هندسة التبليط

Civil Engineering Department
Highway Pavement Analysis & Design

(Bituminous Materials)
Prof. Dr.Wisam Al-Rekabi
2nd Semester- (1st lecture-4th year)`
Bituminous Materials
1.0 Introduction
Bituminous materials refer to hydrocarbons of variable color, hardness, and
volatility, sometimes associated with mineral matter. Bituminous binders used in
pavement construction works are a petroleum product obtained by distillation of
petroleum crude figure (1-1). Bitumen is completely soluble in carbon chloride.
Bituminous materials have properties of binding and waterproofing, and because of
these properties, they are commonly used in highway construction.
Asphalt is also a type of bitumen containing some inert material or mineral
sometimes asphalt could exist naturally free from deleterious materials or mixed
with some mineral materials, and it is called "Natural Asphalt".
Asphalt is a strong binding material durable and adheres easily it is also an
elastic material that imparts elasticity to the mixture to which it is added. It is dark
brown to black in color its consistency is solid, semi-solid, or liquid & its main
constituents are the bitumen's present naturally or can be obtained as a residue
from the distillation of crude oil.
Figure (1-1): distillation of petroleum crude in refinery
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1.1 Functions of Bituminous Materials
The bituminous materials, called binders, have to perform a number of functions
when they are used in combinations with mineral aggregates. These functions or
objectives achieved by their use are as follows:
1- Binding effect: It binds the particles together and the loss of material from
the surface by suction under the body of the moving vehicles is thus
checked.
2- Cushioning effect: It acts as a cushion for the surface material and absorbs
the kneading action of traffic. The abrasive action of the wheels of a vehicle
is also resisted, thus it enhances the life of the pavement.
3- Resistance to weathering: Properly selected bituminous material resists the
action of weathering agencies, like the wind and the sun, and ensures a
longer life of the pavement.
4- Sealing of surface: It seals the road surface against the ingress of water,
provided the granular material used is dense-graded.
1.2 Requirements of Bituminous Materials

The following are the general problems while using bitumen in paving mixes:
i. Mixing,
ii. Attainment of desired stability of mix,
iii. To maintain stability under adverse weather conditions,
iv. To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface,
and
v. To have sufficient adhesion with aggregates in the mix in presence of water.
Because of the above requirements, the bitumen should possess the following
properties:
a. At the time of mixing and compaction, the bitumen should possess adequate
viscosity which is achieved by heating the bitumen and aggregate before missing
or by the use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grade.
b. The bituminous material should have low sensitivity to temperature so that
during the hottest weather of the region, the bituminous mixes do not become too
soft or unstable, and also during cold weather, they do not become too hard and
brittle causing cracking of the surface.
2
c. In presence of water, the bitumen should not get stripped off from the aggregate.
There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between bitumen and aggregate
used in the mix.
1.3 Constituents of Asphalt Cement
Asphalt cement is asphalt that is purified to the specifications suitable for industry
& paving and other purposes; penetration ranges from 40-300.
It is made up of five parts:-
1- Asphaltenes: The basic matter with a high molecular weight. It is of an

aromatic nature with very few side chains C/H (Carbon/Hydrogen)>0.8
insoluble in normal heptanes. They are responsible for relative hardness (9-
29%).
2- Nitrogen Bases: Contain all nitrogen compounds; they are a digestive agent
for asphaltenes.
3- Primary Acidoaphences: Unsaturated hydrocarbon, solvents for asphaltene,
soluble in concentrate H2SO4.
4- Secondary Acidophences: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (not fully) solvents for
asphaltenes also (low activity).
5- Paraphenes: saturated hydrocarbons include wax.
1.4 Liquid Asphalt

It is a type of asphalt fluid inconsistency that cannot be measured by a penetration
test. It is made from fluxing Asphalt Cement with a volatile solvent (AC + volatile
Solvent) then is called (cutback asphalt). After a cutback asphalt is exposed to air,
the volatile solvent evaporates, and the asphalt in the mixture regains its original
characteristics (cured). Depending on the volatility of the solvent used, the rate of
curing of cutback asphalt can vary from a few minutes to several days.
Liquid Asphalt =Cut–back asphalt.
Following are three types of cutback asphalt and the solvent used.
1- A.C. + Gasoline ---------------- R.C. (Rapid Curing) Cut –back asphalt.
2- A.C. + Kerosene ---------------- M.C. (Mid. Curing) Cut –back asphalt.
3- A.C. + Diesel oil ---------------- S.C. (Slow Curing) Cut –back asphalt.
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1.5 Emulsified Asphalt
Emulsified Asphalt is a mixture of asphalt cement, waterm, and an emulsifying
agent. These three constituents are fed simultaneously into a colloid mill to
produce extremely small globules (5-10 µ) of asphalt cement, which are suspended
in the water. The emulsified agent imparts electric charges (cationic or anionic) to
the surface of the asphalt particles, which causes them to repel one another; thus
the asphalt particles do not coalesce. The emulsified asphalt thus produced is quite
stable and could have a shelf life of several months.
The two most common types of emulsified asphalt are anionic and cationic, a
classification dependent on the emulsified agent.
1.6 Tests for Bituminous Materials
The bitumen is manufactured in a variety of types and grades. Therefore, it

becomes essential to test them to find out their suitability for road construction as
per the specified standards by the agencies like ASTM, Asphalt Institute, British
Standards Institute, and ISI. Following are the usual physical tests that are carried
out on bituminous materials:
1.6.1 Penetration test

