Math 132 (Differrential Calculus and its Applications)

Lecture Note

Contents

1 Real Valued Function 4

1.1 Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Greatest Integer Function (Floor Function) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Evaluation of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Idea about Graph of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Limit and Continuity 9

2.1 Computing Techniques/Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 One-sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Limits of Piecewise-defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Infinite Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.1 Limits involving Radicals as x → ±∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Trigonometric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Continuity 18

4 Differentiation of Real Valued Function 21

4.1 Derivative as Limit if Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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5 Techniques of Differentiation 23
5.1 Higher Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

6 Product and Quotient Rules 26

6.1 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

7 Derivative of Some Special Functions 28

7.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.2 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 Generalized Derivative Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.4 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.5 Derivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

8 Implicit Differentiation 34
8.1 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.1.1 Derivatives of Functions of the form y = f (x)g(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9 Application of Derivative 38
9.1 Absolute Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.2 L’Hopital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
 
0 ∞
9.2.1 For Indeterminate limits i.e., form , or . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
0 ∞
9.2.2 For Indeterminate limits i.e., form (∞ · 0, or ∞ − ∞) . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2.3 Indeterminate limits i.e., form (1∞ , or 00 and ∞0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

10 Anti-derivative (Integration) 44
10.1 Constants, Power, Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.2 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.3 The Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.4 Properties of the Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.5 Properties of The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

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10.6 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.7 Integration by Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.7.1 Repeated Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.8 Integration by Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.8.1 Integration of Improper Rational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.8.2 Integration of Proper Rational Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.8.3 Linear Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.8.4 Repeated Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.8.5 Irreducible Distinct Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

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1 Real Valued Function

Definition 1.1. A function f (x) : A −→ B is a rule that assigns every x ∈ A a unique y ∈ B,

where the set A is called a domain and the set B ia called a range.

Definition 1.2. A function f is said to be a real-valued when the range is a set of real numbers.

Figure 1: A diagram showing a function as a machine

Figure 2: A function from a set D to a set Y assigns a unique element of Y to each element in D.

Definition 1.3. Let f (x) be a function defined on an interval I and assume x1 and x2 be any two
point on the I then

1. If f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) for x1 < x2 then f (x) is increasing on I

2. If f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) for x1 < x2 then f (x) is decreasing on I

1.1 Piecewise-defined Functions

Functions represented by more then one expression e.g.



x
 x≥0
|x| = (1.1)

−x x < 0


4
1.2 Greatest Integer Function (Floor Function)

y = bxc = int(x) is the greatest integer less or equal x.

Example 1.4. Evaluate the following

(i). b4.2c =
 
1
(ii). =
2

(iii). b−3c =
 
2
(iv). − =
3

1.3 Domain and Range

Definition 1.5. Domain is all possible input values x ∈ A, while the Range is the set of all
values of f (x) as x varies through A.

Examples 1.6. Verify the range and domain as contained in the following table

Function Domain (x) Range (y)

y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)

1
y= x
(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
√
y= x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
√
y= 4−x (−∞, 4] [0, ∞)
√
y= 1 − x2 [−1, 1] [0, 1]

Proof. Proof to be given in class

Remark 1.7. Note that

T
1. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and Domain: Df Dg

5
 T
2. (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) and Domain: Df Dg

T
3. (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) and Domain: Df Dg
 
f f (x) T
4. g
(x) = g(x)
and Domain: Df Dg g(x) 6= 0.

1.4 Evaluation of Functions

Example 1.8. Given f (x) = 3x − 1 evaluate

(i). f (2)

(ii). f (−1)

(iii). f ( 23 )

(iv). f (c + 2).

Solutions: In class

Example 1.9. Given 





 4 if 0 ≤ t ≤ 5


g(t) = −t + 9 if 5 < t ≤ 8 (1.2)


√



 t−7
 if 8 < t ≤ 11

evaluate

(i). g(0)

(ii). g( 19
2
)

(iii). f (7)

Solutions: In class

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1.5 Even and Odd Functions

Definition 1.10. Given y = f (x) then

• The function f (x) is EVEN function of x if f (−x) = f (x)

• f (x) is ODD function of x if f (−x) = −f (x)

Example 1.11. Determine which of the following functions is either EVEN, ODD or NEITHER

(i). f (x) = 3

(ii). g(x) = x2 + 1

(iii). h(x) = x2 + x

x
(iv). k(t) = x2 −1

Solutions: In class

1.6 Composite Functions

(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) and (gof )(x) = g(f (x)) (1.3)

Example 1.12. Given f (x) = x2 − 3x and g(x) = 2x + 1 evaluate the following

(a). (gof )(x)

(b). (f og)(x).

Solutions: In class

Example 1.13. Given f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x2 − 5x evaluate the following

(a). (gof )(4)

(b). (f og)(−3).

Solutions: In class

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1.7 Idea about Graph of a function

If f is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose
coordinates are the input-output pairs for f . In set notation, the graph is {(x, f (x))|x ∈ D}.

Figure 3: A diagram showing a graph of linear function

Figure 4: A diagram showing a graph of a quadratic function

Figure 5: A diagram showing a graph of a cubic function

Details on graphs to be given during lectures

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2 Limit and Continuity

Definition 2.1. The limit of f (x) as x approaches a is the number L, written

lim f (x) = L
x→a

provided that we can make the values f (x) as close as we like to L, and keep them that close, by
taking x sufficiently close to; but different from, a. If there is no such number, we say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (DNE). It is a two-sided limit because we are
approaching a from both sides.

2.1 Computing Techniques/Properties

Theorem 2.2. Let a and k be real numbers.

1 1
(a) lim k = k (b) lim x = a (c) lim− = −∞ (d) lim+ =∞
x→a x→a x→0 x x→0 x

Theorem 2.3. Let a be a real numbers, and suppose that

lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2

x→a x→a

That is, the limits exist and have values L1 and L2 , respectively. Then:

(a) lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L1 + L2

x→a x→a x→a

(b) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L1 − L2

x→a x→a x→a

(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = L1 L2

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x) L1

(d) lim = x→a = provided L2 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) L2
x→a
p q √
(e) lim n
f (x) = n lim f (x) = n L1 , provided L1 > 0 If n is even.
x→a x→a

9
Moreover, these statements are also true for the one-sided limits as x → a− or as x → a+ .
f (x)
Remark 2.4. A quotient in which the numerator and denominator both have a limit of zero
g(x)
0
as x → a is called an indeterminate form of type .
0
Example 2.5. Find the limits.

5x3 + 4
(a) lim (x2 − 4x + 3) (b) lim (x7 − 2x5 + 1)35 (c) lim
x→5 x→1 x→2 x − 3

Solution:

(a) lim (x2 − 4x + 3) = lim x2 − lim 4x + lim 3

x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5
2
= lim x − 4 lim x + lim 3
x→5 x→5 x→5
2
= 5 − 4(5) + 3 = 25 − 20 + 3 = 8
 35
7
(b) lim (x − 2x + 1) 5 35 7
= lim x − 2 lim x + lim 1 5
= (1 − 2 + 1)35 = 0
x→1 x→1 x→5 x→5

5x3 + 4 lim (5x3 + 4) 5 · 23 + 4

x→2
(c) lim = = = −44.
x→2 x − 3 lim (x − 3) 2−3
x→2

Example 2.6. Find the limits.

x2 − 6x + 9 2x + 8 x2 − 3x − 10 x3 − 1
(a) lim (b) lim 2
(c) lim (d) lim
x→3 x−3 x→−4 x + x − 12 x→5 x2 − 10x + 25 x→1 x − 1

x−1
(e) lim √
x→1 x−1

Solution:

x2 − 6x + 9 0
(a) lim =
x→3 x−3 0
x2 − 6x + 9 (x − 3)2
lim = lim = lim (x − 3) = 0
x→3 x−3 x→3 x − 3 x→3

2x + 8 0
(b) lim =
x→−4 x2+ x − 12 0
2x + 8 2(x + 4) 2
lim 2 = lim = lim (x − 3) = −
x→−4 x + x − 12 x→−4 (x + 4)(x − 3) x→−4 7

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 x2 − 3x − 10 0
(c) lim 2
=
x→5 x − 10x + 25 0
x2 − 3x − 10 (x + 2)(x − 5) x+2 7
lim 2 = lim 2
= lim =
x→5 x − 10x + 25 x→5 (x − 5) x→5 x − 5 0
x+2 x+2
lim = −∞ lim =∞
x→5− x − 5 x→5+ x − 5
x2 − 3x − 10 x+2
∴ lim 2 = lim does not exist.
x→5 x − 10x + 25 x→5 x − 5

x3 − 1
(d) limx→1 =3
x−1
√ √
x−1 x+1 (x − 1)( x + 1) √
(e) limx→1 √ √ = limx→1 = limx→1 ( x + 1) = 2
x−1 x+1 x−1

2.2 One-sided Limits

• Left-hand Limit: We write

lim f (x) = L.
x→a−

The left-hand limit of f (x) has x approaches a is L, or the limit of f (x) as x approaches a
from left is L, Here x most be less than a i.e., x < a.

