Dróttkvætt or

That Old Norse Poetry

Thing

In the sagas of the kings and saints, in the histories of the first settlers of Iceland and the

Western Isles, the reader finds both prose and poetry that tells the story and extols the virtues of the

greatest heroes, men such as St. Olaf, Magnus Haraldsson, Harald Fairhair, Erik the Red, and many

others. These poems are also written to offer political commentary and to give insult to others. They form

a major part of the extant works of literature from the Scandinavian world during the time from 900-1400.

In this poetry there are many forms, defined by the structure of the poetry. These forms were first

defined by Snorri Sturlusson (c. 1179-1241) in the Prose Edda, which was recorded in the Codex Regius,

a 14th century manuscript (see GKS 2367 4to at http://www.am.hi.is:8087/WebView.htm passim for a

facsimile of the Codex Regius). 1 Snorriʼs purpose in writing the sections of the Edda (the Prologue,

Gylfaginning, Skáldskaparmál, and Háttatal) was to record the mythology, poetic forms and dictions of the

preceding centuries. Each section of the Edda is designed as a form of textbook for poets. In the

Gylfaginning (“The Deluding of Gylfi”), Snorri presents a riddle contest of sorts in which the Old Norse

1 There are several different manuscripts which contain versions of Snorriʼs Edda and scholars debate which is the
“least corrupt” version (closest to the original). The general opinion seems to be that GKS 2367 4to is the least
corrupt version. However, if you look at the facsimile (Appendix A), youʼll see that there are gaps in it. Most modern
translators use GKS 2367 4to, and supplement it with the Codex Upsaliensis, the Codex Wormianus, and the Codex
Trajectinus, for gap-filling. See Byock 2005, p. xxxiv; Faulks 1995, xxi-xxiii; and Clover and Lindow 2005, pp. 35-39,
for further discussion.

Dróttkvætt - 1
mythology from the beginning of the world to Ragnarok is presented. The third section, following the

Prologue and Gylfaginning, is the Skáldskaparmál which presents the “craft of the skalds” by retelling

stories from Old Norse lore and legend as examples. It is in Skáldskaparmál that kennings and heiti

(“name”) or simple re-namings of people, gods, and things are described and listed. The fourth and

concluding section of the Edda is Háttatal (“List of Verses”) which we know that Snorri wrote early in his

career. Háttatl is a series of 102 stanzas that present many different metres that Snorri had identified in

Old Norse-Old Icelandic poetry. Many of these vary only by accents or rhyme schemes that they utilize.2

Among the most common and important verse forms Snorri speaks of is the dróttkvætt (“Court

Metre” probably named after its popularity as a highly formal metre to recited at the Kingʼs court). 3 There

are literally thousands of extant verses of dróttkvætt known to us, ranging from a couple of lines to single

verses to entire poems such as Einarr Skúlasonʼs Geisli (“Light Beam”), a Christian poem written in

1153. 4 Snorri gives a basic definition of the dróttkvætt verse as follows:

There is one aspect of spelling that determines the verse form and
creates the poetical effect, that there are twelve staves [alliterating
sounds] in the the stanza, and three are put in the quarter-stanza.
In each quarter-stanza there two lines. Each line contains six
syllables. In the second line there is put first in the line the stave
which we will call the chief stave (hofuðstafr). This stave determines
the alliteration. But in the first line this stave will appear twice at the
beginning of syllables. We call these stave props (stuðill). If the
chief stave is a consonant, the props must be the same letter as
here:

Lætr sá er Hákun heitir

hann rekkir lid bannat

And if the chief stave is a vowel, the props must also be vowels,
and it is more elegant that each of them should be a different
vowel. 5

2 For Snorriʼs Edda, see Byock 2005 and Faulkes 1995. For Snorriʼs life and an interesting interpretation of his
reasons for writing, see Kevin J. Wanner, Snorri Sturluson and the Edda: The Conversion of Cultural Capital in
Medieval Scandinavia, (University of Toronto Press, 2008),.

