ISSN: 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res.

12(01), 1124-1159

Journal Homepage: - www.journalijar.com

Article DOI: 10.21474/IJAR01/18232

DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/18232

RESEARCH ARTICLE
THE OCCURRENCE OF PESTICIDES IN ENVIRONMENT AND CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR
THEIR REMEDIATION AND MANAGEMENT

Kishore Babu Merakanapalli1, Subramaniam Gopalakrishnan2, Anila Rani Pullagura1 and Kasarabada Sai
Kalyani1
1. Department of Biotechnology, Maris Stella College, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh-520008. India.
2. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru 502324, Telangana,
India.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Manuscript Info Abstract
……………………. ………………………………………………………………
Manuscript History Agriculture is facing major challenges affected by erosion, salinity and
Received: 20 November 2023 soil degradation. Chemical pesticides and fungicides are more used the
Final Accepted: 31 December 2023 agricultural lands. Chemical pesticides and fungicides are more used
Published: January 2024 environment and human diseases causes. The better approaches in
agriculture, biocontrol microorganisms, and Plant Growth Promoting
Key words:-
Actinomycetes, PGP, Chemical (PGP) have emerged as safe for the environment, and also safe
Fertilizers alternatives to chemical pesticides. Plant associated microorganisms
have helped in soil nutrients enhancement, nitrogen fixation, phosphate
solubilization, siderophore production, β-1,3glucanase, cellulase,
protease, and lipases. These microbes have tolerances to the biotic and
abiotic stress, pH, salinity drought, extremes temperature, heavy
metals, and pesticide pollution. This summarized and discussed in this
review evaluated actinomycetes related research and its benefits. These
bacteria are biocontrol of plant pathogens and enhance the plant growth
in agriculture.

Copy Right, IJAR, 2024,. All rights reserved.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Introduction:-
In earth's ecosystem plants are play major role in humans and animals Elnahal et al., 2022; De Rosa et al., 1996;
Glick 2010. In sustainable agriculture; plants growth-promoting bacteria and transgenic plants are use Lucy et al.,
2004. Chemical pesticides, fungicides, and other toxic chemicals used in agriculture; they effected environmental
contamination and humans diseases occurecs Nakas & Hagedorn (1990); Canaday 1995; Hokkanen et al., 1995. The
replacement of chemical pesticides, the better approaches to controlling plant pathogens and insecticides to used
plant growth-promoting bacteria they helps plant growth Kloepper (1994); Davison (1988).

Non-pathogenic Actinomycetes can suppress diseases as well as to promote plant growth. The plant diseases can
suppression by the process of microbial antagonism or antagonistic activity, accumulation of nutrient and hormonal
stimulation Van Loon 2007. Plant growth promoter Actinomycetes to binding with various parts plant such as roots
and leaves: root binding bacteria are call it has a rhizosphere bacteria, leaves binding bacteria are bacterial
endophytes Lynch & Whipps 1990.

Soil is packing of numorus microorganisms Viz., Bacteria, Fungi, Algae, and Protozoa. In those scenario bacteria
have covered with (i.e~95%) soil Schoenborn et al., 2004. Rhizobacteria help growth of various crop plants such as

Corresponding Author:- Kishore Babu Merakanapalli 1124

Address:- Department of Biotechnology, Maris Stella College, Vijayawada, Andhra
Pradesh-520008. India.
ISSN: 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res. 12(01), 1124-1159

Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Cereals, and Sorghum. These bacteria are helpful for plant growth and control of plant
pathogens Gopalakrishan et al., 2017: Santoyo et al., 2016.

The various strategies are used for high yield quality- quantity, and control of plant pathogens. In that way,
extensively used chemical fertilizers and pesticides are more costly than normal PGP pesticides, with the slightest
negative effect on the environment. These problems are rectified by to use and regeneration of environmental eco-
friendly pesticides, organic farming, human health concern methods in crop production, and protection Esitken et
al., 2002. The eco-friendly option includes the use of Plant Growth Promoting (PGP) microbes, synthetic pesticides,
bio-fertilizers, biocontrol potential microbes, and vermicompost Rupela et al., 2005. Digramatic repesentination in
image 01.

Plant growth-promoting bacteria

Soil is an excellent niche: the growth of number of microorganisms such as Bacteria, Fungi, and Protozoa. PGP
bacteria have positive impact on plant pathogens, plant growth, and synthesis of secondary metabolites. PGP
bacteria are beneficial to root colonizers and live within the plant tissues Mitra et al., 2022; Santoyo et al., 2016:
Pérez-Montaño et al., 2014; Klopper et al., 1981.

PGP bacteria is beneficial effect on plant health, antagonized phytopathogens, reduce the consequential loss of plant,
formation of root colonization, synthesis of anti-microbial compounds, assimilation nutrients, phosphate
solubilization, synthesis of secondary metabolites and synthesis of active compounds Viz., siderophore production,
Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylate (ACC) and also releases the hydrolytic enzymes
such as., hydrogen cyanide (HCN), protease, lipase, cellulase, and ammonia Andreolli et al., 2018; Mantelin &
Touraine 2004; Yang et al., 2009; López-Bucioetal 2007; Mantelin & Touraine 2004.

Plant Growth Promoting bacteria has commercialization is still under process, they limited understanding of plant
interaction some bacteria are used commercially as adjuncts to agriculture practices such as Agrobacterium species,
Bacillus species, Pseudomonas species, Streptomyces species, and Rhizobia species. PGP bacteria has inoculation
are use in small number of crops in world-wide agricultural practices. PGP are effects directly or indirectly. Plant
growth promoter bacteriais has directly by facilitating resource acquisition nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential
nutrients. Indirectly PGP bacteria have decreasing the inhibitory effects of various pathogens on plant growth and
development in the forms of biocontrol agents Glick 2012. The data was representing by figure 02 and table 01.

Actinomycetes diversity
Rhizosphere micro-organism help plants in plant growth promotion and yield. Actinomycetes are one of the major
components of rhizosphere microbial populations Sreevidya et al., 2015. Actinomycetes are gram-positive, aerobic,
mycelia formation bacteria, with high G+C content and phylum actinobacteria Mevs et al., 2000. They can flourish
in bulk soil, rhizospheric soil, stay in entophytic or epiphyte in plant tissue. The Actinomycetes population can be
distributed with average 10-4-106 g-1soil in various crop fields Shaharokhi et al., 2005; Ul-Hassan & Wellington
2000.

Actinomycetes are originated in different habitats Viz., freshwater, seawater, soil, marsh area; however they are
dominant in the dry, humic, and calcareous types of soils. Actinomycetes are synthesis antimicrobial compounds
thus are preventing for growth of common root pathogens Jog et al., 2016. Some researches work down by to reports
regarding their ability of phosphate solubilization, organic acid, and siderophore production. Actinomycetes to
produces the large number of enzymes, these enzymes are helps directly or indirectly for the plant growth Doumbou
et al., 2001; Al-Aksar & Rashad 2010; Sadeghi et al., 2012. Enzymes such as Cellulase, Chitinase, Phytase,
Phosphatase, and Protease play major role in maintaining soil ecology, soil fertility and soil health, inhabitant
macro, micro-organisms of soil Sinsabaugh et al., 1991.