• Right-hand Limit: We write

lim f (x) = L.
x→a+

The right-hand limit of f (x) has x approaches a (from right) is L, or the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from right is L. Here x here x most be greater than a i.e., x > a.

Remark 2.7. i. limx→a f (x) = L iff

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.

x→a− x→a

ii. If
lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)
x→a− x→a

then
lim = L
f (x)→a

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 does not exist DNE.

Example 2.8. Explain why

|x|
lim
x→0 x

Solution:



|x| 1
x > 0,
f (x) = =
x 
−1 x < o


from above we have

lim f (x) = 1
x→0+

and
lim f (x) = −1
x→0−

so
lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)
x→0− x→0

therefore
lim f (x)
x→0

DNE.

2.3 Limits of Piecewise-defined Functions

For functions that are defined piecewise, a two-sided limit at a point where the formula changes
is best obtained by first finding the one-sided limits at that point.

Example 2.9. Let 

 1

 , x < −2
x + 2



f (x) = x2 − 5, −2 < x ≤ 3


√



 x + 13

x > 3.

12
Find
(a) lim f (x) (b) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)
x→−2 x→0 x→3

Solution:

(a) For lim f (x), we need to find lim − f (x) and lim + f (x)
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2

1
lim − f (x) = lim − = −∞
x→−2 x→−2 x+2
lim + f (x) = lim + (x2 − 5) = (−2)2 − 5 = −1
x→−2 x→−2

=⇒ lim f (x) 6= lim + f (x)

x→−2− x→−2

∴ lim f (x) does not exist.

x→−2

(b) lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5) = −5.

x→0 x→0

(c) For lim f (x), we need to find lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x)
x→3 x→3 x→3

lim f (x) = lim− (x2 − 5) = 32 − 5 = 4

x→3− x→3
√ √ √
lim+ f (x) = lim+ x + 13 = 3 + 13 = 16 = 4
x→3 x→3

=⇒ lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = 4

x→3 x→3

∴ lim f (x) = 4.
x→3

2.4 Infinite Limit

f (x)
We discuss limits of the form lim , where lim f (x) 6= 0 but lim g(x) = 0.
x→a g(x) x→a x→a

Example 2.10. Evaluate the following

1 1 1 1 2 x+2
(a) lim (b) lim+ (c) lim− (d) lim (e) lim + (f ) lim .
x→0 x2 x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x x→−1 x+1 x→2 x2 − 4

13
 1
(a) lim = ∞.
x→0 x2

1
(b) lim+ = ∞.
x→0 x
1
(c) lim− = −∞.
x→0 x
1 1 1
(d) lim does not exist since lim+ 6= lim−
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

2
(e) lim + = ∞.
x→−1 x+1
x+2 x+2 1
(f) lim 2
= lim = lim .
x→2 x − 4 x→2 (x + 2)(x − 2) x→2 x − 2

Now, we estimate each one-sided limits as follows:

1 1
lim+ = ∞ and lim− = −∞.
x→2 x−2 x→2 x − 2

1 1 x+2
Since lim− 6= lim− , we say that lim 2 does not exist.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x − 2 x→2 x − 4

2.5 Limits at Infinity

Here, we discuss limits of the form lim f (x). Note the following
x→±∞

i. lim (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an−1 xn−1 + an xn ) = lim an xn

x→±∞ x→±∞

 an

 if n = m
 bm


2 n−1 n n

a0 + a1 x + a2 x + · · · + an−1 x + an x an x
ii. lim = lim
x→±∞ b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bm−1 xm−1 + bm xm x→±∞ bm xm 0 if n < m




∞ or − ∞ if n > m.


c
iii. lim = 0, n > 0 (for any constant c.)
x→±∞ xn

c c
For lim n we assume that n is such that n is defined for x < 0.
x→−∞ x x

Example 2.11. Find (a) lim (7x5 − 4x3 + 2x − 9) (b) lim (−4x8 + 17x3 + 1)
x→−∞ x→−∞
2 3 2
3x + 5 4x − x 5x − 2x + 1
(c) lim (d) lim (e) lim
x→∞ 6x − 8 x→−∞ 2x3 − 5 x→∞ 1 − 3x

14
(a) lim (7x5 − 4x3 + 2x − 9) = lim 7x5 = −∞
x→−∞ x→−∞

(b) lim (−4x8 + 17x3 + 1) = lim −4x8 = −∞

x→−∞ x→−∞

3x + 5 3x 1
(c) lim = lim = .
x→∞ 6x − 8 x→∞ 6x 2
4x2 − x 4x2 2
(d) lim 3
= lim 3
= lim =0
x→−∞ 2x − 5 x→−∞ 2x x→−∞ x

5x3 − 2x2 + 1
 3  2
5x 5x
(e) lim = lim = lim = −∞
x→∞ 1 − 3x x→∞ −3x x→∞ −3

2.5.1 Limits involving Radicals as x → ±∞

√
lim x2 = lim |x| = ∞
x→+∞ x→+∞

and
√
lim x2 = lim |x| = −∞
x→−∞ x→−∞
√ √
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
Example 2.12. Find (a) lim (b) lim
x→+∞ 3x − 6 x→−∞ 3x − 6
√ √
x2 + 2 x2 |x| x 1
(a) lim = lim = lim = lim =
x→+∞ 3x − 6 x→+∞ 3x x→+∞ 3x x→+∞ 3x 3
√ √
x2 + 2 x2 |x| −x 1
(b) lim = lim = lim = lim =−
x→−∞ 3x − 6 x→−∞ 3x x→−∞ 3x x→+∞ 3x 3
√
√

Example 2.13. Find (a) lim x6 + 5 − x3 (b) lim x6 + 5x3 − x3
x→+∞ x→+∞

√
(a) Note that both x6 + 5 and x3 are large when x is large. So, it’s difficult to see what happens
to their difference, so we use algebra to rewrite the function. We first multiply numerator and
√
denominator by the conjugate radical and recall that x6 = x3 for x → ∞.