3 Gade 1995, p. 3.

4 see Chase 2005 and Clunies Ross 2007, vol. 1, for Geisli.

5 Faulks 1995, p. 166.

Dróttkvætt - 2
 Thus, the first “rule” of dróttkvætt: In each couplet (vísufjórðungr), there is alliteration present at

the first or third and fifth syllables of the first poetic line (vísuorð) and at the first syllable of the second

vísuorð. 6 Snorri continues as follows:

There is a second aspect of the spelling that is involved in the rule

of sound which constitutes the verse-form and poetical effect. This
distinction is that the dróttkvætt [court-metre] form requires that the
quarter-stanzas have the same arrangement of letters and sounds.
In the odd lines this rule is analysed thus:

iörd kann relsa fyrdum

Here there is: iörd . . . furd-. There is one syllable in each position
and each has a different vowel and also initial consonant, but there
are the same letters after the vowel is both words. This rule of
assonance we call skothending [half-rhyme]. But in the even lines
it is thus:

fridrofs konungr ofsa

Here there is -rofs . . . ofs-. There is the same vowel and all the
same sounds following it in both words, but the words are
distinguished by their initial letters. This is called adalhendingar [full
rhymes]. The rhymes in dróttkvætt form must be so arranged that
the second rhyme in each line, which is called vidrhending, this
must be on the last syllable but one. But the rhyme which is called
frumhending [first rhyme] appears sometimes at the beginning of
the line - then we call it oddhending; sometimes in the middle of the
line - then we call it hluthending. This is dróttkvætt form. This is the
form most often used for elaborate poetry. This is the foundation for
all verse-forms, just as speech-runes are the principal sort of
runes. 7

Thus, the second “rule” of dróttkvætt: In each couplet, there must be two sets of rhymes, a half

rhyme in the first line and full rhyme in the second line. The second rhyme in each line is on the next-to-

last syllable in the line.

The third “rule” that Snorri implies but does not state is that each stanza must consist of eight

lines, broken into two half-stanzas (helmingar) and each helmingr must consist of two couplets

(vísufjórðungr). Each line consists of six syllables.8 In general, in the stanza, each helmingr, there

should be a single syntactic unit. For example, a simple stanza from Geisli:

6 For definitions of Old Norse poetic terms, see Gade 1995, pp. xvi-xvii.

7 Faulks 1995, p. 166-167.

8 Gade 1995, p. 3.

Dróttkvætt - 3
 1. Upp rann allrar skepnu
2. iðvandr á dag þriðja
3. Krists með krapti hæstum
4. kunnr réttlætis sunnu.
5. Veitk, at mildr frá moldu
6. ,eginfjǫlði reis hǫlða
7. ---- iflaust má þat efla
8. ossa von --- með hǿnum

Iðvandr Kristr, kunnr allrar skepnu, rann upp með hæstum krapti sunnu réttlætis á
þriðja dag. Veitk, at mildr meginfjǫlði reis hǫlða reis frá moldy með hǿnum; iflaust
má þat efla ossa vǿn.

Carefully-acting Christ, known to all creation, rose up with the utmost strength of
the sun of righteousness on the third day. I know that a worthy great assembly of
men rose from the earth with him; beyond doubt that can strengthen our hope. 9

In this stanza, there are actually three syntactic units: 2 main clauses and an interjected

subordinate adverbial clause: iflaust má þat efla ossa von. There is a clear break between the first

helmingr and the second. It is common in Old Norse-Old Icelandic dróttkvætt stanzas for subordinate

clauses and phrases to be interjected into main clauses, often breaking the main clause into two or more

parts. The poet does this to keep his poetry within the “rules”. One example from Útfarardrápa (Drapa

about the Journey Out) by Halldórr skvaldri (“prattler”) dated to 1184:

1. Stór skalk verk, þaus vǿru

2. (Vánar dags) á Spáni,
3. (prútt lét sløngvir sóttan
4. Sintré) konungs inna

Skalk inna stór verk konungs, þaus vǿru á Spáni; sløngvir Váar dags lét prútt sóttan Sintré.