Actinobacteria are free-living microorganisms in soils and other ecosystem, and also found in endophytic (or)
epiphyte. Actinomycetes are control a wide range of host pathogens viz., Barley, Wheat, Rice, Soybean, Cowpea,
Chickpea, Banana, Tomato, and Chinese cabbage Martinez-Hidalgo et al., 2014; Vijayabharathi et al., 2016. The
date was representing table-03. Actinomycetes are one of the major rhizosphere microbial communities and exhibit
the extraordinary plant growth beneficial, such as Micromonospora sp., Streptomyces sp., Streptosporangium sp.,
and Thermobifida species. Those spices are shown as a biocontrol agent against the root fungal pathogens, plant
growth, and shoot-root elongation Merzaeva & Shirokikh 2006; Franco-Correa et al., 2010.

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They are classified into different genera based on their physiology and morphology. Based on actinomycetes are
some of the known as Actinomyces, Nocardia, Streptomyces, Thermoactinomyces, Waksmania, Thermopolyspora,
Micromonospora, Thermomonospora, Actinoplanes, and Streptosporangium Babalola et al., 2009.

Among streptomyces genus happens to be the most regarded and well known due to its numerous identified
importances. Its importance has been established in health, agriculture, and other important sectors. In this review,
emphasis will be on this genus in relation to its plant growth promotion abilities as a biocontrol agent and
biofertilizers. We will also consider the strategies common to their actions as plant growth promoters Olanrewaju &
Babalola 2019.

Many years’ researchers assumed Actinomycetes are one of the major rhizosphere microbial communities and their
exhibit extraordinary plant growth and it’s beneficial. More over Micromonospora and Streptomyces spices are
shown as a biocontrol agent against fungal pathogens and plant growth Merzaeva & Shirokikh 2006; Franco-Correa
et al.,2010.

Overview of the Streptomyces genus and biocontrol agent

Streptomyces are important group of soil bacteria from the Actinomycetes family Vurukonda SSKP et al., 2018;
Van Dissel et al., 2014. Streptomyces is the predominant genus followed by Actinomycetes, Actinomadura,
Actinoplanes, Frankia, and Verrucosispora Martinez-Hidalgo et al., 2014; Vijayabharathi et al., 2016. Streptomyces
has been considered as a biocontrol agent in modern agriculture, and also produces antibiotics. Streptomyces species
are useful for biocontrol of plant pathogens.This bacteria are produces a wide range of secondary metabolites that
can suppress the pathogenic microorganisms from their various crop plants Valencia-Cantero et al., 2007. The data
was represent by the table 02.

Streptomyces species are large part of the Rhizosphere soil microbes. They are living both natural and agricultural
environments soils. Streptomyces are best alternative improving the nutrients availability to crop plants, and plant
growth promoting activity in agricultural systems. Plant growth promoting streptomyces (PGPS) are enhancing the
plants growth in direct and indirect biosynthetic pathway in plants Figueiredo et al., 2010. Streptomyces have direct
mechanisms essential factors involve some are crop growth, growth hormones, and iron acquisition El-Tarabily &
Sivasithamparam 2006; Glick 2012; Bouizgarne 2013.

Directly stimulation
In direct mechanism streptomyces species are involving, like Nitrogen fixation, Phosphate solubilization,
accumulation and distribution of minerals El-Tarabily et al., 2008; El-Tarabily & Sivasithamparam 2006, and also
produces the PGP enzymes, Viz., Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokines, (AAC) 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate. To
obviate this problem and obtain higher yields, farmers become increasingly dependent on chemical nitrogen and
phosphorus sources. Many agricultural lands are lack one or more of these compounds Glick 2012.

Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for all crop plants, and in atmosphere 78% of nitrogen is available. The atmospheric
N2 is converted into a plant utilizes by the process of nitrogen fixation Kim & Rees 1994. Biological nitrogen
fixation is estimated between 200 and 300 million tons each year globally of both terrestrial and marine ecosystem
Pedraza 2008. Rhizosphere bacteria have a huge amount of 15 to 70% of nitrogen Neumann & Rohmeld 2001.
Biological nitrogen fixation in the atmosphere N2 converts ammonium by symbiotic process. This process is found
in eukaryotes, prokaryote’s kingdom e.g Bacteria Dixon & Kahn 2004; Kim & Rees 1994. In symbiotic nitrogen
fixation genes are broadest dived into fix genes, nif, and Nod. The nod early steps of root formation, nif is
structurally homologous to the 20 K, fix genes are encoding 20 different proteins with seven operons Glick 2012.
Nif genes are essential for nitrogen fixation, these genes around by both symbiotic and free-living systems Fischer
1994; Dixon & Kahn 2004.

In non-symbiotic bacteria are producing a small amount of nitrogen, this are bacterial endophytes Viz.,
Azospirillum, Azotobacter Azocarus Cyanobacteria, and Glucono acetobacter diazotrophicus Glick 2012:
Bhattacharya PN & Jha DK 2012. Actinomycetes are nitrogen fixation in both symbiotic and non-symbiotic
conditions eg., Arthrobacter, Agromces, Corynebacterium, Micromonospora, Mycobacterium, Propionibacteria, and
Streptomyces Benson DR & Silvester WB 1993; Sellstedt & Richau KH 2013 the diagrammatic represention figure
03 and table-04.

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Phosphate solubilization
Phosphate (P) is one of the essential macronutrients for biological plant growth, and development. It is available in
organic and inorganic forms Zaidi A et al., 2009. The low availability of P is found in insoluble forms, while be
plants absorb it only two soluble forms one is monobasic and another one is dibasic. It is a unique characteristic
feature of the phosphor is low availability to plants because of slow diffusion and high fixation soil. In many soils
have soluble phosphors are typically found in 1PPM Yin Z et al., 2015; Bhattacharyya & Jha 2012; Ahemad & Khan
2012.

A high concentration of phosphate solubilising bacteria is commonly found in rhizosphere when compare to non-
rhizosphere soil. The rhizosphere bacteria are found in both aerobic and anaerobic strains. Some bacteria are like to
Streptomyces, Achromobacter, Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Erwinia, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas Hilda
Rodríguez & Reynaldo Fraga 1999. Phosphates anions are using plant them extraordinary performances. Like re-
active and also interact with Al3+, Ca2+, Fe3+, Mg2+. Phosphate cat ions are insoluble phosphate some are
respectively; Aluminium phosphate, Tricalcium phosphate, ferric phosphate, magnesium phosphate complexes
Hagin & Hadas1962.

The present day's phosphate is shifting through agriculture fields; phosphate-solubilising bacteria were increasing
the soil fertility, these bacteria are converting insoluble P to soluble P by releasing organic acids, chelation, and also
ion exchange Narula et al. 2000; White. w 2000. Most of the considerable numbers of bacterial species are, they are
mostly associated with the rhizosphere plant, beneficial effect on plant growth, therefore they use of development of
plant growth and also useful in biofertilizers and biocontrol agents in agriculture Rodríguez & Fraga 1999 the
diagrammatic represention is image 04 and 05.