√  √  √x6 + 5 + x3
lim x6 + 5 − x3 = lim x6 + 5 − x 3 · √
x→∞ x→∞ x6 + 5 + x3
x6 + 5 − x6 5
= lim √ = lim √
x→∞ x6 + 5 + x3 x→∞ x6 + x3
5 5
= lim 3 3
= lim = 0.
x→∞ |x | + x x→∞ 2x3

15
 √
(b) Similarly, both x6 + 5x3 and x3 are large when x is large. So, as in part a, we have

√  √  √x6 + 5x3 + x3
lim x6 + 5x3 − x3 = lim x6 + 5x3 − x3 · √
x→∞ x→∞ x6 + 5x3 + x3
x6 + 5x3 − x6 5x3
= lim √ = lim √
x→∞ x6 + 5x3 + x3 x→∞ x6 + x3
5x3 5x3 5
= lim 3 3
= lim 3
= .
x→∞ |x | + x x→∞ 2x 2

2.6 Trigonometric

Theorem 2.14. If c is any number in the natural domain of the stated trigonometric function,
then

lim sin x = sin c lim cos x = cos c lim tan x = tan c

x→0 x→0 x→0

lim csc x = csc c lim sec x = sec c lim cot x = cot c

x→0 x→0 x→0

Example 2.15. Find the limit

x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x2 − 1
       
lim cos = lim cos = cos lim = cos lim (x + 1) = cos 2.
x→1 x−1 x→1 x−1 x→1 x − 1 x→1

Theorem 2.16.

sin x 1 − cos x sin ax a tan x

lim =1 lim =0 lim = lim =1
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 bx b x→0 x

sin 7x
Example 2.17. Find lim .
x→0 4x

Solution:

sin 7x sin 7x 7 sin 7x 7 7 sin 7x 7

lim = lim · = lim · = lim = .
x→ 4x x→0 4x 7 x→0 7x 4 4 x→0 7x 4

Example 2.18. Find lim x cot x.

x→0

16
 cos x cos x lim cos x cos 0
Solution: lim x cot x = lim x = lim = x→0 = =1
x→0 x→0 sin x x→0 sin x sin x 1
lim
x x→0 x

tan x sec 2t
Example 2.19. Find lim 3t
.
x→0

Theorem 2.20 (The Squeezing Theorem (Sandwith)). Let f, g, and h be functions satisfying

g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x)

for all x in some open interval containing the number c, with the possible exception that the
inequalities need not hold at c. If g and h have the same limit as x approaches c, say

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L

x→c x→c

then f also has this limit as x approaches c, that is, lim f (x) = L
x→c
 
1
Example 2.21. Find lim x sin .
x→0 x

Solution:

 
1
− 1 ≤ sin ≤1
x
 
1
− |x| ≤ x sin ≤ |x|
x
 
1
lim (−|x|) ≤ lim x sin ≤ lim |x|
x→0 x→0 x x→0
 
1
0 ≤ lim x sin ≤0
x→0 x

Hence, by Squeezing Theorem, we obtain

 
1
lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x

17
3 Continuity

Definition 3.1. A function f is said to be continuous at x = c provided the following conditions

are satisfied:

1. f (c) is defined.

2. lim f (x) exists.

x→c

3. lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

Example 3.2. Determine whether the following functions are continuous at x = 2.

 
 x2 − 4  x2 − 4
x2 − 4

 if x 6= 2 
 if x 6= 2
f (x) = , g(x) = x − 2 , h(x) = x − 2
x−2  
3

if x = 2 4

if x = 2

Solution: f (x) is not continuous at x = 2 since f (2) is undefined, although

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

g(x) is not continuous at x = 2 since lim f (x) = 4 6= f (2) = 3.

x→2

g(x) is continuous at x = 2 since lim f (x) = f (2) = 4.

x→2

Definition 3.3. A function f is said to be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if the

following conditions are satisfied:

1. f is continuous on (a, b) =⇒ lim f (x) = f (c) for c in (a, b).

x→c

2. f is continuous from the right at a =⇒ lim+ f (x) = f (a).

x→a

2. f is continuous from the left at b =⇒ lim− f (x) = f (b).

x→b

Example 3.4. What can you say about the continuity of the function
√
f (x) = 9 − x2 ?

18
 Solution: Note that the domain of this function is the closed interval [3, 3]. So, we will need
to investigate the continuity of f on the open interval (3, 3) and at the two endpoints; −3 and 3.
If c is any point in the interval (3, 3), then

√ q √
lim f (x) = lim 9 − x2 = lim (9 − x2 ) = 9 − c2 = f (c)
x→c x→c x→c

which proves f is continuous at each point in the interval (3, 3).

The function f is also continuous at the endpoints since

√ q √
lim− f (x) = lim− 9 − x2 = lim− (9 − x2 ) = 9 − 9 = 0 = f (3)
x→3 x→3 x→3
√ q √
lim + f (x) = lim + 9 − x2 = lim + (9 − x2 ) = 9 − 9 = 0 = f (3)
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3

Therefore, f is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 3].

Theorem 3.5. If the functions f and g are continuous at c, then the following new functions are
continuous at c.

1. f +g 2. f − g 3. f g
f
4. , if g(c) 6= 0 and has a discontinuity at c if g(c) = 0.
g

Theorem 3.6. (a) A polynomial is continuous everywhere.

(b) A rational function is continuous at every point where the denominator is nonzero, and has
discontinuities at the points where the denominator is zero.

Example 3.7. If f and g are continuous with g(2) = 6 and

lim [3f (x) + f (x)g(x)] = 36, find f (2).

x→2

19
 Solution: Since f and g are continuous, we have

lim f (x) = f (2) and lim g(x) = g(2).

x→2 x→2

∴ lim [3f (x) + f (x)g(x)] = 3 lim f (x) + lim f (x) lim g(x)
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2

36 = 3 lim f (x) + 6 lim f (x)

x→2 x→2

36 = 9 lim f (x) ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = 4

x→2 x→2

∴ f (2) = 4.

Theorem 3.8 (The Intermediate Value Theorem). If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]
and k is any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in
(a, b) such that f (c) = k.

√
Example 3.9. Use I.V.T. to show that there is a root of the equation 3
x = 1 − x in the interval
(0, 1).

√
Solution: Consider the function f (x) = 3
x − 1 + x = 0, where x ∈ [0, 1]

i. f (x) is continuous on [0, 1]

ii. f (0) = 0 − 1 + 0 = −1 and f (1) = 1 − 1 + 1 = 1

iii. f (0) < 0 < f (1); that is k = 0 is a number between f (0) and f (1).

Now, since f is continuous between 0 and 1, so the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a
number c between 0 and 1 such that f (c) = 0.

20
4 Differentiation of Real Valued Function

4.1 Derivative as Limit if Rate of Change

i If y = f (x), then we define the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval [x0 , x1 ] to be

f (x1 ) − f (x0 ) f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )

rave = or rave = .
x1 − x 0 h

ii If y = f (x), then we define the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at

x0 to be
f (x1 ) − f (x0 ) f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
rinst = lim or rinst = lim .
x1 →x0 x1 − x0 h→0 h

Remark 4.1.

F Velocity can be viewed as rate of change−the rate of change of position with respect to time.

F In the case where y is a linear function of x, say y = mx + b, the slope m is the rate of change
of y with respect to x.

F The instantaneous rate of change is also called the rate of change

4.2 Derivative of a Function

Definition 4.2. The function f 0 defined by the formula

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h

is called the derivative of f with respect to x. The domain of f 0 consists of all x in the
domain of f for which the limit exists (First Principal).

21
Example 4.3. Find the derivative of

√
(i.) f (x) = x2 , (ii.) g(x) = x

Solution:

0 f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − x2
(i.) f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h

x2 + 2xh + h2 − x2
= lim
h→0 h

2xh + h2
= lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x
h→0 h h→0
√ √
0 f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
(ii.) f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √ 
x+h− x x+h+ x x+h−x
= lim ×√ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x h→0 h( x + h + x)

h 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x + h + x

1 1
=√ √ = √
x+ x 2 x

Differentiability

Definition 4.4. A function f is differentiable at x0 if f 0 (x0 ) exists.

F If f is differentiable at each point of the open interval (a, b), then we say that it is differ-
entiable on (a, b), and

F similarly for open intervals of the form (a, +∞), (−∞, b), and (−∞, +∞). For the case
(−∞, +∞), we say that f is differentiable everywhere.

Example 4.5.

(a) Prove that f = |x| is not differentiable at x = 0.

22
(b) Find a formula for f 0 (x).

Solution:

f (x + h) − f (x)
(a) We prove that f = |x| is not differentiable at x = 0 by showing that the limit lim
h→0 h
does not exist at x = 0.

f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) − f (0) |h| − 0 |h|

f 0 (0) = lim = lim = lim = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

But 

|h| −1,
 h<0
=
h 
 1,
 h>0

|h| |h|
Thus, lim− = −1 and lim+ = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h

|h| |h| |h|

Since lim− 6= lim+ , then lim does not exist (DNE).
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

Hence f is not differentiable at x = 0.