I must tell of the great deeds of the king, which took place in Spain; the slinger of Vanʼs
<riverʼs> daylight [GOLD> GENEROUS MAN] proudly attacked Sintra.10

The poet here breaks his subordinate clause, sløngvir Váar dags lét prútt sóttan Sintré, into two

parts and interjects them separately, as the rules on alliteration and rhyme require.

This verse also presents us with one of the most basic building blocks that a poet has to use in

writing dróttkvætt, the kenning. As I mentioned before, Snorri talks about the language of poetry in the

Skáldskaparmál. Kennings receive the largest amount of attention from Snorri in this section of his Edda.

Kennings and their use is a very complicated subject that has been studied extensively and can be taught

9Clunies Ross 2007, p. 10. Also, Chase 2005, p. 54. All Old Norse-Old Icelandic full verses quotes in this paper will
be presented in the same format whenever possible: the verse, followed by an Old Norse-Old Icelandic prose oder,
completed with an English translation.

10 Gade 2009, p. 485. Here the kenning sløngvir Váar dags is explained in the English translation.

Dróttkvætt - 4
in a class of their own. For our purposes here, a definition of the kenning is a noun phrase consisting of a

base-word (noun) and one or more descriptive words (adjectives). A kenning is a metaphorical phrase, in

that it describes a person or thing without naming its subject. For example, in the verse above, sløngvir

Váar dags literally means “slinger of Vanʼs daylight.” Van is a name of a river, and, in typical kenning-

diction, a “riverʼs daylight” is gold, probably because gold nuggets in dark water are obvious because they

gleam like the sun. A “slinger” of thrower of gold is typically a generous man or a king in Old Norse-Old

Icelandic kennings. Thus the kenning, sløngvir Váar dags, stands for a King. Another example of a

kenning is found in Þórfinnsdrápa, by Arnórr jarlaskáld Þórðarsson (Jarlʼs skald):

1. Nú hykk slíðrhugaðs segja,

2. síð léttir mér stríða,
3. (þýtr alfǫður) ýtum
4. jarls kostu (brim hrosta).

Nú hykk segja ýtum kostu sliðrhugaðs jarls; síð léttir mér stríða; brim hrosta Alfǫðr þýtr.

Now I mean to tell men of the excellence of the tough-minded jarl; not soon will my anguish
lighten; the surf of malt [ALE] pf Alfaðir <= Óðinn> [POETRY] roars.11

Here is one of the best known kennings: Odinʼs mead (or ale) equaling poetry. Snorri tells the

tale of Odinʼs theft of the mead from the giants and his flight to Asgard during which he “spills” some onto

earth, whence man gathers it.12

The dróttkvætt is the basic verse that Snorri describes; it forms the basis for several types of

poems. The most common of these are the drápa, a long praise-poem with a refrain (stef) and the flokkr,

a long poem without a stef. In the category of drápa is the erfidrápa, an elegiac poem written to honor

the dead. 13 Another significant grouping is lausavísur which are literally “loose verses”; according to

Gade, lauavísur could be used by skalds to make personal comments, attacking their enemies (níðvísur)

or praising the beauty or sexuality of a young woman (mansǫngr).14 Verses of dróttkvætt often appear as

11 Gade 2009, p. 231.

12 Byock 2005, p. 85-86.

13Gade 2009, p. xli. One of the most famous of the erfidrapur is the Magnússdrápa by Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld,
which appears throughout the Magnús saga in the Morkinskinna.

14 Gade 1995, p. 2.

Dróttkvætt - 5
interpolations in the sagas, and it is not uncommon for the sagas to be the only evidence we have of

some lausavísur or drápur.