Phytohormones
Hormones are chemicals, it is the trigger of the plant’s it is a response to the under these critical situations. Most of
the microorganisms are producing phytohormones such as Auxins, Cytokinin, and Gibberellins. Microorganisms are
effectively growth on the shoots proliferation and enhance the uptake of nutrients, minerals, and water. Enterobacter
sp., Streptomyces rochei, and Streptomyces sundarbansensis this are produces various enzymes ACC, siderophore,
IAA, HCN, and phosphate solubilization nitric oxide (NO) and strigolactone for the growth and development of
plants Gray & Smith 2005; Sarkar et al., 2018: Han et al., 2018: Numan et al., 2018.

Siderophore production
Siderophore are chelating agents, it secreting many microorganisms, helps to mobilizing iron transport the ions.
Active oxygen and the ideal redox chemistry for the electron transport in all the above consideration iron is an
indispensable cofactor for different cellular processes in eukaryotes and most prokaryotes Andrews et al., 2003 ;
Halliwell & Gutteridge 1984. Iron is rich in sources in soil Hantke 2001. Fur and fe2+ binding sequences are
GATAATGAAATCATTATC, known as Fur box Escolar et al., 1999. Siderophore are produced iron and secreted
into the surrounding environmental condition, its play solubilization iron and minerals Schalk et al., 2011.

Cytokinins
Cytokinins help to develope root callus, shoot formation, totipotent stem cells in root and shoot meristem Numan et
al., 2018: Howell 2003. Cytokinins promote cell proliferation, regulating leaf phyllotaxy, gynoecium development,
and female gametophyte development, promoting phloem and auxin xylem Kieber & Schaller 2018. Cytokinins are
signalling to the plants; the signalling receptors are (AHK2), (AHK3), (AHK4), (CRE1), (WOL) and also useful in
plant growth Kakimoto 2003. In rhizobacteria Bacillus megaterium, Azotobacterial, Bacillus subtills, Pantoea
agglomerans, paenibacillus polymyxa, Phodospirillum rubrum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Rhizobium spp using
the cytokinins receptor they increasing plant growth-promoting López-Bucio et al., 2007; Atzorn et al., 1988;
Lorteau et al., 2001.

Gibberellin Production by bacteria

Gibberellin is plant hormone, it is essential for plant development processes like flowering, leaf expansion, seed
germination, elongation, pollen maturation, and trichome development Davière et al., 2003. Gibberellin one of the
most important compounds is found in nodules of the plant in Leguminosae species, they play crucial role in
hormonal balancing in plants, cell metabolism, and modified by microorganisms Cassán et al., 2003. In Phaseolus
lunatus plants Bardyhizobium were enhancing and elongation of the internode, plant growth. In this condition the

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bacterial strain have enhanced the plant growth, and produce GA1, GA19, GA20, and GA44. The Rhizobium sp is
producing a pure form of auxins and gibberellin.

Few reports are reported in microorganisms species like., Azospirillum sp, and Bacillus sp. are inoculate in wheat
roots they produce in gibberellin, its increase nitrogen uptake. GA 3 is produced by microorganisms to increase the
growth of maize roots, also increase the plant growth in cereal but other food crops Kucey 1988: Fulchieri et al.,
1993: Bottini et al., 1989.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC)

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) which help the attracting pollinators in crops, pollinator interactions, seed
disperse, and antagonistic activity of pathogens. Dudareva et al., 2013 reported the production of VOC in bacteria its
helps antagonistic activity in fusarium oxysporum Tomato plants, and also for developing bio-pesticides in tomato.
VOC producing bacteria are PGPR interaction with plants, biocontrol of phytopathogens, and antibiosis mechanism
in plants Vespermann et al., 2007. Numan et al., 2018 studied on Bacillus subtilis can stimulate hormonal singles in
arabidopsis thaliana, and it contains plant hormones. In this conclusion, the VOCs are increasing the plant immunity
and productivity, biocontrol of phytopathogens, production of biopesticides, attraction pollination in many
agricultural plants, and production of secondary metabolites.

Abscisic Acid
Abscisic Acid were identify in 1960s, develop and enhances the plant growth, stress responses, reproduction of plant
metabolites, participates in morphological, physiological, biochemical, molecular processes, vegetative growth,
modulation of root architecture, leaf senescence, and central regulator of abiotic stress in plants Dhakal et al., 2015.
Abscisic Acid is found in higher plants, bacteria, fungi and algae are producing in recently Carmen CA et al.,
2016;Takezawa et al., 2011. In plants that have under stressful environmental conditions such as water shortage,
high salinity, and extreme temperature, the ABA helps plants adapt and survive under these adverse conditions
Ullah et al., 2019; Shahzad et al., 2017; Forchetti et al., 2007. Clinical investigation on Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
are isolate in rice seed, Bacillus licheniformis and Pseudomonas flouroescenste isolated in helianthus annuus root,
these bacteria are produce abscisic acid in normal and salt-stressed condition.

ACC 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate
In the presence of enzyme ACC 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate PGP bacteria have facilitating root and shoot
growth in plants Glick 2012 & Glick et al., 1998 was proposed, ACC deaminase-producing bacteria binding to plant
surface, internal tissue of the plants, leaves, and flowers Glick 2014.

Ethylene
Ethylene one the simplest unsaturated hydrocarbon, derived from amino acid of methionine. Ethylene is responsible
for plant growth & development, and fruit ripening. Plants have produces phytohormones to react specifically and
quickly, plants produce ethylene to response many stresses. In recent study’s Arabidopsis and some other crop
species ethylene is key role, regulation of organ growth and yield increases under the abiotic stress Dubois et al.,
2018. Ethylene synthesis occurs in all higher plants through methionine-dependent pathway Nascimento et al., 2018
the semantically digram was repesnted by image 07.

Abiotic stress resistance of rhizobia

Agricultural productivity can be modulated by various environmental factors Viz., biotic and abiotic stress. Abiotic
stress resistance rhizobacteria are; they may not be able to full nitrogen fixation, under the stress condition (salinity,
acidity, nutrients deficiency, and extreme temperature). The abiotic stress is negative impact on the legume
nodulation, growth of plants and even increasing the strength of legume host. In rhizobium strains are utilization in
many agricultural applications, rhizobium inoculants must be competitive for nodule occupancy, nitrogen fixation,
and growth of physiological conditions Sharma et al., 2017. Therefore, the characterization of the indigenous
rhizobium population may be beneficial towards legume plants Agrawal et al., 2012. The data was represented by
the table-05

Salinity stress
Around 25 to 50% of lands are affected by soil salinity. Salinity is negative impact effects on the plant development
and fertile land, more over economy loss for world wide. Soil has soluble different salts in water Viz., Bicarbonate
(HCO3-), Calcium (ca), Carbonate (CO3), Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K), and Sulphate (SO 4-2) is called

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salinization Numan et al., 2018. Most of the plants have facing two types stress under the high salinity, Osmotic &
Ionic stress. Osmotic stress leads to the dehydration and accumulation of salts surround plant root. Ionic stress leads
to dehydration influx of sodium ions, efflux of potassium ions Del Carmen Orozco-Mosqueda et al., 2020.