−x,
 x<0
(b) f (x) = Hence, the derivative of f is given as

 x,
 x > 0.


−1,
 x<0
0
f (x) =

 1,
 x > 0.

5 Techniques of Differentiation

Theorem 5.1. Power Functions Rule

If n is any real number, then
d n
(x ) = nxn−1 .
dx

23
Example 5.2.
d 4 d −5
(i). [x ] = 4x4−1 = 4x3 , [x ] = −5x−5−1 = −5x−6
dx dx

d d √ d  1/2  1 1− 1 1
(ii). [x] = x1−1 = 2x0 = 1, [ x] = x = 2x 2 = √ .
dx dx dx 2 x

Theorem 5.3. (i). Derivative of a Constant

The derivative of a constant function is 0; that is, if c is any real number, then

d
[c] = 0.
dx

d d d d  √ 
Example 5.4. [1] = 0, [−3] = 0, [π] = 0, − 2 = 0.
dx dx dx dx

(ii). Derivatives of Constant Multiples

If c is a constant and f (x) is differentiable, then

d d
[cf (x)] = c [f (x)]
dx dx

(iii). Sum and The Difference Rules

If f (x) and g(x) are both differentiable, then

d d d
[f (x) ± g(x)] = [f (x)] ± [g(x)]
dx dx dx

Example 5.5.
d d d
(a) [2x6 + 9x−9 ] = [2x6 ] + [9x−9 ] = 12x5 + (−9)x−10 = 12x5 − 9x−10
dx dx dx

√ d √
√  √ 
d x − 2x d x 2x d d
(b) √ = √ −√ = [1 − 2 x] = [1] − [2 x]
dx x dx x x dx dx dx
 
1 1
=0−2 √ = −√ .
2 x x

24
 dy
Example 5.6. Find if y = 3x8 − 2x5 + 6x + 1.
dx

Solution:
dy d d d d d
= [3x8 − 2x5 + 6x + 1] = [3x8 ] − [2x5 ] + [6x] + [1]
dx dx dx dx dx dx

= 24x7 − 10x4 + 6.

5.1 Higher Derivative

If y = f (x), then successive derivatives can also be denoted by

y0, y 00 , y 000 , y (4) , y (5) , · · ·

Other common notations are

dy d2 y d3 y d4 y d5 y
y0 = , y 00 = , y 000 = , y (4) = , y (5) = ,···
dx dx2 dx3 dx4 dx5

F These are called, in succession, the first derivative, the second derivative, the third derivative,
the fourth derivative, the fifth derivative, and so forth.

F The number of times that f is differentiated is called the order of the derivative.

F A general nth order derivative can be denoted by

dn y dn
y (n) (x) = f (n) (x) = = [f (x)]
dxn dxn

and the value of a general nth order derivative at a specific point x = x0 can be denoted by

dn y dn
y (n) (x0 ) = f (n) (x0 ) = = [f (x)]
dxn x=x0 dxn x=x0

Example 5.7. Given that f (x) = 3x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 4x + 2. Find f 000 (0) and f (6) (x).

25
Solution:

f 0 (x) =12x3 − 6x2 + 2x − 4

f 00 (x) =36x2 − 12x + 2

f 000 (x) =72x − 12 ∴ f 000 (0) = 72(0) − 12 = −12

f (4) (x) =72

f (5) (x) =0

∴ f (n) (x) =0 for n ≥ 5

∴ f (6) (x) =0.

6 Product and Quotient Rules

6.1 Product Rule

If u and v are both differentiable at x, then

d d d
[u(x)v(x)] = u(x) [v(x)] + v(x) [u(x)].
dx dx dx

In prime notation, we have

(uv)0 = uv 0 + vu0 .

dy ds
Example 6.1. Find and if
dx dt

√
(i.) y = (4x2 − 1)(7x3 + x), (ii.) s = (1 + t) t

Solution:

(i). If u = 4x2 − 1 and v = 7x3 + x, then u0 = 8x and v 0 = 21x2 + 1. So, by product rule, we

26
 have:

dy
=uv 0 + vu0 = (4x2 − 1)(21x2 + 1) + (7x3 + x)8x
dx
=(84x4 + 4x2 − 21x2 − 1) + (56x4 + 8x2 ) = 140x4 − 9x2 − 1.

√ 1
(ii). If u = 1 + t and v = t, then u0 = 1 and v 0 = √ .
2 t
So, by product rule, we have:

√
ds 0 0 1 √ 1 t √ 1 + 3t
=uv + vu = (1 + t) √ + t = √ + + t= √ .
dt 2 t 2 t 2 2 t

6.2 Quotient Rule

If u and v are differentiable, then

d d

d u(x)
 v(x) [u(x)] − u(x) [v(x)]
= dx dx .
dx v(x) [v(x)]2

In prime notation, we have

 u 0 vu0 − uv 0
= .
v v2
x3 + 2x2 − 1 dy x2 − 1
Example 6.2. (i). F ind y 0 (x) for y = , (ii). F ind given that y = .
x+5 dx x=1 x4 + 1

Solution:

(i). If u = x3 + 2x2 − 1 and v = x + 5, then u0 = 3x2 + 4x and v 0 = 1.

So, by quotient rule, we have:

dy vu0 − uv 0 (x + 5)(3x2 + 4x) − (x3 + 2x2 − 1)

= =
dx v2 (x + 5)2
3x3 + 4x2 + 15x2 + 20x − x3 − 2x2 + 1
=
(x + 5)2
2x3 + 17x2 + 20x + 1
=
(x + 5)2

27
 (ii). If u = x2 − 1 and v = x4 + 1, then u0 = 2x and v 0 = 4x3 .
So, by quotient rule, we have:

dy vu0 − uv 0 (x4 + 1)2x − (x2 − 1)4x3

= =
dx v2 (x4 + 1)2
2x5 + 2x − 4x5 + 4x3 −2x5 + 4x3 + 2x
= =
(x4 + 1)2 (x4 + 1)2
dy −2(1)5 + 4(1)3 + 2(1) −2 + 4 + 2 4
∴ = 4 2
= 2
= = 1.
dx x=1 (1 + 1) (1 + 1) 4

7 Derivative of Some Special Functions

7.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Definition 7.1.

d d
sin x = cos x csc x = −csc x cot x
dx dx
d d
cos x = − sin x sec x = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
tan x = sec2 x csc x = −csc2 x
dx dx

Example 7.2. Consider

dy
(1). Find if y = x sin x.
dx
dy sin x
(2). Find if y = .
dx 1 + cos x

(3). Find f 00 (x) if f (x) = sec x.

Solution:

(1). If u = x and v = sin x, then u0 = 1 and v 0 = cos x.

So, by product rule, we have:

dy
= uv 0 + vu0 = x cos x + sin x.
dx

28
(2). If u = sin x and v = 1 + cos x, then u0 = cos x and v 0 = − sin x.
So, by quotient rule, we have:

dy vu0 − uv 0 (1 + cos x) cos x − sin x(− sin x)

= 2
=
dx v (1 + cos x)2
cos x + cos2 x + sin2 x cos x + 1 1
= 2
= 2
= .
(1 + cos x) (1 + cos x) 1 + cos x

(3). f 0 (x) = sec x tan x If u = x and v = sin x, then u0 = 1 and v 0 = cos x.

