IFUGAO STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Education Ethics

Module 2: Ethics: Definition, Nature, and Key Concepts

Time: 9 Hours

ntroduction
This module aims to analyze the nature of mores and values in ethics. It discusses the in-
terplay between the individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society or environment,
as well as the process of value experience, including the difference between values and
moral values. In broad strokes, it gives a background on the nature of morality and the
mores which are the subject matter of ethics. It examines the nature of mores, including
the development of the notion of what is ‘right’ in our culture. The module also examines
the notion of freedom as it relates to morality, together with the wide range of values and
moral values, including the nature and basis of the choices that we make.
Introduction

This module aims to analyse the very nature and definition of ethics as well as the
key concepts associated into the course of study. It discusses the interplay between the
individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society or environment, as well as the process
of value experience, including the difference between values and moral values. In broad
strokes, it gives a background on the nature of morality and the mores which are the
subject matter of ethics. It examines the nature of mores, including the development of the
notion of what is ‘right’ in our culture. The module also examines the notion of freedom as
it relates to morality, together with the wide range of values and moral values, including the
nature and basis of the choices that we make.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the nature of mores, values, moral dilemma, and moral and non-moral standards
in ethics;
2. Explain the difference between values and moral values;
3. Differentiate moral standards from non-moral standards;
4. Situate themselves into an event which incites a dilemma; and
5/ Write examples of moral dilemma.

I. PROGRESSIVE-Learning

Key Content

Ethics or Moral Philosophy

 Branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.
 The term ethics came from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός-ethikos, which is
derived from the word ἦθος-ethos (habit, “custom”). The branch of philosophy
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College of Education Ethics

axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned

with values.
 Ethics investigates the questions “What is the best way for people to live?" and
“What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances?"
 In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality, by defining
concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and
crime.
 As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of
moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.

Types of Ethics

Two ways of doing ethical inquiry, namely, normative ethics and meta-ethics.

A. Normative ethics- is prescriptive in nature as it seeks to set norms or standards

that regulate right and wrong or good and bad conduct. This may involve
articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should
follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others. Hence, normative ethics
normally attempts to develop guidelines or theories that tell us how we ought to
behave. For example, Immanuel Kant’s claim that an act is morally right if it is
done for the sake of duty is an example of a normative ethics.

B. Meta-ethics- on the other hand, is descriptive in nature. According to Sumner

(1967), “meta-ethics is allegedly constituted, at least in part, by questions of the
meanings of the various ethical terms and functions of ethical utterances.” Hence,
if a normative ethical inquiry is evaluative and prescriptive, meta-ethics is
analytical and descriptive.

Meta-ethics is a type of ethical inquiry that aims to understand the nature and
dynamics of ethical principles. It asks questions about the nature and origin of
moral facts, as well as the way in which we learn and acquire moral beliefs. Thus,
for example, if normative ethics urges us to do good at all times, meta-ethics asks
the question “What is good?”. For sure, if a moral philosopher attempts to address
the questions “What is good?”, “What is justice?”, “Why should I be moral?”, then
that moral philosopher is doing meta-ethics. Hence, when Plato proposed an
answer to the question “Why should I be moral”, Plato was doing meta-
ethics―indeed, Plato raised a meta-ethical question.

In the course of the development of ethics..

3. Applied ethics became its third major type. As its name suggests, applied ethics is
the actual application of ethical or moral theories for the purpose of deciding which
ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given situation. For this reason, casuists
(that is, the adherents of applied ethics) are concerned with individual moral
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College of Education Ethics

problems, such as abortion or euthanasia, and attempt to resolve the conflicting

issues that surround these particular moral problems. Casuists may also act on
some occasions in an advisory capacity, such as guiding individuals in their choice of
actions. For example, they may attempt to resolve the conflicting duties of a mother
suffering from ectopic pregnancy who has no other option than to abort the fetus.

Applied ethics is usually divided into different fields. For example, we may talk about
business ethics, which deals with ethical behavior in the corporate world; biomedical
and environmental ethics, which deal with issues relating to health, welfare, and the
responsibility we have towards people and our environment; and social ethics, which
deals with the principles and guidelines that regulate corporate welfare within
societies.

The difference between the three major types of ethics can be illustrated in the
following situation:

A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall.

The act of the police officer is morally wrong according to meta-ethics because
it is always wrong to kill. As is well known, killing in itself is intrinsically wrong.
However, if the police officer does not shoot the terrorist, many innocent people will
die or get injured. Though the police officer’s act may be wrong, the adherents of
normative ethics may say that it is the right thing to do in this particular situation
because not doing so will result in the death of so many people. Hence, the action
might be morally correct. Finally, the casuists may say that the police officer is just
doing his best to fulfil his duty, that is, to protect as many innocent lives as possible.