Most of the fertility soils may be salinized by neutral salts (NaCl and Na 2So4) alkaline salts such (NaHCO3 and
Na2CO3), these salts are which is particularly detrimental to plants. Neutral and alkaline salt are caused by demage
to plants, uptake of low water potential ions, toxicity ions, and high-pH stress Song et al., 2017. Nacl is an
important source for soil, in plants have high-level of chloride ions be toxic, these ions are cells inhibit plant growth
Numan M et al., 2018. Some stress response genes are identified in plants e.g aquaporin, free radical scavengers,
embryogenesis abundant proteins, heat shock proteins, and ion transport. Arabidopsis thaliana, Lotus corniculatus,
and Oryza sativa L this plants are involving to control the salt tolerances in both the molecular and cellular level
Katiyar-Agarwal et al., 2006. The data were repesnted by Table 11

Soil acidification
Soil acidification is a major problem for agricultural sustainability lands; they are affecting approximately 10 to 30%
of land area in world-wide Kumawat et al., 2022; Sumner & Noble 2003. Soil acidification is defined as a low level
of ph; when the soil pH <4.5 fungal and bacterial growth is inhibited in roots, due to the decrease the plant
productivity. In soil, acidic conditions wood ash and lime are improved the soil pH and reduces bacterial wilt. Soil
acidification its effects on the different parameters in plants e.g Plant growth, uptake of nutrients, root growth, and
resistances in plant diseases Rout et al., 2001. When the soil pH is >6.0 soluble content increase the soil and plant
are more effective for the growth of plants by the physiologically and morphologically. In acidic soil pH <5.5 plant
essential nutrients cannot directly uptake by plants such as, Ca, K, Mo, and Mg Läuchli & Grattan, 2017. In acidic
conditions Ralstonia solanacearum bacteria is resistant to tobacco plants Smiley, 1975. The data were repesnted by
the table-06.

Heavy metals resistance

Heavy metals pollinated soils; significant environmental problem, it hurts agriculture and human health Nocelli et
al., 2016. Rhizobia bacteria are important drives of environmental and agricultural services. Heavy metals
concentration are affects the growth of microorganisms, influences microbial populations, and also losing the
antimicrobial properties. However, some meals have long-term contamination in soils like Cadmium (Cd) Lead
(Pb), and Zinc (Zn), these meals affect microbial diversity and composition. This contamination occurs depend upon
the meal’s availability and also influences some other factors such as climate, soil type, soil structure, presences of
organic matter, pH, and plant roots Mohamad et al., 2016. Maynaud et al., 2014 reported by the Mesorhizobium
metalliduransis are effective control of Anthyllis, the meta tolerance bacteria have a wide range of applications,
genes encoding metals efflux resistance to Zn and Cd some few are reports are represented by table 07.

Growth hormones in indole acetic acid (IAA)

IAA is a plant growth hormone which comes under the auxins group. They are regulating plant growth &
development, photosynthesis, responses to stressful condition, seed germination, plant cell division & elongation
Ullah et al., 2019. Auxin in plants are Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) (strong auxins), phenylacetic acid (PAA), Indole-
3-butyric acid week acid Jayasinghege et al., 2019. In IAA cellular process such as cell division, enlargement, and
differentiation, in plants vascular tissue formation, adventitious root initiation, apical dominance, developing and
fruit flowering. Ullah et al., 2019 studies on pea plants IAA genes were isolated PS-IAA4/5 and PS-IAA6 genes.
Arabidopsis Luo, J et al 2018 reported by 14Aux / IAA genes are isolated from pea plant. In quantitatively 80%
IAA is produces by rhizospheric bacteria. Most of IAA producing bacteria is Macrobacterium, Mycobacterium, and
Rhizobium Ullah et al., 2019. The represented data was table -08.

Plant production in Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

Hydrogen cyanide is plant base horomone, its beneficial to root-associated bacteria Viz; Rhizobacteria are produced
many chemical compounds with different benefits for the plants. Among them, HCN is recognized as a bio-control
agent in plants, helping for plant growth & development Rijavec & Lapanje 2016. De Coste et al., 2010 reported the
PGPR production HCN has identified as a key mechanism for disease suppers and produces the antifungal
metabolites. The data were represented by the table -09.

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Ammonia
Ammonium hydroxide call it has ammonia, is a basic building block for ammonium nitrate which is releases
nitrogen. Ammonium is the major nitrogen source plant ecosystem. Ammonification process plays important role in
the transformation of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) too dissolved nitrogen (DIN) Mohamad et al., 2016:
Maynaud et al., 2014. The schematic diagram was represented in the image 06.

In-direct stimulation
Indirect mechanism Streptomyces species are played vital role in plant growth, antagonistic activity, interfering with
bacterial Quorum Sensing (QS) systems, etc., and also controlled by the external stress such as biotic & abiotic
conditions. They are produces low molecular inhibitory substances such as Ammonia, Alcohols, Aldehydes,
Cyanogen’s, Ketones, cell-wall degrading enzymes, and secondary metabolites Sathya et al., 2017.

Pesticide tolerance of rhizobia (PGP)

Many microorganisms have pesticide degradative genes like chromosomes, plasmids, and transposons.
Microorganisms are very sensitive to environmental changes, and degradation of the microbial community. Plant
Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is participating in many functions e.g Recycling processes of nutrients &
sustain soil fertility Ahemad M & Khan M S 2011. The data were represented in table 1.

Application of PGPR as multifunctional Agents

PGPR batter alternatives to chemical fertilizers, to hances agriculture yield, they also can produce vitamins, and
phytohormones such (Auxins, Cytokinin, and Gibberellins). Sonbarse et al., 2020; Pradeep & Giridhar 2017 rewived
that PGPR stimulates the plant growth by nitrogen-fixing, and phosphorous solubilizing, secondary metabolites
production, acting a wide array of defense-related compounds. Some bacteria are exhibit PGPR activity like
Actinomycetes, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Serratia, etc. These microorganism are
useful in growth-promoting activity in plants, strong survival in soil, maintain soil health, biocontrol activity,
biofertilizer, minerals enhancer in soils Sonbarse et al., 2020; Priyanka et al., 2017; Rosier et al., 2018. PGPR act as
an abiotic elicitor to increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS), the antioxidant activity they are using the plant
stress hormones (abscisic acid, methyl jasmonate, and salicylic acid) which is hints at the stress linkage pathways.
PGPR is also known to produce stress hormones, to increase the levels of anti-oxidative molecules in plants
Sonbarse et al., 2020; Barickman et al., 2014.

Conclusion:-
The present review document has shown that rhizosphere microorganisms have tremendous potential as bio-
fertilizers. Plant Growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) having multiple activities, an adaptation of plants to
stresses and conferring resistances (microbial) and have a potential role in biocontrol activities and solving future
food security issues. The rizhospeher bacteria are interaction with plants, not only the plant but also changes to soil
properties & soil fertility. PGPR is played a major role in nitrogen fixation, chelation, production of organic acids;
siderophore production, and glomalin protein. PGP microbes are capable of enhancing nutrient bio-availability and
improving soil aggregation & soil fertility. The PGPR are tolerances to heavy metals & phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms have to promote sustainable agriculture, crop productivity, and improving soil fertility. In the
future, they are expected to replace chemical fertilizer with biological fertilizers. Further research and understanding
of screening and characterization, formulation strategies, and understating molecular, and PGPR mechanisms,
behind their action and field trials are necessary and find out more competent rhizobacterial strains that may work
under diverse Agro-ecological conditions.

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Image 01:- Plant and microbial interaction in plants.