So, by product rule, we have:

f 0 (x) = sec x tan x

f 00 (x) = sec x · sec2 + tan x · sec x tan x

= sec3 x + sec x tan2 x

Solution: Using the formula given in the table above, we have

1 d 3 3x2
(a) p [x ] = √ .
1 − (x3 )2 dx 1 − x6
1 d x ex 1
(b) p [e ] = √ =√ .
ex (ex )2 − 1 dx ex e2x − 1 e2x − 1

7.2 Chain Rule

Definition 7.3. If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable function at g(x), then the com-
posite function f ◦ g is differentiable at x. Moreover, if

y(x) = f (g(x)) and u = g(x)

then y = f (u) and

dy dy du
= · (7.1)
dx du dx

29
That is
d 0 0
f (g(x)) = f (g(x))g (x.)
dx
dy
Example 7.4. Find if y = cos(x3 ).
dx
du dy
Solution: If u = x3 , then y = cos u. So, = 3x2 and = − sin u.
dx du
Now, applying Formula (8.1) yields

dy dy du
= · = −3x2 sin u = −3x2 sin(x3 ).
dx du dx

dw
Example 7.5. Find if w = tan x and x = 4t3 + t.
dt

Solution: In this case the chain rule computations take the form

dw dw dx
= · .
dt dx dt

dw dx
w = tan x =⇒ = sec2 x and x = 4t3 + t =⇒ = 12t2 + 1.
dx dt
So, we have

dw
= sec2 x · (12t2 + 1)
dt
=(12t2 + 1) sec2 (4t3 + t).

dy
Example 7.6. Find if y = tan2 x.
dx

Solution:
du dy
If u = tan x, then y = u2 . So, = sec2 x and = 2u.
dx du
Now, applying Formula (8.1) yields

dy dy du
= · = 2u · sec2 x = 2 tan x sec2 x.
dx du dx

dy √
Example 7.7. Find if y = x2 + 1.
dx

30
 Solution:
√ du dy 1
If u = x2 + 1, then y = u. So,
= 2x and = √ .
dx du 2 u
Now, applying Formula (8.1) yields

dy dy du 1 x x
= · = 2x · √ = √ = p .
dx du dx 2 u u (x2 + 1)

7.3 Generalized Derivative Formulas

d du d n du
[f (u)] = f 0 (u) [u ] = nun−1
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
[sin u] = cos u [cos u] = − sin u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
[tan u] = sec2 u [cot u] = − csc2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
[sec u] = sec u tan u [csc u] = − csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx

Example 7.8. Find the derivatives of the following:

√
(a) sin 2x (b) tan(x2 + 1) (c) x3 + csc x (d) [x2 − x + 2]3/4
√ √
(e) (1 + x5 cot x)−8 (f ) sin( 1 + cos x) (g) sec ωx

Solution:

d d
(a) [sin 2x] = cos 2x [2x] = 2 cos 2x.
dx dx
d d
(b) [tan(x2 + 1)] = sec2 (x2 + 1) [x2 + 1] = 2x sec2 (x2 + 1).
dx dx
d √ 3  1 d 3 3x2 − csc x cot x
(c) x + csc x = √ [x + csc x] = √ .
dx 2 x3 + csc x dx 2 x3 + csc x
d 2 3/4 3 d
(d) [x − x + 2] = (x2 − x + 2)−1/4 [x2 − x + 2]
dx 4 dx

3
= (x2 − x + 2)−1/4 (2x − 1).
4

31
 d d
(e) [(1 + x5 cot x)−8 ] = −8(1 + x5 cot x)−9 [1 + x5 cot x]
dx dx

= −8(1 + x5 cot x)−9 (−x5 csc2 x + 5x4 cot x)

= (8x5 csc2 x − 40x4 cot x)(1 + x5 cot x)−9 .

d  √  √ d √
(f) sin( 1 + cos x) = cos( 1 + cos x) [ 1 + cos x]
dx dx
√
√ 1 d − sin x cos( 1 + cos x)
= cos( 1 + cos x) · √ [1 + cos x] = √ .
2 1 + cos x dx 2 1 + cos x
d √ √ √ d √ √ √ 1 d
(g) [sec ωx] = sec ωx tan ωx [ ωx] = sec ωx tan ωx · √ [ωx]
dx √ √ dx 2 ωx dx
ω sec ωx tan ωx
= √
2 ωx

7.4 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Definition 7.9.

1
If y = ln x then y0 =
x

1
If y = loga x then y0 =
x ln a

g 0 (x)
If y = loga g(x) then y0 =
g(x) ln a

g 0 (x)
If y = ln g(x) then y0 =
g(x)

Example 7.10. Differentiate y = ln(x2 + 1).

32
 Solution:
(x2 + 1)0 2x
2
= 2y0 =
x +1 x +1
 2 
x sin x
Example 7.11. Differentiate y = ln √ .
1+x

Solution

x2 sin x √
 
1
y = ln √ =⇒ y = ln(x2 sin x) − ln 1 + x =⇒ y = 2 ln x + ln sin x − ln(1 + x)
1+x 2
2 cos x 1 2 1
∴ y0 = + − = + cot x − .
x sin x 2(1 + x) x 2 + 2x

Example 7.12. Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = ln |x|.

Solution:


 1
 
 if x > 0
x
 

ln x
 if x > 0 
1
f (x) = ∴ f (x) = =⇒ f 0 (x) = .
  x
ln(−x)
 if x < 0, 
−1


 1

 = if x < 0,
−x x
d 1
Hence ln |x| = x 6= 0.
dx x
Example 7.13. Differentiate y = ln | sin x|.

Solution:

(sin x)0 cos x

y0 = = = cot x
sin x sin x

7.5 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

d x
(1.) (e ) = ex
dx
 
d nx d
(2.) (e ) = enx nx = nenx
dx dx
d x
(3.) (a ) = ax ln a, where a is a constant.
dx

33
  
d nx d
(4.) (a ) = anx nx ln a = nanx ln a
dx dx

In general, we have

(1.) y = eg(x) =⇒ y 0 = eg(x) g 0 (x).

(2.) y = ag(x) =⇒ y 0 = ag(x) g 0 (x) ln a.

Example 7.14. Find the derivatives of the following:

3
(a) 2x (b) e−2x (c) ex (d) ecos x

Solution:

d x
(a) [2 ] = 2x ln 2.
dx
d −2x d
(b) [e ] = e−2x [−2x] = −2e−2x .
dx dx
d h x3 i 3 d 3
(c) e = ex [x3 ] = 3x2 ex .
dx dx
d cos x d
(d) [e ] = ecos x [cos x] = −(sin x)ecos x .
dx dx

8 Implicit Differentiation

Terminology

F If y = f (x), then y is described explicitly in terms of x. For example: y = x2 + 1, or y = sin x.

F If y cannot be expressed explicitly in terms of x, then we express the relationship between x

and y implicitly. For example xy 2 + yx2 = 1, or xy = tan(x + y).

34
 Implicit Differentiation

dy
This is a way of finding when y is defined implicitly by a relation between x and y.
dx
dy
Method of Finding
dx

(i) Differentiate both sides of the equation, but care must be taken while differentiating the
terms that involve y. While differentiating the terms that involve y, we differentiate in the
dy
usual way but then we multiply the derivative by . In other words, we treat y as a function
dx
of x and then use the chain rule.

dy
(ii) Solve the equation for .
dx
dy
Example 8.1. Use implicit differentiation to find if
dx

5y 2 + sin y = x2

Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation 5y 2 + sin y = x2 with respect to x and remember that y is
a function of x :

d d d d 2
[5y 2 + sin y = x2 ] = [5y 2 ] + [sin y] = [x ]
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
=⇒ 10y + (cos y) = 2x =⇒ (10y + cos y) = 2x
dx dx dx
dy 2x
∴ = .
dx 10y + cos y

d2 y
Example 8.2. Use implicit differentiation to find if
dx2

4x2 − 2y 2 = 9

Solution:
Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to x and remembering that y is a function of

35
x, we get

dy dy 2x
8x − 4y = 0 =⇒ =
dx dx y

dy 2x
By using the quotient rule to differentiate = , we have:
dx y
   
dy 2x
y(2) − 2x 2y − 2x
d2 y dx y 2y 2 − 4x2 4x2 − 2y 2 9
= = = = − =− 3
dx2 y2 y2 y 3 y 3 y

dy
Example 8.3. Use implicit differentiation to find for the Folium of Descartes
dx

x3 + y 3 = 3xy.

Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation x3 + y 3 = 3xy with respect to x and remember that y is
a function of x :

dy dy dy
3x2 + 3y 2 = 3y + 3x ⇐⇒ (y 2 − x) = y − x2
dx | {z dx} dx
product rule
2
dy y−x
∴ = 2 . (8.1)
dx y −x

8.1 Logarithmic Differentiation

The calculation of derivatives of complicated functions involving products, quotients, or powers

can often be simplified by taking logarithms.

√
x2 3 7x − 14
Example 8.4. Differentiate y = .
(1 + x2 )4

36
 Solution:
We take logarithms of both sides of the equation and use the Laws of Logarithms to simplify:

√ √
ln y = ln x2 3 7x − 14 − ln(1 + x2 )4 = ln x2 + ln 3 7x − 14 − 4 ln(1 + x2 )

1
=2 ln x + ln(7x − 14) − 4 ln(1 + x2 )
3
y0 2 7 8x 2 1 8x
∴ = + − 2
= + −
y x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x x 3(x − 2) 1 + x2
√
x2 3 7x − 14 2
   
0 2 1 8x 1 8x
∴ y =y + − = + − .
x 3x − 6 1 + x2 (1 + x2 )4 x 3x − 6 1 + x2

8.1.1 Derivatives of Functions of the form y = f (x)g(x)

Functions of the form y = f (x)g(x) in which f (x) and g(x) are nonconstant functions of x are
neither exponential functions nor power functions.
Functions of this form can be differentiated using logarithmic differentiation.
√
x
Example 8.5. Differentiate y = x .

Solution:
Since both the base and the exponent are variable, we use logarithmic differentiation:

√
x
√
ln y = ln x = x ln x
| {z }
product rule
0
√
y √ d d √ x ln x 1 ln x 2 + ln x
∴ = x [ln x] + ln x [ x] = + √ =√ + √ = √
y dx dx x 2 x x 2 x 2 x
   
2 + ln x √ 2 + ln x
0 x
∴ y =y √ =x √
2 x 2 x

dy
Example 8.6. Use logarithmic differentiation to find if y = (x2 + 1)sin x .
dx

37
 Solution:
Since both the base and the exponent are variable, we use logarithmic differentiation:

ln y = ln (x2 + 1)sin x = (sin x) ln(x2 + 1)

 
| {z }
product rule
0
y d d
∴ = sin x [ln(x2 + 1)] + ln(x2 + 1) [sin x]
y dx dx
2x
= sin x · 2 + ln(x2 + 1) · cos x
x +1
2x sin x
= 2 + (cos x) ln(x2 + 1)
x + 1   
0 2x sin x 2 2 sin x 2x sin x 2
∴ y =y + (cos x) ln(x + 1) = (x + 1) + (cos x) ln(x + 1) .
x2 + 1 x2 + 1

9 Application of Derivative

Theorem 9.1 (Increasing/Decreasing Test). Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed

interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b).

(a) If f 0 (x) > 0 for every value of x in (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].

(b) If f 0 (x) < 0 for every value of x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

(c) If f 0 (x) = 0 for every value of x in (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].

Example 9.2. Find the intervals on which f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 is increasing and the intervals on
which it is decreasing.

Solution
A function increase when its derivative is positive and decrease when its derivative is negative.

f 0 (x) = 2x − 4 = 2(x − 2) =⇒ f 0 (x) < 0 if x < 2 and f 0 (x) > 0 if x > 2.

Since f is continuous everywhere, it follows that

f is decreasing on (−∞, 2) and f is increasing on (2, +∞).

38
Theorem 9.3 (Concavity Test). Let f be twice differentiable on an open interval.

(a) If f 00 (x) > 0 for every value of x in the open interval, then f is concave up on that interval.

(b) If f 00 (x) < 0 for every value of x in the open interval, then f is concave downward on that
interval.

Example 9.4. Determine the intervals on which f (x) = x3 is concave up and/ or concave down.

Solution f (x) = x3 =⇒ f 0 (x) = 3x2 =⇒ f 00 (x) = 6x.

=⇒ f 00 (x) > 0 if x > 0 and f 00 (x) < 0 if x < 0.

So, f (x) = x3 is concave down on the interval (−∞, 0) and concave up on the interval (0, ∞).

Definition 9.5. An inflection point is a point where the graph of a function has a tangent line
and where the curve changes its direction of concavity and is given by

Example 9.6. Find the inflection points, if any, of f (x) = x4 .

Solution
f (x) = x4 =⇒ f 0 (x) = 4x3 =⇒ f 00 (x) = 12x2 .

=⇒ f 00 (x) > 0 for x < 0 and for x > 0.

Thus, there is no change in concavity and hence no inflection point at x = 0.

Example 9.7. Consider the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1. Use the second derivatives of f to
locate the inflection points of f .

Solution
Calculating the first two derivatives of f we obtain

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) and f 00 (x) = 6x − 6 = 6(x − 1).

39
that there is an inflection point at x = 1, since f changes from concave down to concave up at
that point. The inflection point is (1, f (1)) = (1, 1).

Definition 9.8. A critical point of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that
either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.

Example 9.9. Find all critical points of f (x) = x3 − 3x + 1.

Solution

f (x) = x3 − 3x + 1 =⇒ f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 3 =⇒ f 0 (x) = 3(x2 − 1)

f 0 (x) = 0 =⇒ x2 − 1 = 0 =⇒ x = ±1.

We conclude that the critical points are x = −1 and x = 1.

9.1 Absolute Extrema

A Procedure for Finding the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function f on a Finite Closed
Interval [a, b]

Step 1. Find the critical points of f in (a, b).

Step 2. Evaluate f at all the critical points and at the endpoints a and b.

Step 3. The largest of the values in Step 2 is the absolute maximum value of f on [a, b] and the
smallest value is the absolute minimum.

Example 9.10. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function

f (x) = 2x3 − 15x2 + 36x

on the interval [1, 5]

40
Solution

f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 30x + 36. f 0 (x) = 0 =⇒ x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 =⇒ (x − 2)(x − 3) = 0.

So, the critical points are x = 2 and x = 3. Notice that each of these critical numbers lies in the
interval (1, 5)
Next, we evaluate f at the endpoints and at the critical points.

Critical point values:

f (2) = 2(2)3 − 15(2)2 + 36(2) = 16 − 60 + 72 = 28

f (3) = 2(3)3 − 15(3)2 + 36(3) = 54 − 135 + 108 = 27

Endpoint values:

f (1) = 2(1)3 − 15(1)2 + 36(1) = 2 − 15 + 36 = 23

f (5) = 2(5)3 − 15(5)2 + 36(5) = 250 − 375 + 180 = 55.

Absolute maximum value is 55 and it occurs at x = 5 whereas the absolute minimum value is 23
and it occurs at x = 1.

9.2 L’Hopital’s Rule

 
0 ∞
9.2.1 For Indeterminate limits i.e., form , or
0 ∞
0
f (x) f
lim = lim 0
x→a g(x) x→a g

Examples 9.11. Use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate

√
3x − sin(x) 1+x−1 x − sin(x) ex
(a.) lim , (b.) lim , (c.) lim , (d.) lim (9.1)
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x3 x→∞ x2

41
 Solution

(a.)
3x − sin(x) 0
lim = .
x→0 x 0

Therefore,
3x − sin(x) (3 − cos(x))
lim = lim =2
x→0 x x→0 1

(b.)
√
1+x−1 0
lim = .
x→0 x 0

Therefore,
1
√
2 1+x 1
lim =
x→0 1 2

(c.)
x − sin(x) 0
lim 3
= .
x→0 x 0

Therefore,
x − sin(x) (1 − cos(x)) 0
lim = lim 2
=
x→0 x x→0 3x 0

∴
(1 − cos(x)) sin(x) 1
lim = =
x→0 3x2 6x 6

(d.)
ex ∞
lim 2
=
x→∞ x ∞

Therefore,
ex ex ex
lim = lim = lim =∞
x→∞ x2 x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2

42
9.2.2 For Indeterminate limits i.e., form (∞ · 0, or ∞ − ∞)

Examples 9.12. Use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate

   
1 1 1
(a.) lim x sin , (b.) lim − (9.2)
x→∞ x x→0 sin(x) x

Solution

(a.)
 
