIQUE: Ensures that all values in a column are

different.

PRIMARY KEY: A combination of a NOT NULL

and UNIQUE Uniquely identifies each row in a table

FOREIGN KEY:Uniquely identifies a row/record in

another table.

CHECK: Ensures that all the values in a column

satisfies certain conditions

2. ALTER
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ALTER TABLE statement is used to modify the structure of

the existing table

It is used to add, delete, modify or rename columns in an

existing table.

It is also used to add and drop various constraints on an

existing table.

ALTER TABLE - ADD COLUMN

For adding new columns in a table

ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

For removing existing columns in table

ALTER TABLE - MODIFY COLUMN

To modify existing columns in a table

ALTER TABLE - RENAME COLUMN

To rename an existing column in a table

ALTER TABLE - ADD COLUMN

For adding new columns in a table

Syntax:
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ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name(s) datatype(s);

Example:

ALTER TABLE Emp

ADD Email varchar(100);

2.ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

For removing existing columns in a table

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP column_name(s);

Example:

ALTER TABLE Emp DROP Email;

3. ALTER TABLE - MODIFY COLUMN

To modify existing columns in a table

To change data type of any column or to modify its size.

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Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name

datatype;

Example:

ALTER TABLE Emp

MODIFY Name varchar(100);

3. DROP

DROP TABLE statement completely removes a table from

the database.

This command will destroy the table structure and the data
stored in it.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE table_name;

Example:

DROP TABLE Emp;

DROP command is also be used on Databases. will vibrate

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DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete the complete

database.

Syntax:

DROP DATABASE database_name;

Example:

DROP DATABASE my_db;

4. TRUNCATE

TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to remove all rows

(complete data) from a table. It is similar to the DELETE
statement with no WHERE clause.

TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE command can also be used to delete complete

table but it deletes table structure too. TRUNCATE TABLE
doesn't delete the structure of the table.

Syntax:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:
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TRUNCATE TABLE Emp;

5. RENAME

RENAME TABLE statement is used to change the name of a

table.

Syntax:

RENAME TABLE old_table_name To new_table_name;

Example:

RENAME TABLE Emp To Employee;

SQL: Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands are used for

accessing and manipulating the data stored in the database.

The DML commands are not auto-committed that means it

can't permanently save all the changes in the database. They
can be rollback.

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

SELECT to retrieve data from the database

INSERT - to insert a new row into a table

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UPDATE - to update existing row in a table

DELETE - to delete a row from a table

Programmers call these DML operations "CRUD"

CRUD stands for Create, Read, Update, Delete

INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE

1. SELECT (mostly used SQL command/querySQL

Introduction

● SELECT statement is used to select a set of data from a

database table. Or Simply SELECT statement is used to
retrieve data from a database table.
○ It returns data in the form of a result table. These
result tables are called result-sets.
● SELECT is also called DQL because it is used to query
information from a database table
● SELECT statement specifies column names, and FROM
specifies table name
● SELECT command is used with different Conditions
and CLAUSES.
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WHERE CLAUSE

WHERE Clause is used to select a particular record based on

a condition. It is used to filter records.

WHERE Clause is used to specify a condition while fetching

the data from a single table or by joining with multiple
conditions
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The WHERE clause is not only used in the SELECT

statement, but it is also used in the UPDATE, DELETE
statement.

"SELECT with WHERE Clause"

Syntax:

SELECT column 1, column2, ... columnN

FROM table_name(s)

WHERE condition;

Basic Query Structure

SQL is based on set and relational operations with certain

modifications and enhancements

A typical SQL query has the form:

select A1, A2,……An

from r₁,r2,.............rn

where P

A represent attributes
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r represent relations

P is a predicate (or condition)

Optional Clauses in SELECT statement

● [WHERE Clause]: It specifies which rows to retrieve by

specifying conditions.
● [GROUP BY Clause]: Groups rows that share a
property so that the aggregate function can be applied to
each group.
● [HAVING Clause]: It selects among the groups defined
by the GROUP BY clause by specifying conditions..
● [ORDERBY]: It specifies an order in which to return
the rows.
● [DISTINCT Clause]: It is used to remove duplicates
from results set of a SELECT statement. (SELECT
DISTINCT)

SQL Operators

1. SQL Arithmetic Operator

2. SQL Comparison Operators
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3. SQL Logical Operators

4. SQL Special Operators

1.Arithmetic Operators are:

+ [Addition]

- [Subtraction]

/ [Division]

* [Multiplication]

% [Modulus]

Example

To retrieve employee_id, employee_name, salary plus 100

From emp table.

SELECT employee_id, employee_name, salary + 100

FROM emp ;

2.Comparison Operators are

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Example:

To retrieve Emp_ID, Name from Emp table whose Salary is

greater than 2000

SELECT Emp_ID, Name, Salary FROM Emp

WHERE Salary>2000;

3. SQL Logical Operators

AND- It displays a record if all the conditions separated by

AND are TRUE.

OR- It displays a record if any of the conditions separated by

OR is TRUE

NOT- It displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.

it reverses the meaning of any operator with which it is used.

This is a negate operator. Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT
BETWEEN, NOT IN, IS NOT NULL, etc.

Example:

To retrieve all acords from Emp table whose salary is greater

than 2000 and age is less than 25
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SELECT

FROM Emp

WHERE Salary>2000 AND Age<25;

4.Special Operators are:

2. INSERT
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The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in

a table.

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two

ways.

Syntax 1: Specify both the column names and the values to

be inserted

INSERT INTO table_name(column1, column2,

column3,...columnN) VALUES (value1, value2,
value3,...valueN);

Syntax 2: Specify only values to be inserted. But needed to

remember the column order

INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value 2, value

3,...valueN);
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3. UPDATE

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing

records in a table.

Note: Always use the WHERE clause with the UPDATE

statement to update the selected rows, otherwise all the rows
would be affected.

Syntax

UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 =

value 2,............. columnN=valueN WHERE condition;

Example: UPDATE

Example: To update the address of Emp_ID: 3 to Chennai

UPDATE Emp

SET Address='Chennai'

WHERE Emp_ID=3;
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To Check:

SELECT FROM Emp;

4. DELETE

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in

a table.

Note: Always use the WHERE clause with a DELETE

statement to delete the selected rows, otherwise all the
records would be deleted.

Syntax:

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example:To delete the employee records of Pune location

DELETE FROM Emp

WHERE Address='Pune';
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