Image 02:- Mechanisms of plant growth promoting activity.

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Image 03:- Mechanisms of nitrogen fixation

Figure 04:- Mechanism of plant growth promoting activity in rhizosphere soils.

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Image 05:- Beneficiates of phosphate solubilization.

Image 06:- Mechanism of biological Ammonification.

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Image 07:- Ethylene biosynthesis pathway.

Table 01:- Effects on the plants (or) plant growth promoting activities Streptomyces species plant host.
S.no Streptomyces species Plant host Effects on the plants (or) References
Plant Growth Promoting
Activities.
1. Streptomyces Tomato Plant growth promotion (PGP)/ Abd-Alla M.H et
atrovirens Rhizosphere Auxin/IAA production. al (2013),
plants, El-Tarabily, K.A.
(2008).
Streptomyces Rice, IAA production (Harikrishnan, H
2 aurantiogriseus et al., 2014(a),
(b).
3 Streptomyces Wheat Production of siderophore, IAA Jog, R et al.,
carpinensis, rhizosphere synthesis, and phosphate 2012.
Streptomyces solubilization
thermolilacinus
4 Streptomyces Tomato PGP activity El-Tarabily, K.A.
filipinensis, (2008).
5 Streptomyces Rhizosphere El-Tarabily, K.A.
griseoviridis, plants, (2008), Lin, L;
Streptomyces lydicus, Auxin/IAA production Xu, X (2013).
Streptomyces
olivaceoviridis,
Streptomyces rimosus,
7 Streptomyces ---------------- ACC deaminase Nascimento, F.X
igroscopicus et al., (2014).
8 Streptomyces lydicus Pea Nodulation Tokala, R et al.,
(2002).
9 Streptomyces Wheat Auxin, gibberellin, and Aldesuquy, H.S et

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olivaceoviridis cytokinin synthesis. al., (1998).

10 Streptomyces rochei, Wheat Production of siderophore, IAA Aldesuquy, H.S et
rhizosphere, synthesis, and phosphate al., (1998), Jog, R
Wheat solubilization. et al., (2012).
Auxin, gibberellin, and
cytokinin synthesis
11 Streptomyces spiralis Cucumber Plant growth promotion El-Tarabily, K.A
et al., (2009).
12 Streptomyces species. Alnus glutinosa, Production of zeatin, gibberellic Ghodhbane-Gtari,
Casuarina acid, & IAA F et al., (2010).
glauca,
Eleagnus
angustifolia
13 Streptomyces species. Clover Nutrient uptake and plant growth Franco-Correa et
al., (2010).
14 Streptomyces species. Chickpea, Rice Nutrient uptake Gopalakrishnan, S
et al., (2014),
(2015).
15 Streptomyces species. Mung bean Enhanced plant growth Rungin, S et al.,
(2012).
16 Streptomyces species. Rice Enhanced stover yield, grain Gopalakrishnan, S
yield, total dry matter, and root et al., (2013).
biomass
17 Streptomyces species. Sorghum Enhanced agronomic traits of Gopalakrishnan, S
sorghum et al., (2013).
18 Streptomyces species Pea Nodulation Tokala, R et al.,
(2002).
19 Streptomyces species. Marine Gibberellic acid, IAA, abscisic Rashad, F.M et
environments acid, kinetin, and benzyladenine al., (2015).
21 Streptomyces species soil Synthesis of IAA and Rafik, E et al.,
siderophore (2014).
production
22 Streptomyces species Rhododendron Accelerated emergence and Hasegawa, S et
elongation of adventitious roots al., (2006).
in tissue-cultured seedlings
23 Streptomyces species ----------- Gibberellin biosynthesis Tsavkelova, E.A
et al., (2006).
24 Streptomyces species ------------ B-1,3-Glucanase, IAA, and Gopalakrishnan, S
HCN synthesis et al., (2014),
Gopalakrishnan, S
et al., (2013).
25 Streptomyces species -------- Siderophore production Lee, J et al.,
(2012).

Table 02:- Target pathogen in plants in streptomyces spices.

S. Name of the Name of the Target Pathogen Streptomyces References
No Plant (or) Diseases Spices (or) Strain
crop
Banana
1. Wilt Fusarium oxysporum f. S. violaceusniger Getha, K and
sp. cubense race 4 G10 Vikineswary, S
2002

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Banana
2. Wilt Fusarium oxysporum f. Streptomyces G10 Getha, K et al.,
sp. cubense 2005
cherry
3. tomato Anthracnose Colletotrichum Streptomyces sp. Kim,H.J et al.,
and Pepper gloeosporioides A1022 2014
chili
4. Root rot, blight, Alternaria brassicae, Streptomyces sp. Srividya, et al.,
and fruit rot Colletotrichum 2012
gloeosporioides,
Rhizoctonia solani,
Phytophthora capsica
chili
5. Wilt Wilt Fusarium Streptomyces sp. Saengnak, V et al.,
oxysporum f. sp. capsici 2013
Chickpea
6. Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum f. Streptomyces sp. Gopalakrishnan, S
sp. ciceri et al., 2011
Chickpea
7. Basal rot Macrophomina Streptomyces sp. Gopalakrishnan, S
phaseolina et al., 2014
Chickpea
8. ----------- Phytophthora Streptomyces sp. Misk, A and
medicaginis BSA25 and WRAI Franco, C 2011
Cotton
9. Soilborne Soilborne plant Streptomyces sp. Yin, S.Y et al.,
diseases pathogens 5406 1965
Cucumber
10. Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum Streptomyces sp. Singh, P.P et al.,
1999
Ginger
11. Rhizome rot Fusarium oxysporum f. Streptomyces sp. Manasa, M et al.,
sp. zingiberi 2013
Groundnut
12. Stem rot Sclerotium rolfsii Streptomyces sp. Adhilakshmi, M et
CBE al., 2014
Lettuce
13. Basal drop Sclerotinia minor Streptomyces El–Tarabily, K.A
disease viridodiasticus et al., 2000
Many
14. Anthracnose and Colletotrichum S. hygroscopicus El–Tarabily, K.A
leaf gloeosporioides and et al., 2000
blight Sclerotium rolfsii
Many
15. Collar or root Rhizoctonia solani, S. spororaveus Prapagdee et al.,
rot, Fusarium solani, RDS28 2008
stalk rot, leaf Fusarium
spots, verticillioides, Alternaria
and gray mold alternata, Botrytis cinerea
rot or
botrytis blight
Many
16. Foliar and root ---------- S. lydicus Crawford, D.L et
fungal diseases WYEC108 al., 1993:
Lahdenpera, M
1987
Many
17. Root rot and wilt ---------------- S. griseoviridis K61 Crawford, D.L et
pathogenic fungi al., 1993:
Lahdenpera, M
1987
Many
18. ---------- Aspergillus fumigatus, S. halstedii K122 Frändberg, E et al.,
Mucor hiemalis, 2000
Penicillium
roqueforti, Paecilomyces
variotii
Many
19. Curvularia sp., Streptomyces sp. Zahaed, E.M 2014
Aspergillus niger, CACIS-1.16CA
Helminthosporium
sp., Fusarium sp.
Alternaria sp.,