A. Ethics, morals and values are difficult to define and many definitions are
acceptable.

1. Ethics is generally thought of as the study of right action and morals is the system
through which that action is applied.

B. Ethics
1. The critical examination and evaluation of what is good, evil, right and wrong in
human conduct (Guy, 2001)
2. A specific set of principles, values and guidelines for a particular group or
organization (Guy, 2001)
3. Ethics is the study of goodness, right action and moral responsibility, it asks what
choices and ends we ought to pursue and what moral principles should govern our
pursuits and choices (Madden, 2000)
C. Morals
1. Those principles and values that actually guide, for better or worse, an individual’s
personal conduct (Guy, 2001)
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College of Education Ethics

2. Morality is the informal system of rational beings by which they govern their behavior
in order to lessen harm or evil and do good, this system, although informal, enjoys
amazing agreement across time and cultures concerning moral rules, moral ideas
and moral virtues (Madden, 2000)

D. Values

1. Where emphasis is placed and what is rewarded in an organization and society

2. Guiding principles of behavior and conduct.
3. The core motivator for behaviours

The study of ethics and morality entails an analysis of both the individual human
person acting as a free moral agent and his/her society with its social rules and sanctions
that set limitations on individual behavior. Individual behavior is governed by a sense of
what is the right thing to do, which is based on the customs or mores of a particular
society. For example, the way parents raise their children is governed by the mores of their
society. Below are some of the basic and fundamental ethical theories by which our notion
and understanding about ethics and morality are anchored upon:

Sources of Ethics and Ethical theories

In-depth knowledge is not required but it is important to have an understanding of some of

the major theories to help shape comprehensive perspective about the nature of ethics.

A. Divine Law
1. Based in many religions, primarily Judeo-Christian and Islamic
2. What is considered good? God’s will and word
3. What is right behavior? Obeying God’s will
4. What are the strengths of this theory? Moral certainty and guidance
5. What are some of the weaknesses of this theory? Moral certainty, self-
righteousness
and intolerance

B . Virtue Ethics
1. Based in ancient Greek philosophy: Plato and Aristotle
2. What is considered good? Seeking happiness and living the good life
3. What is right behavior? Acting virtuously which is necessary for happiness
4. What are the strengths of this theory? Virtue is its own reward and leads to
self-actualization
5. What are some of the weaknesses of this theory? Consequences, the common
good and principle are ignored.

C. Egoism
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College of Education Ethics

1. Based in classical and contemporary philosophy.

2. What is considered good? What I think is best for me is good.
3. What is right behavior? Promoting what is good for me only.
4. What are the strengths of this theory? Leads to moral certainty and moral
autonomy.
5. What are some of the weaknesses of this theory? Self-centeredness, moral
certainty, selfishness and unrealistic thinking.

D. Ethical Relativism
1. Based in classical and contemporary philosophy
2. What is considered good? Only whatever the individual/group/culture decides is
right is right.
3. What is right behavior? Acting in accord with the group’s values and principles.
4. What are the strengths of this theory? Tolerance of others, flexible thinking and
practicality.
5. What are some of the weaknesses of this theory? It rules out criticism of obvious
evil and all is considered relative.

E. Utilitarianism
1. Based in British/American philosophy: Bentham and Kant
2. What is considered good? Happiness/pleasure, diminishing misery and pain
3. What is right behavior? Promoting the greatest good for the greatest number
4. What are the strengths of this theory? Practical, considers consequences of actions
5. What are some of the weaknesses of this theory? A good end may justify a bad
means, it is often a vague theory, and justifies mistreatment of a minority group
of people as the means to an end if they do not agree with the majority, it can be
dehumanizing.

F. Duty Ethics

1. Based on theories by Immanuel Kant.

2. What is considered good? Goodwill- that is good-hearted and extended to others.
3. What is right behavior? Doing your moral duty and acting as a model for others to
follow.
4. What are the strengths of this theory? Highly principled behavior, consistent and
certain, showing respect for self and others.
5. What are some of the weaknesses of this theory? It ignores circumstances and
principles and offers no way to choose among competing principles.

The Role of Society and the Individual in the Emergence of Mores.