The reason I have made a study of the dróttkvætt is that I have an interest in Old Icelandic

culture. I have attempted to write dróttkvætt both in English and Old Icelandic. What follows are three

examples of the poetry I have written in the past two years. The first is an erfidrápa I wrote in memory of

Duke Morguhn Sheridan, who passed away in September, 2008. In the poem I attempted to catch some

of the history he made, as well as his spirit.

Morguhn drápa jnn Langferðamaðr (Drapa for Morguhn the Lomg-Road Walker)

Met in boldest battle Round his waist the white belt

Better sword not yet found Wedded spurs to high boots
Great duke merry mighty Chain of gold was given
Morguhns ǫnd ofar lǫndum Green clad lord thus knighted

Saw I flame haired fighter Saw I lord of leaf'd round

Field stand never yielding Longed to hear the swan's song
Brash youth green clad granted Soaring heaven highward
Great knights swift deaths eight-fold Hied to tourney's violence.
Fought from dawn til dark fall Verdant Morguhn met there
Dragon tors'd fed corse hawks Mighty western belt-lord
Conquered Manfred mighty Ronald's head was hewn there
Made Rowan his first queen High born Morguhn won crown.

Saw I fiercesome fighters Met in boldest battle

forty seeking glory Better sword not yet found
Grass clad Morguhn mighty Great duke merry mighty
Mowed down those who stood there Morguhns ǫnd ofar lǫndum
Met there turquoise tyger
Tribesman Randall gliding Saw I realm made royal
Shadows minion stalwart Ruled by Princes truly
Stood til Morguhn slew him Leaf clad leaf lord led them
Loved by clear-voiced Meirwen
Laughter rang out loudly Four times stood he stalwart
Light heart sang in bright eyes Staid by none nor laid low
Keep his memory mighty Fairly reigned by right hand
Morguhns ǫnd ofar lǫndum Ring lord by his prowess

Saw I Dragon's doomsman Saw I oak-strong Aethling

Delve lords guide to Hel's door Evil's eye struck death blow
CClunies Rossing river's rock span Stood the berry browed lord
that roaring Calon horde kept Brave til battles ending
Four great giants joined there Long road walker wanders
Jarred loose rock-scarred foeman Whither no wight follows
Charging woeful warriors We go to join his journey
Wedge from rock's edge threw them. Gentle Morguhn leads us

Saw I Pennsic pastures Laughter rang out loudly

Potent Gavin great king Light heart sang in bright eyes
Brought his knights to kneel there Keep his memory mighty
Noble Morguhn summoned Morguhns ǫnd ofar lǫndum

Dróttkvætt - 6
 In the Morguhn drápa jnn Langferðamaðr, I used only a few kennings and admittedly, I frequently

dropped the internal rhyme requirement to “tell the story.” This helps underscore the difficulties of

transferring the dróttkvætt form which works so well with the more compact, inflected Old Icelandic with

the more sprawling, largely uninflected English language.15 I also used a line in Old Icelandic to close the

stef: Morguhns ǫnd ofar lǫndum, meaning “Morguhnʼs spirit over the land.”

The next is an erfidrápa which I wrote following the passing of Viscountess Rannveigr

akonarsdottir in January, 2010. In this poem, I have used many more kennings than in the Morguhn

drápa jnn Langferðamaðr. I tried to get more of the flavor of an Old Icelandic poem, rather than an SCA-

poem. Thus there is only one SCA-related kenning (Sword trees white girth'd which stands for knights).

All the rest are classical kennings which I found in the word-hoard at the Skaldic Poetry Project. 16 Once

again, I had problems with the internal rhymes and line lengths, but overall, I feel it is a successful poem.