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Phytophthora
capsici, Colletotrichum
sp., and Rhizoctonia sp.
Oilseed
20. rape Stem rot Scleotinia sclerotiorum S. felleus YJ1 Cheng, G et al.,
2014
Onion
21. Bacterial rot Erwinia carotovora S. lavendulae Abdallah,M.E et
subsp. carotovora, HHFA1, S. al., 2013
Burkholderia cepacia coelicolor HHFA2
Pepper
22. Root rot Phytophthora capsica S. rochei Ezziyyani, M et al.,
2007
Pepper
23. Blight Phytophthora capsica Streptomyces spp. Papavizas, G.C and
47W08, 47W10 Sutherland, E.D
1991
Red
24.chili fruits Anthracnose Colletotrichum S. ambofaciens S2 Heng, J.L.S et al.,
gloeosporioides 2006
Red
25.pepper Blight Phytophthora capsica S. halstedii Joo, G.J 2005
Raspberry
26. Root rot Phytophthora fragariae Streptomyces sp. Valois, D et al.,
var. rubi 1996
Rice
27. Sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani S. aurantiogriseus Harikrishnan, H et
VSMGT1014 al., 2014
Rice
28. Blast Curvularia oryzae, S. vinaceusdrappus Ningthoujam, D.S
Pyricularia oryzae, et al., 2009
Bipolaris
oryzae, Fusarium
oxysporum
Rice
29. Blast Pyricularia oryzae Streptomyces sp. Rhee, K.H 2003
KH-614
Sugar
30. beet Damping off Sclerotium rolfsii Streptomyces spp. Errakhi, R et al.,
2007
Sugar
31. beet Root rot Rhizoctonia solani, Streptomyces spp Karimi, E et al.,
Phytophthora drechsleri 2012
Soybean
32. Bacterial blight Xanthomonas campestris Streptomyces sp. Mingma, R et al.,
pv. glycines 2014
Tomato
33. Damping off Rhizoctonia solani Streptomyces sp. Cao, L et al., 2004
S30
Tomato
34. Root rot Rhizoctonia solani S. toxytricini vh6 Patil, H.J et al.,
2011
Tobacco
35. Brown spot Alternaria spp. Streptomyces sp. Gao, F et al., 2014
Tomato
36. Root rot Rhizoctonia solani S. vinaceusdrappus Yandigeri, M.S et
S5MW2 al., 2015
Tomato
37. Many Alternaria solani, A. S. albidoflavus Haggag, W.M et
alternata, Colletotrichum al., 2014
gloeosporioides,
Fusarium oxysporum,
Fusarium
solani, Rhizoctonia
solani, Botrytis cinerea
Turfgrass
38. Crown/foliar Rhizoctonia solani S. violaceusniger Trejo-Estrada, S.R
disease YCED9 et al., 1998
Maize
39. Seed fungi Aspergillus sp. Streptomyces sp. Bressan,W 2003
40. Wood rotting Different fungi Streptomyces sp. Nagpure, A et al.,
MT17 2014
Porphyra
41. Red rot Pythium porphyrae Streptomyces sp. Woo, J.H and
AP77 Kamei, Y 2003
Pepper
42. Blight Phytophthora capsica Streptomyces spp. Liang, J.F et al.,

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47W08, 47W10 2005

Many
43. Wood rot Phanerochaete S. violaceusniger Shekhar, N et al.,
chrysosporium, Postia XL-2 2006
placenta,
Coriolus versicolor,
Gloeophyllum trabeum
Sweet
44. pea Powdery mildew Oidium sp. Streptomyces sp. Sangmanee, P et
al., 2009
Lemon
45. fruit Green mold and Penicillium digitatum, Streptomyces sp. Maldonado,M.C et
sour Geotrichum candidum RO3 al., 2010
rot
Tomato
46. Damping off Rhizoctonia solani Streptomyces sp. Goudjal, Y et al.,
2014
Tomato
47. Wilt Fusarium sp. Streptomyces sp. Anitha, A and
CACIS-1.16CA Rabeeth, M 2009
Potato
48. Silver scurf Helminthosporium solani S. rochei Elson, M.K 1997
Cucurbit
49. Anthracnose Colletotrichum orbiculare Streptomyces sp. Shimizu, M et al.,
2009

Table 03:- Plant growth promoting activity in bacterial strains.

S.no Bacterial strains Plant Growth Promoting activities References
(enzymes production)
1 Actinomycetes Antagonistic activity of fungal S. Gopalakrishnan et al.,
pathogens, IAA, siderophore, HCN, 2014
enzymes production.
2 streptomyces spp Rice β-1,3-glucanase-production S. Gopalakrishnan et
al.,2014
3 Acinetobacter spp. IAA, phosphate solubilization, Rokhbakhsh-Zamin et
siderophores al. (2011)
4 Acinetobacter sp., ACC deaminase, IAA, antifungal Indiragandhi et al.
Pseudomonas sp. activity, (2008)
N2- fixation, phosphate solubilization
5 Rhizobium sp. (pea) IAA, siderophores, HCN, ammonia, Ahemad and Khan
exo-polysaccharides (2012b)
6 Mesorhizobium sp. IAA, siderophores, HCN, ammonia, Ahemad and Khan
exo-polysaccharides (2009a)
7 Rhizobium sp.(lentil) IAA, phosphate solubilization, Rokhbakhsh-Zamin et
siderophores Rhizobium sp.(lentil) al. (2011)
IAA, siderophores, HCN, ammonia,
exo-polysaccharides

8 Bradyrhizobium sp. IAA, siderophores, HCN, ammonia, Ahemad and Khan

exo-polysaccharides (2012 f )
9 Bradyrhizobium sp. 750, Heavy metal mobilization Dary et al. (2010)

10 Rhizobium phaseoli IAA Zahir et al. (2010)

12 Mesorhizobium sp. IAA, siderophores, HCN, ammonia Wani et al. (2008)

Table 04:- Compounds present in root exudates in different plant species.

Amino acids α-Alanine, β- Alanine, α-Aminoadipic acid, γ-Aminobutyric acid,
essential and non-essential amino acids.
Enzymes Amylase, protease, acid and alkaline-phosphatase, invertase.

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Inorganic ions and gaseous HCO_3, OH-, H+CO2.H2

molecules
Organic acids Acetic acid, aconitic acid, aldonic acid, butyric acid, Citric acid,
erythronic acid, fumaric acid, glycolic acid, malic acid, malonic acid,
oxalic acid, piscidic acid, pyruvic acid, succinic acid, valeric acid.
Nucleosides/purines Adenine, thiamine, cytidine, uridine.
sugars Mono saccharides, (Glucose), Disaccharides (fructose),
oligosaccharides, raffinose, maltose.
Vitamins Biotin, thiamine, niacin, riboflavin.
This acquired from (Dakora and Phillips 2002: Ahemad, M and Mulugeta K 2014)

Table 06:- Acidic condition in antagonistic activity.

Bacteria Fungal pathogens Growth of bacteria References
between pH Range (1-
14)
B. cereus R. solanacearum Normal growth was 5.0.
Optimal growth of pH Li, S et al., 2016
7.0.
P. fluorescens R. solanacearum Normal growth 5.5 Li, S et al., 2016
Optimal growth ∼7.0

Table 05:- Rhizobacteria screening medium.