1
lim x sin =∞·∞
x→∞ x

Therefore  
1
  sin
1 x 0
lim x sin = lim =
x→∞ x x→∞ 1 0
x
by L’H rule      
1 1 1
sin − 2
cos
x x x
lim = lim =1
1
 
x→∞ x→∞ 1
−
x x2

9.2.3 Indeterminate limits i.e., form (1∞ , or 00 and ∞0 )

Theorem 9.13. If lim ln(x) = L then

x→a

lim f (x) = lim eln f (x) = eL

x→a x→a

for any a finite or infinite.

Examples 9.14. Use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate

1 1
(a.) lim+ (1 + x) x = e, (b.) lim x x (9.3)
x→0 x→∞

43
 Solution

1 1
(a.) lim+ (1 + x) x = 1∞ Let f (x) = (1 + x) x ∴
x→0

1 ln (1 + x) 0
lim+ ln (1 + x) x = lim+ =
x→0 x→0 x 0

by L’H rule
1
1+x
lim =1
x→0+ 1

Therefore
1
lim+ (1 + x) x = lim+ f (x) = lim+ eln f (x) = e1 = e
x→0 x→0 x→0

(b.) Home Work

10 Anti-derivative (Integration)

10.1 Constants, Power, Exponential

xn+1
Z Z
n
(1) x dx = +C (2) ex dx = ex + C
n+1
Z Z
1
(3) a dx = ax + C, (5) dx = ln |x| + C
x

10.2 Trigonometric Functions

Z Z
(1) sin x dx = − cos x + C (2) cos x dx = sin x + C
Z Z
(3) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C (4) sec2 x dx = tan x + C
Z Z
(5) csc2 x dx = − cot x + C (6) csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

44
10.3 The Indefinite Integral

The process of finding antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation or integration

Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C.

where C represents an arbitrary constant. The expression is used for an antiderivative of f and is
called an indefinite integral. Thus,

d
[F (x)] = f (x).
dx

10.4 Properties of the Indefinite Integral

Suppose that F (x) and G(x) are antiderivatives of f (x) and g(x), respectively, and that c is a
constant. Then:

(a) A constant factor can be moved through an integral sign

Z Z
cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx.

(b) An antiderivative of a sum is the sum of the antiderivatives

Z Z Z
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

(c) An antiderivative of a difference is the difference of the antiderivatives

Z Z Z
[f (x) − g(x)] dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx.

45
Examples 10.1. Evaluate the following integrals

√
Z Z Z Z Z
2 1
(a) x dx (b) dx (c) x dx (d) 4 cos x dx (e) (1 + x4 ) dx
x5
t2 − 2t4
Z Z
5 2
(f ) (3x − 6x + 8x − 5) dx (g) dt.
t4

Solution

x2+1 x3
Z
(a) x2 dx = +C = +C
2+1 3
x−5+1 x−4
Z Z
1 −5 1
(b) 5
dx = x dx = + C = − +C =− 4 +C
x −5 + 1 4 4x
1 3
√ x 2 +1 x3/2
Z Z
1/2 2x 2
(c) x dx = x dx = 1 +C = +C = +C
2
+1 3/2 3
Z Z
(d) 4 cos x = 4 cos x dx = 4 sin x + C

x5
Z Z Z
4
(e) (1 + x ) dx = dx + x4 dx = x + +C
5
3x6 6x3 8x2 x6
Z
(f) (3x5 − 6x2 + 8x − 5) dx =
− + − 5x + C = − 2x3 + 4x2 − 5x + C
6 3 2 2
Z 2
t − 2t4 t2 2t4
Z   Z
1
t−2 − 2 dt = − − 2t + C


(g) 4
dt = 4
− 4 dt =
t t t t

10.5 Properties of The Definite Integral

(a) If a is in the domain of f , we define

Z a
f (x) dx = 0.
a

(b) If f is integrable on [a, b], then we define

Z a Z b
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx.
b a

46
Example 10.2. Evaluate the following integrals

Z 9 √
Z 4 √
Z π/2 Z ln 3
2 sin x
(a) x dx (b) x x dx (c) dx (d) 5ex dx
5
Z 1 −1 1
Z 1 0 0
1
(e) dx (f ) x2 dx
−e x 1

Solution
Z 9 9
√ 2 3/2 2 52
(a) x dx = x = (27 − 1) =
1 3 1 3 3
Z 9 Z 9 9
2
√ 5/2 2 7/2 2 4118
(b) x x dx = x dx = x = (2187 − 128) =
4 4 7 4 7 7
Z π/2 π/2
sin x 1 1 1 1
(c) dx = − cos x = − [cos (π/2) − cos 0] = − [0 − 1] =
0 5 5 0 5 5 5
Z ln 3 ln 3
x x
= 5 eln 3 − e0 = 5[3 − 1] = 10
 
(d) 5e dx = 5e
0 0
Z −1 −1
1
(e) dx = ln |x| = ln | − 1| − ln | − e| = ln |1| − ln |e| = 0 − 1 = −1
−e x −e
Z 1 1
2 x3 1 1
(f) x dx = = − =0
1 3 1 3 3

10.6 Integration by Substitution

Remark 10.3. If the power of Trig. function is odd, peel off one power of sin x or cos x and use

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.

Remark 10.4. If the power of Trig. function is even, use the half-angle identities i.e use

1 1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x) cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x).
2 2

47
Examples 10.5. Evaluate the following integrals

Z Z Z Z
2 50 dx
(1) 2x(x + 1) dx (2) sin(x + 9) dx (3) cos 5x dx (4)
5
1
3
x −8
√
Z Z Z Z
2 2 x3 2
(5) sin x cos x dx (6) xe dx (7) x x − 1 dx (8) cos3 x dx
Z
(9) sin2 x dx.

Solution

Z
du
(1) 2x(x2 + 1)50 dx. Let u = x2 + 1 =⇒ du = 2x dx =⇒ dx = .
2x

So,

u51 (x2 + 1)51

Z Z Z
2 50 50 du 50
2x(x + 1) dx = 2x u = u du = +C = +C
2x 51 51

Z
(2) sin(x + 9) dx Let u = x + 9 =⇒ du = dx.

So,

Z Z
sin(x + 9) dx = sin u du = − cos u + C = − cos(x + 9) + C

Z
du
(3) cos 5x dx Let u = 5x =⇒ du = 5 dx =⇒ dx = .
5

So,

Z Z Z
du 1 1 1
cos 5x dx = cos u = cos u du = sin u + C = sin 5x + C
5 5 5 5

Z
dx 1 1
(4)
5 . Let u = x − 8 =⇒ du = dx =⇒ dx = 3 du.
1
x −8 3 3
3

48
 So,

u−4
Z Z Z
dx 3 du 3

5 = =3 u−5 du = 3 +C =− 4 +C
1
x − 8 u5 −4 4u
3

Z
3 du
(5) x2 ex dx. Let u = x3 =⇒ du = 3x2 dx =⇒ dx = .
3x2

So,

3
eu ex
Z Z Z
2 x3 du
2 u du
xe dx = xe = eu = +C = +C
3x2 3 3 3

Z
du
(6) sin2 x cos x dx. Let u = sin x =⇒ du = cos x dx =⇒ dx = .
cos x

So,

u3 sin3 x
Z Z Z
2 2 du 2
sin x cos x dx = u cos x = u du = +C = +C
cos x 3 3

√
Z
(7) x2 x − 1 dx. Let u = x − 1 =⇒ x = u + 1 =⇒ dx = du.