15In an inflected language, such as German and Germanic languages, changes in person, tense, and number are
reflected in the endings of the words or in spelling variants. This helps eliminate prepositions and makes unusual
word orders understandable. In English, this is not possible. For example: the English sentence “Dog bites man” is
completely different is meaning from “Man bites dog”. In Icelandic, however, Dog bites man = hundur bítur mann;
Man bites dog = maður bítur hund. Any way you order the Icelandic sentences, you get the intended meaning. This
flexibililty is the key to writing the dróttkvætt verse.

16 The Skaldic Poetry Project, located at the University of Sydney, Australia, is an international project to edit the

corpus of medieval Norse-Icelandic skaldic poetry. ≪http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au/db.php≫ The project is based

on-line, but also is spomsor of the publication of Poetry from the Kingsʼ Sagas, Part Two (Gade 2009) and Poetry on
Christian Subjects (Clunies Ross 2007)

Dróttkvætt - 7
 Hvita-Rannveigr drápa dauðibana (Drapa for White Rannveig Deathʼs bane)

Death-thane thrives on darkness Growling Hell spawn's ghastly

delves for souls twelve score groan rings out "thus die all".
Rannveig's great sword righteous daring spear slope dauntless
raised gainst death's blade saves us dreads not Death's fell head song.
Ash shaft tilts, point aims true,
Mute Death's sable minion eye slot finds and drives home;
moves to muffled drumbeat. battle serpent bites deep
raven-clad still rider brand-Sif's mind-stone breaches.
raises fiercesome spear shaft.
Blind Hoð's deadly dark tipped Death-thane thrives on darkness
dart brings glooming heartache; delves for souls twelve score
brooding stormclouds baleful Rannveig's great sword righteous
broke by lightnings' white fire. raised gainst death's blade saves us

Regal crimson court stands Spear maid falls as foeman

corbie-clad in mourning; fades Death's fell sword bite stayed.
noble gift-friend fallen swan white hearts hall scarlet
fell Death's thegn has slain him. stained. hot wound-surge draining.
Sword trees white girth'd sturdy Noble ring-jarl kneels down
stumble adzed like lumber; new tears fall to yew stand;
wine-dark drink of war hawks Heaven's wheel lights homeland ---
wends to pools unending. high the praise for Rannveig.

Death-thane thrives on darkness Oðin's maidens make their

delves for souls twelve score master's army vast and
Rannveig's great sword righteous hang her shield in Herjans
raised gainst death's blade saves us hall. sword trees sing greeting.
Under high flung earth tent
See how spear maid silent evil threatens always;
stands shaft's tip bears banner; good folk look for guidance ---
Tyr's longship waits swan white gracious lady, save them.
shines bright gainst night's mare.
Battle Freyja bold and Death-thane thrives on darkness
brazen turns back gazes --- delves for souls twelve score
glowers from Glitnis rider Rannveig's great sword righteous
greedy Fenris feeder. raised gainst death's blade saves us

Dróttkvætt - 8
 The final poem is a lausavírsr in Old Icelandic that comes from Fríðrekr drápa inn Frisi (drapa of

Fredrick the Frisian). This drápa is designed to be part of a new project However, as it is only at the

beginning, the less aid about it, the better. The method of writing a verse in Old Icelandic is somewhat

convoluted. I generally start with a rough idea of what I want to say, then research vocabulary on modern

Icelandic (I have been using the Babblefish.com translation engine ≪http://www.babblefish.com/

freetranslator.php≫ for this purpose. It seems ideal, as it allows for phrase translation). After this, I look

at putting the words in an order that fits the “rules” for dróttkvætt. I also look for kennings which I can use

to heighten the interest of the poem. In writing for the specific audience of the SCA, I often am put in a

position of inventing kennings that are specific to the Society or the Kingdom. For example, in the

Morguhn drápa jnn Langferðamaðr, I used “leaf-lord” to stand for a Duke; and in Hvita-Rannveig drápa

dauðibana I used “ Sword trees white girth'd” as I mentioned above. In the Fríðrekr drápa inn Frisi, I am

taking an approach that involves transforming some SCA history into a riddarasaga (Knightʼs Tale) or

lygisaga (lying saga or romance). 17 This involves some romanticizing, some fictionalizing and

mythologizing, and considerable poetic license. The stanza follows:

1. Friðrek ræsir fremð inn

2. Frisi gráskegg vissin
3. haf-skip siglir hlyðir
4. humra til Austur rumlend.
5. Metendr leiða morgum
6. morðáls til villi-borgar;
7. öskranfossdœl ásetta
8. ískaldr reista dísasalr.