Crop Rhizobia Screening Growth Remarks References
species medium condition
Mesorhizobium pH 5,7, and In-vitro Large range of isolate Rodrigues
Chickpea spp 9 variation in growth at pH 7, et al.
and 9 and other at pH 5, and (2006)
(pH stress) 7.
Mesorhizobium 20, 28 and In vitro Overproduction of 60 k Da Rodrigues
spp 37 OϹ protein by all the isolates All et al.
the isolates revealed more (2006)
(Temperature tolerance to 20 OϹ than 37 OϹ
stress)
Variations in the expression
Heat shock of
at 60 OϹ for protein profile
15 min; 46
O
Ϲ for 3 h
Rhizobium sp. 5 OϹ In vitro Induction of 135 and 119 k Sardesai
DDSS69 Da and
Proteins. Babu
Variation in the protein (2001)
profile of stressed and non-
stressed cells
Chickpea - M. ciceri ch- 50, 75, 100 In vitro Decreased plant dry weight, Tejera et
salt 191 mM nitrogenase activity in al.
resistant sensitive cultivars. (2006)
and Salt/osmotic Less N2 fixation inhibition,
sensitive stress higher root to shoot ratio,
cultivars normalized nodule weight and
shoot K/Na ratio and reduced

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foliar accumulation of Na, in Soussi et

resistant cultivars. al.
Higher tolerance was noticed (2001)
on 200 mmol/L.
Altered protein and LPS
In vitro levels
100–400 Higher proline accumulation
M. ciceri ch- mmol than glutamate.
191 NaCl/L
Acacia rhizobia. 0.4-1.4 M In vitro Presence of small and large
(40 strains) NaCl plasmids Intracellular Gal and
accumulation of free Choi
glutamate. (2003)
Three rhizobia strains has
tolerated 1.4 M NaCl.

Crop Rhizobia/ Heavy In vitro/ In Using the plants/ remarks References

species bacteria metals vivo/ Pot
stress experiments/
filed
conditions

Chickpea M. ciceri, 25 mM Glasshouse M. cicero enhanced the Mhadhbi et

M. NaCl nodulation and CAT activity. al.
mediterraneum Least decrease in nodule (2004)
S. medicae protein and SOD activity.
Kidney R. tropici co- -7, -70 and Greenhouse Enhanced plant height, shoot Figueiredo
bean inoculated with <-85 kPa dry weight and nodule et al.
Paenibacillus number (2008)
polymyxa

Drought stress
Bradyrhizobium PEG 6000 In vitro and Enhanced drought tolerance, Uma et al.
sp. induced pot IAA and EPS production; (2013)
culture nodulation, nodule ARA,
nodule N
Chickpea M. Field study Increased nodule number, Romdhane
mediterraneum shoot et al.
LILM10 dry weight and grain yield. (2009)
Water deficient tolerant
strains
were also NaCl tolerant.
Kidney R. elti Pot studies Enhanced nodules, Sua´rez et
bean (engineered for nitrogenase al.
enhanced activity and biomass (2008)
trehalose-6- production
phosphate Higher tolerance than
synthase wild type strains

Table 07:- Heavy metals stress in verious crop species In vitro/ In vivo/ Pot experiments/ filed conditions.

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Green Bradyrhizobium Ni, Zn Pot Enhanced growth performance Wani et al.

gram RM8 experiments (2007c)
Chickpea Mesorhizobium Cr Pot Enhanced growth, nodulation, Wani et al.
RC3 experiments chlorophyll, (2008b)
Leghaemoglobin, nitrogen
content, seed protein and seed
yield
Black S. meliloti Cu Pot Enhanced biomass production Fan et al.
medic experiments (2011)
Hyacinth Rhizobium sp. Co,Cu, Pot Greater HM accumulation in Younis
bean Zn, Cd experiments nodules than in roots and shoots (2007)
and
field
conditions
Lentil Rhizobium RL9 Pb, Ni Pot Increased growth, nodulation, Wani and
experiments chlorophyll, Khan
leghaemoglobin, nitrogen, seed (2012,
protein and seed yield 2013)

Table 08:- IAA function and using plant growth.

S. No Production of bacteria in HCN Effects on the diseases References

1. Pseudomonas spp Fusarium oxysporum, Thielaviopsis Laville et al., 1998.

basicola

2. Pseudomonas fluorescens, Verticillium dahliae Mercado-Blanco et al

Pseudomonas putida 2004
3. Streptomyces Pythium sp Lachance and Perrault.,
1953
4. Burkholderia, Rhizoctonia solani, Kandel, S. L et., 2017.
Rahnella, Fusarium culmorum,
Pseudomonas, Gaeumannomyces graminis var.
Curtobacterium. tritici,
Pythium ultimum.
5. Burkholderia contaminans R. solaniAG 1(IA), S.botryosum,A. Tagele, S. B et al., 2018.
alternate,P. graminicola,F.
moniliforme,F. graminearum,C.
dematium,S. lyco-persici,A.
solani,F. oxysporumf.sp.melonis,S.
rolfsii,M. cannonballus
6. Trichoderma erinaceum Rhizoctonia solani, Swain, H et al.,2018.
Sclerotium rolfsii and
Sclerotium oryzae

Anthyllis Mesorhizobium Zn, Cd, In vitro metal-tolerant Mohamad,

plants metallidurans Pu R et al.,
(2016)

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Table 09:- Production of HCN and effects of diseases.

S.no Functions of Aux / IAA Aux / IAA genes in growth and development
1. Apical dominance IAA8, IAA16, IAA17, IAA28
2. Embryo axis formation IAA24
3. Embryonic root IAA12, IAA13, IAA20.
4. Embryonic patterning IAA12, IAA18, IAA24.
5. Flower organ IAA8, IAA16
6. Gravitropism IAA1, IAA8, IAA17, IAA19, IAA20, IAA30, IAA31.
7. Hypocotyl elongation IAA2, IAA3, IAA6, IAA8, IAA7, IAA17, IAA18, IAA19.
8. Lateral root formation IAA3, IAA8, IAA12, IAA14, IAA16, IAA18, IAA19, IAA28.
9. Leaf morphology IAA2, IAA3, IAA6, IAA7, IAA8, IAA17, IAA18.
10. Lateral branch IAA8, IAA17
11. Plant size IAA8, IAA17
12. Primary root IAA16, IAA20
13. Responses to light IAA7
14. Root hair IAA3, IAA7, IAA16, IAA17.
15. Vasculature IAA20, IAA24, IAA30, IAA31.

Table 10:- Crop pest management with rhizospheres soils.