So,

√ √
Z Z Z Z
1
2 2 2
u5/2 + 2u3/2 +1/2 du


x x − 1 dx = (u + 1) u du = (u + 2u + 1)u du = 2

2 4 2 2 4 2
= u7/2 + u5/2 + u3/2 + C = (x − 1)7/2 + (x − 1)5/2 + (x − 1)3/2 + C
7 5 3 7 5 3

Z Z Z
3 2
(8) cos x dx = cos x cos x dx = (1 − sin2 x) cos x dx.
du
Let u = sin x =⇒ du = cos x dx =⇒ dx = .
cos x

49
 So,

u3
Z Z Z Z
3 2 2 du
cos x dx = (1 − sin x) cos x dx = (1 − u ) cos x = (1 − u2 ) du = u − +C
cos x 3
sin3 x
= sin x − +C
3

(9) Let sin2 x = 1−cos 2x

2

1 − cos 2x
Z Z Z Z
2 cos 2x
sin x dx = dx = dx −
2 2
1
= x − sin(2x) + C
4

10.7 Integration by Part

Z Z
0
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f 0 (x) dx

If
u = f (x) and v = g(x), then du = f 0 (x)dx and dv = g 0 (x)dx.

So, the formula for integration by parts becomes

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

Examples 10.6. Evaluate the following integrals

Z Z Z
x
(a) x cos x dx (b) xe dx (c) ln x dx.

Solutionp

50
(a) let:

u=x dv = cos x dx ∴ du = dx v = sin x

Z Z
∴ x cos x dx = x sin x − sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C

(b) let:

u=x dv = ex dx ∴ du = dx v = ex
Z Z
∴ xe dx = xe − ex dx = xex − ex + C.
x x

(c) So

1
u = ln x dv = dx ∴ du = dx v=x
Z Z x Z
x
∴ ln x dx = x ln x − dx = x ln x − dx = x ln x − x + C
x

10.7.1 Repeated Integration by Parts

It is sometimes necessary to use integration by parts more than once in the same problem.

Examples 10.7. Evaluate the following integrals

Z
x2 e−x dx

Solution: let

u = x2 dv = e−x dx ∴ du = 2x dx v = −e−x
Z Z
∴ x2 e−x dx = −x2 e−x + 2 xe−x dx (10.1)

51
 Z
Next, we consider xe−x dx.

u=x dv = e−x dx ∴ du = dx v = −e−x

Z Z
∴ xe dx = −xe + e−x dx = −xe−x − e−x .
−x −x
(10.2)

Combination of equation (8.1) and (10.2), gives

Z
x2 e−x dx = − x2 e−x + 2 −xe−x − e−x + C

= − x2 + 2x + 2 e−x + C.

10.8 Integration by Partial Fractions

Definition 10.8. A rational function

P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

is called a proper rational function if the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. Otherwise
it is called improper rational function.

Remark 10.9. In other to write f (x) as a sum of partial fractions, f (x) most be proper rational
function.

10.8.1 Integration of Improper Rational

Remark 10.10. In case f (x), is Improper rational function then the process of polynomial
division (long division) must be used to reduce it to proper rational fraction.
Z 3
x +x
Example 10.11. Find dx.
x−1

Solution

52
Using Long Division we have

x3 + x 2
= x2 + x + 2 +
x−1 x−1

ingratiating both side

x3 + x
Z Z  
2
=⇒ dx = x2 + x + 2 + dx
x−1 x−1
x3 x2
= + + 2x + 2 ln |x − 1| + C.
3 2

2x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4
Z
Example 10.12. Compute dx.
2x + 1
x3 x2 1
Solution: + + 3x + ln |2x + 1| + C.
3 2 2

10.8.2 Integration of Proper Rational Fraction

10.8.3 Linear Factor

Example
f (x) A B
= +
(x + a)(x + b) (x + a) (x + b)

x2 + 2x − 1
Z
Example 10.13. Evaluate dx.
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x

Solution

Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we don’t need to
divide. Thus

x2 + 2x − 1 x2 + 2x − 1 x2 + 2x − 1
= =
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x x(2x2 + 3x − 2) x(2x − 1)(x + 2)

53
Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition has the
form

x2 + 2x − 1 A B C
= + +
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) x 2x − 1 x + 2
(10.3)
x2 + 2x − 1 A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x − 1)
=⇒ =
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) x(2x − 1)(x + 2)
(10.4)

=⇒ x2 + 2x − 1 = A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x − 1) (10.5)

Putting x = 0 in (10.5), we get 0 + 0 − 1 = −2A + 0 + 0

(10.6)
1
=⇒ A = . (10.7)
2
(10.8)

Putting x = −2 in (10.5), we get 4 − 4 − 1 = 0 + 0 + (−2)(−5)C

(10.9)
1
=⇒ C = − . (10.10)
10
(10.11)
  
1 1 2 1 1
Putting x = in (10.5), we get + − 1 = 0 + B +2 +0
2 4 2 2 2
(10.12)
1
=⇒ B = . (10.13)
5

x2 + 2x − 1 1/2 1/5 1/10

∴ = + − .
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) x 2x − 1 x + 2

54
So, integrating both side we have

x2 + 2x − 1
Z Z Z Z
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
dx = + − . (10.14)
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) 2 x 5 2x − 1 10 x+2
| {z }
Be careful here!
2
x + 2x − 1
Z
1 1 1
=⇒ dx = ln |x| + ln |2x − 1| − ln |x + 2| + K.
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) 2 10 10

Example 10.14. Compute the following integrals:

Z Z Z
x dx 5 + 5x 2x + 3
(a) 2
(b) 2
dx (c) dx
x + 2x − 3 x + 2x − 3 2x3 + 6x2 + 4x
3x2 + 6x + 2
Z Z 4
x +2
(d) dx (e) dx
2x3 + 6x2 + 4x x2 − 1

Solution:

3 1 5
(a) ln |x + 3| + ln |x − 1| + K (b) ln |(x + 3)(x − 1)| + K
4 4 2
3 1 1
(c) ln |x| − ln |x + 2| − ln |x + 1| + K
4 4 2
1 x3 3 x−1
(d) ln |x(x + 2)(x + 1)| + K (e) + x + ln + K.
2 3 2 x+1

10.8.4 Repeated Linear Factors

Example
f (x) A B C D
= + + +
(x + a)4 (x + a) (x + a)2 (x + a)3 (x + a)4

Example 10.15. Find

x2 + 1
Z
dx.
(x − 3)(x − 2)2

Solution

x2 + 1 A B C
= + + (10.15)
(x − 3)(x − 2)2 (x − 3) (x − 2) (x − 2)2

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 =⇒ (x2 + 1) = A(x − 2)2 + B(x − 2)(x − 3) + C(x − 3) (10.16)

solving this we have

A = 10, B = −9, C = −5

x2 + 1 10 9 5
2
= − − (10.17)
(x − 3)(x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 2) (x − 2)2

Integrating both side we have

x2 + 1
Z Z Z Z
10 9 5
dx = dx − dx − dx (10.18)
(x − 3)(x − 2)2 (x − 3) (x − 2) (x − 2)2
5
= 10 ln |x − 3| − 9 ln |x − 2| + +K (10.19)
x−2

10.8.5 Irreducible Distinct Factors

Example
f (x) Ax + B B
= 2 +
(ax2 + bx + c)(ex + d) ax + bx + c ex + d

Example 10.16. Compute the following integrals:

Z
dx
x(x2+ 1)2

Answer

1 1
ln |x| − ln(x2 + 1) + + K.
2 2(x2 + 1)

References
[1] Tijani Apalara, Calculus Lecture Note, University of Hafr Al Batin, K.S.A.

[2] Richard N. Aufmann, Richard D. Nation, Algebra and Trigonometry 8th Edition, Cengage

Learning, Stamford.

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[3] George B. Thoma, Maurice D. Weir, Joel R. Hass, Thomas’ Calculus Early (Transcenden-

tals), Twelfth Edition, Pearson (2010).

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