Gráskegg vissin Fríðrek inn Frisi ræsir fremð siglir haf-skip hlyðir
humra til Austur rumlend. Leiða morgum metendr morðáls til villi-borgar;
ásetta ískaldr öskranfossdœl; reista dísasalr

(Grizzled grey-beard Frederick the Frisian advancer of honor, you sailed the warship from the
lobster-slopes [OCEANS] to the Eastern lands. You lead many testers of the battle eel
[SWORD > WARRIORS] to the wild hills; you settled in the ice-cold valley of the roaring
waterfall; you built a temple there)

In conclusion, understanding the dróttkvætt is essential to reading and understanding the sagas

and other Old Norse-Old Icelandic writing. The dróttkvætt is a versatile poetic form, despite its restrictive

17 For a discussion of the riddarasögur and lygisögur, see Kalinke 2005.

Dróttkvætt - 9
rules of line length, alliteration and internal rhymes. It is a difficult form to write in English; somewhat

easier in Old Icelandic. Yet, for all the difficulty of understanding and reading the dróttkvætt, it is a very

enjoyable to write in the form.

Dróttkvætt - 10
Appendix A. AM MS GKS 2367 4to

These manuscript pages are of the Codex Regius, the

ms. which contains Snorriʼs Edda. As you can plainly

see, they are damaged in some places and illegible

(or extremely difficult to read in others. This helps

explain why multiple readings are possible of Snorriʼs

Edda and many other Old Icelandic texts as well.

(Source: ≪ http://www.am.hi.is:8087/WebView.htm≫)

Dróttkvætt - 11
Works Cited

Arnórr jarlaskáld Þórðarson. “Þorfinnsdrápa.” Ed., Diane Whaley. In Gade 2009, pp. 229-260.

Clover, Carole J. and John Lindow, eds. Old Norse-Icelandic Literature. University of Toronto Press,
2005.

Clunies Ross, Margaret. Poetry on Christian Subjects. Brepols, 2007.

Einarr Skúlason. Geisli. Ed., Martin Chase. University of Toronto Press, 2005. (Chase 2005)

Einarr Skúlason. Geisli. Ed., Martin Chase. In Clunies Ross 2007, pp. 5-65.

Gade, Kari Ellen. The Structure of Old Norse Dróttkvætt Poetry. Islandica XLIX. Cornell University
Press, 1995.

Gade, Keri Ellen, Ed. Poetry from the Kingsʼ Sagas 2. Brepols, 2009.

Halldórr skvaldri, “ Útfarardrápa,” Ed., Kari Ellen Gade. In Gade 2009, pp. 482-491.

“Handrit.is”. The Arni Magnusson Institute for Icelandic Studies. ≪http://handrit.is/en/≫. Last accessed:
15 February 2011.

Kalinke, Marianne. “Norse Romance (Riddarasögur)” in Clover and Lindow 2005, pp. 316-363.

“Skaldic Poetry Project.” University of Sydney. ≪http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au/db.php≫. Last accessed:

15 February 2011.

Snorri Sturluson. The Prose Edda. Ed., Jesse L. Byock. Penguin Books, 2005. (Byock 2005)

Snorri Sturluson. The Prose Edda. Ed., Anthony Faulkes. Everyman Press, 1995. (Faulks 1995)

Wanner, Kevin J. Snorri Sturluson and the Edda: The Conversion of Cultural Capital in Medieval
Scandinavia. University of Toronto Press: 2008.

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