S.no Crop’ Pesticides Bactria/ conditi Concentr Remarks References
s manageme rhizobium ons ations
specie nt
s
Herbicides

1. Pea Quizalafop Rhizobium Pot 40, 80 and Enhanced Ahemad

Lentil -pethyl MRP1 experim 120 µg/kg biomass, and Khan
Rhizobium ents soil nodulation, (2009a,
MRL3 leghaemoglo 2010b, d)
bin content,
root and
shoot N,
root and
shoot P, seed
yield and
seed protein
Enhanced Ahemad
2. Chick Clodinafop Mesorhizobium Pot 400, 800 biomass, and
pea MRC4 experim and nodulation, Khan
ents 1,200 leghaemoglo (2009a,
µg/kg soil bin content, 2010b, d)
root and
shoot N, root
and shoot P,
seed yield
and seed
protein

3. Chick Metribuzin Rhizobium In vitro 850, 1,700 Concentratio Ahemad

pea MRP1 and n-dependent and Khan

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Rhizobium 2,550 µg/L progressive (2011a, b,

MRL3 decline in 2012a, c)
PGP
substances
except exo-
polysacchari
des

4. Chick Glyphosate Mesorhizobium 1,444, ---------- Ahemad

pea MRC4, 2,888 and Khan
Bradyrhizobiu And 4,332 (2011a, b,
m MRM6. µg/L 2012a, c)

Terbuthyla R.leguminosaru In vitro 4, 8, 16, Growth

Chick zine m RCR 1045 32 and 64 decline was
5. pea mg/L. in the order Singh and
of Wright
Simazine 4.3, 8.6, (2002)
and 17.2, 34.4
Prometryn and 68.8 Terbuthylazi
mg/L. ne>
Prometryn >
Bentazon 4, 8, 16, Simazine
32 and 64
mg 4.1,
8.2, 16.4, No adverse
32.8, 65.6 effects on
mg/L growth

soybe chlorimuro Bradyrhizobiu Filed leguminous Zawoznik,

6. an n-ethyl m japonicum conditio plants living M. S and
ns in symbiosis Tomaro, M.
with L., 2005
rhizobia,
nodules may
contribute to
an enhanced
tolerance to
ALS
inhibitors.
Insecticide
s
7. Chick Enhanced the Ahemad
pea, Fipronil Rhizobium Pot 200, 400, biomass, and
Pea, MRL3 R. experim and 600 nodulation, Khan
ents mg/kg soil leghaemoglo (2009b,
Pyriproxyf Leguminosaru bin content, 2010a,
Lentil en m MRP1 1,300, root and 2011f)
2,600, and shoot N, root
Mesorhizobium 3,900 and shoot P,

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MRC4 mg/kg soil seed yield

and seed
protein

Imidaclopr In vitro 100, 200 Concentratio Ahemad

8. id Rhizobium and 300 n-dependent and Khan
MRP1 µg/L progressive (2011a, b,
Rhizobium decline in 2012a, c)
MRL3 PGP
Thiametho substances
xam Mesorhizobium except
MRC4 exopolysacch
Bradyrhizobiu arides
m MRM6
Fungicides

9. Hexaconaz Rhizobium 40, 80 and Concentratio Ahemad

ole MRP1 In vitro 120 µg/L n-dependent and Khan
Rhizobium progressive (2011a, b,
MRL3 1,500, decline in 2012 a,c)
Metalaxyl 3,000 And PGP
Mesorhizobium 4,500 µg/L substances
Kitazin MRC4 96, 192 except
Bradyrhizobiu and exopolysacch
m MRM6 288 µg/L arides

Rhizobium
MRP1

Pea Tebuconaz Actinomycete In vitro 100, 200 Concentratio Ahemad

10. ole (CAI-13, CAI- and n-dependent and Khan
140, CAI-85, 300 µg/L progressive (2011d)
CAI-93, CAI- decline in
155 and KAI- PGP
180). substances
except
Pot 00, 200 exopolysacch
experim and arides, HCN
ents 300 lg/kg and
soil ammonia.

Enhanced the
biomass,
nodulation,
leghaemoglo
bin content,
root and
shoot N,
root and
shoot P, seed
yield and

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seed protein

11. Rice Bavistin Actinomycetes 2500 Agronomic S.Gopalakri

1 Captan CAI-24, CAI- antagoni (ppm) performance shna et al.,
Radonil 121, CAI-127, stic field 3000 and yield (2014)
Thiram KAI-32 and condition (ppm) potential of
Benemyl KAI-90 s 3000 rice,
Benlate (ppm) Enhanced the
3000 biomass,
(ppm) nodulation,
3000 leghaemoglo
(ppm) bin content,
4000 root and
(ppm) shoot N,
root and
shoot P, seed
yield and
seed protein

12. sorghu Fusarium Actinomycetes Antagoni 45-76% Potential for S.Gopalakri

m oxysporum VAI-7, VAI- stic and 4-19% biological shnaet al.,
f. sp. ciceri 40, SAI-13 activity reduction control of 2011
(FOC) and SAI-29 Fusarium
Rhizoctoni Greenho wilt disease
a use and in chickpea.
bataticola. wilt-sick Enhanced the
field biomass,
condition nodulation,
s leghaemoglo
bin content,
root and
shoot N,
root and
shoot P, seed
yield and
seed protein
chickp Bavistin,T In vitro Increase in M.
ea hiram, Streptomyces and in nodule Sreevidya et
Captan (CAI-21, CAI- vivo number, pod al., 2016
13. Benlate , 26 and MMA- condition number, leaf
Ridomil. 32) s, filled weight, leaf
condition area, plant
s. height, stem
Macropho weight, grain
mina yield, seed
phaseolina, Antagoni weight, total
Fusarium stic dry matter,
oxysporum activity. and seed
f. sp. number.
cicero
Sclerotium Potential for

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rolfsii biological
control of
Macrophomi
na
phaseolina,
Fusarium
oxysporum f.
sp. cicero
Sclerotium
rolfsii
disease in
chickpea.Enh
anced the
biomass,
nodulation,
leghaemoglo
bin content,
root and
shoot N, root
and shoot P,
seed yield
and seed
protein

Rice Macropho Enhanced the S.Gopalakri

14. mina panicle shnan et al.,
phaseolina length, filled 2012
(Tassi) grain
numbers and
weight,
panicle
weight, seed
weight, tiller
numbers,
total dry
matter, root
length, root
dry weight,
grain yield,
Stover yield,
and root dry
weight.
Concentratio
n-dependent
progressive
decline in
PGP
substances
exopolysacch
arides, HCN,

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IAA,
cellulase,
lipase, and
ammonia.

Table 11:- Function of gene in plants.

Plants Function of gene Gene References

Alfalfa Water and salt stress tolerances MnSOD Mckersie et al. (1996)
Arabidopsis thaliana Transcription factor JcDREB HKT1 Tang et al. (2011) Munns
(2005)
Brassica Plasma membrane Na+/K+ antiporter SOS1 Chakraborty et al. (2012),
Vecuolar Na+/K+ antiporter. Zhang et al. (2001)

Campestris and Mannitol may be involved in Hexose SOS2 Gao et al. (2001)
Brassica Juncea sensing (or) mopping up hydroxyl SOS3
radicals S6PDH
carrot Cell viability and membrane stability DcHsp17.7 Song and Ahn (2011)
under heat stress

Wheat Oryza sativa 1. Turgor maintenance, Mt1D Abebe et al. (2003)

particularly in the cytosol
2. Signalling, possibly through OsHSP80.2 Sakamoto and Murata
hexose sensing OsHSP71.1 (1998),
3. Cell-wall protection. Coda, otsA, otsB, PRP Zhou et al. (2015)
4. Heat-shock proteins,
molecules, Chaperones, and folding.
Tobacco Turgor maintenance P5Cs mod Hong et al. (2000)

Tomato Salt tolerances BADH1(Betaine aldehyde Zhang et al. (2001)

dehydrogenase)

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