William Graham Sumner, a well-known sociologist and anthropologist, claims that

our notion of what is ‘right’ stems from our basic instinct to survive. That is, human beings
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College of Education Ethics

formed groups in order to meet the task of survival, and from living in groups they ob-
served best practices and developed the most practical way of doing things. From these
practices emerged traditions and notions of the right thing to do. For example, for each
group of people there is a right way of catching game, a right way of treating guests, and a
right way of dressing up. Sumner refers to these notions of ‘right’ and ‘true’ as ‘folkways’.
Sumner states further that mores come from folkways, with the added element of societal
welfare embodied in them. In order to preserve society and its accepted norms and
practices, the individual, consciously or unconsciously, defends and upholds society’s
notions of what is right. At the same time, the group as a whole develops social rules and
sanctions, which may be implicit or explicit, in order to preserve the group practices and to
control the behavior of the individual for the purpose of maintaining order in society. Thus,
customs emerge out of repeated practices, while from the individual observance of group
practices emerge habits. This becomes the culture of a particular group or society. Mores
become the compelling reason to do what ought to be done, because it is the right thing to
do to preserve and protect society. Mores exert social pressure on the individual to conform
to society’s expectations in terms of character and behavior — that is, to come as close as
possible to the ideal man or woman.

The Importance of Rules and Norms to Social Beings (Guzman et.al, 2018)
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behaviour
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.

Moral and Non-Moral Standards

a. Moral Standards
Why the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our
beliefs are deeply influenced by our own culture and context. For this reason, some values
do have moral implications, while others don’t. Let us consider, for example, the wearing of
hijab. For sure, in traditional Muslim communities, the wearing of hijab is the most
appropriate act that women have to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims,
showing parts of the woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is despicable. However, in
many parts of the world, especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind if women
barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact, the Hollywood canon of beauty glorifies a sexy
and slim body and the wearing of extremely daring dress. The point here is that people in
the West may have pitied the Muslim women who wear hijab, while some Muslims may find
women who dress up daringly despicable.
Again, this clearly shows that different cultures have different moral standards. What
is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste (hence, non-moral value) in one
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College of Education Ethics

culture may be a matter of moral significance in another. Now, the danger here is that one
culture may impose its own cultural standard on others, which may result in a clash in
cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, as we may already know, violence and
crime may ensue, such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing. How can we address this
cultural conundrum?
This is where the importance of understanding the difference between moral
standards (that is, of what is a moral issue) and non-moral ones (that is, of what is a non-
moral issue―thus, a matter of taste) comes in. This issue may be too obvious and
insignificant for some people, but understanding the difference between the two may have
far-reaching implications. For one, once we have distinguished moral standards from non-
moral ones, of course, through the aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be
able to identify fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions. Indeed, once we
know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to avoid running the
risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is, taking complex cultural issues
as simple and homogenous ones) and the unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural
standard on others. The point here is that if such standards are non-moral (that is, a
matter of taste), then we don’t have the right to impose them on others. But if such
standards are moral ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may have the
right to force others to act accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a common moral
ground, such as agreeing not to steal, lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive our fellow human
beings.
Now, what are moral standards, and how do they differ from non-moral ones? Moral
standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to
be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally
good or morally bad. Moral standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and
well-being of humans as well as animals and the environment. Moral standards, therefore,
prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.
According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and values.
In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards. On the one hand, norms are
understood as general rules about our actions or behaviours. For example, we may say “We
are always under the obligation to fulfil our promises” or “It is always believed that killing
innocent people is absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as
enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we
may say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad”.
b. Non-Moral Standards
Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and
right or wrong in a non-moral way. Examples of non-moral standards are standards of
etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad, standards we call the law by
which we judge something as legal or illegal, and standards of aesthetics by which we
judge art as good or rubbish. Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law,
and aesthetics or even with religion.
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College of Education Ethics

As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference. Hence, a

scrupulous observance of these types of standards does not make one a moral person.
Violation of said standards also does not pose any threat to human well-being.
Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a moral
standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a non-moral standard
says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk while the mouth is full”

Dilemma and Moral Dilemma

a. Dilemma
Dilemma is defined as state of uncertainty or perplexity especially as requiring a
choice between equally unfavourable options.
b. Moral Dilemma
A complex situation that often involves an apparent mental conflict between moral
imperatives in which to obey one would result in transgressing another.
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College of Education Ethics

II. PUSH-Learning

A. Application

Write 5 examples of moral dilemma. You may use your future profession,
cultural background and orientation, and personal experiences and encounters
as your context.

Encode your answer using Arial as your font style, 12 in size, Justified, and
single spaced.
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References:
De Guzman, J.M et.al, 2018. Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Mutya
Publishing House, Malabon City.
Serrano, F.M. & Placido D.M., 2017. Ethics: Modular Worktext for College Students. Wise
Ideas Publishing Co.