The test is carried out to know the hardness or softness of bitumen used in road
construction by measuring the distance in tenths of a millimeter to which a
standard needle will penetrate vertically into a sample of bitumen under the
stipulated conditions temperature, loading, and time. The concept of the
penetration test is illustrated in Figure (1-2).
Figure (1-2): Penetration test
4
The test is carried out with a standard penetrometer which has a needle loaded
with 100 gm weight. The sample to be tested is maintained at a constant
temperature of 25° C at the start of the test, and the needle just touches the bitumen
surface. The needle is then released and allowed to penetrate into the sample under
the applied load of 100 gm. The penetration is measured after 5 seconds in tenths
of a millimetre which is taken as the penetration number of the sample.
1.6.2 Ductility test

For the ductility test the sample is prepared in a standard briquette mould of the
cross-section at the minimum width of 10 mm x 10 mm. The ductility value is
expressed as the distance in centimetres to which a standard briquette of bitumen
can be stretched before the thread breaks, as shown in figure (1-3). The test is
conducted at a temperature of 27° C + 0.5° C at the rate of the pull of 50 mm + 2.5
mm per minute.
Figure (1-3): Ductility test
The ductility values of bitumen may vary from 5 to over 100 for different grades of
bitumen. For satisfactory performance, the desired value of ductility of bitumen
should not be less than 50.
1.6.3 Softening point test

The softening point test is the temperature at which the substance attains a
particular degree of softening under specified conditions of the test.
5
The softening point of bitumen is usually determined by Ring and Ball test
using the apparatus shown in figure (1-4).
Figure (1-4): Softening point test
A brass ring containing the sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water
or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample
and the liquid medium is then heated at a rate of 5° C per minute. The temperature
at which the softened bitumen touches the metal placed at a specified distance
below the ring is recorded as the softening point of the bitumen. The softening
point of various bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary between 35° to 70° C.
1.6.4 Flashpoint test

The flash-point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the vapor of a
substance momentarily takes fire in the form of flash under specified conditions of
the test.
Bitumen material leaves out the volatiles at high temperatures depending on
their grade. These volatiles catch fire causing flash. This condition is very
hazardous, and therefore, it is essential to know this temperature for each bitumen
grade, so that paving engineers may restrict the mixing and application
temperatures.
6
The flash-point is taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time
of flame application that causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup figure (1-5).
Figure (1-5): Flash point test

1.6.5 Viscosity Test
(Say Bolt-Fural) viscosity test is the time required (sec) to fill a container (60 ml)
volume with asphalt passing through the Fural orifice.The flow time depends on
the temperature the higher temperature gives lower viscosity and vise versa.Water
evaporates at 100ºC so use oil that evaporates at 150ºC as the max. temp.
7
1.6.6 Specific gravity Test
The density of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently used as an
aid to classify the binders for use in paving jobs. The specific gravity of bitumen as
defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the substance to the mass of
an equal volume of water, the temperature of both being specified as 25° C.
There are two methods for determining the specific gravity of bitumen as follows:
i. Pycnometer method, and
ii. Balance method.
1.6.7 Solubility Test

The bitumen consists of some impurities, and the solubility test is carried out
making use of solvents such as carbon disulphide (CS2) or carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) in which the pure bitumen is completely soluble, to know the amount of
pure bitumen in a sample of bitumen.
A sample of about 3 gm of bitumen is dissolved in about 100 ml of solvent. The
soluble is then filtered for removal of any insoluble material which may be present
in the bitumen sample. This insoluble material is then washed, dried, and weighed.
It is expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the sample. The insoluble
material should be preferably less than 1 %.
8
(Aggregate)
2nd Semester - (2nd lecture,4th year)`
AGGREGATE
2.0 Introduction
Aggregate used in highway construction is largely obtained from local supplies of
natural rocks. The natural rocks occur as either outcrop at or near the surface or as
gravel deposits usually along old stream beds.
Natural rocks are classified by geologists into three groups depending on their
origin- igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Other types of aggregate that are
sometimes used for HMA are lightweight aggregate, produced by heating clay to
very high temperatures, and slag, normally produced in the blast furnace during
steel production. These two artificial aggregates have provided good skid
resistance when used in HMA.
1-Gravel
Is formed from the breakdown of any natural rock. Gravel particles are found in
existing or ancient waterways, and the particles are usually smooth and typically
rounded or sub-rounded by wear as the material is moved along the waterway by
the action of water. Gravel is usually required to be crushed before use in HMA.
2- Sands
Consist primarily of the most resistant final residue of the deterioration of natural
rocks. The predominant mineral in the sand is normally quartz. The grain size
normally ranges from a No.8 sieve down to dust-size particles (No.200). many size
deposits often contain silt and/or clay particles in various quantities and may be
required to be washed before use in HMA.
3-Slag
Is a byproduct of metallurgical processing and is typically produced from the
processing of steel, tin, and copper. Slag typically has the properties of igneous
rocks and its structure can vary from glassy to honeycombed. Blast furnace slag
produced during the processing of steel is the most widely used slag for pavement
construction applications. This aggregate produced a high-quality asphalt mix with
skid resistance. The absorption of slag is often high; hence, the amount of asphalt
binder required when slag aggregates are used is usually higher than that for
naturally occurring aggregates.
9
(Aggregate)
For highway construction purposes it is not usually necessary to have extensive
geologic information about the rocks. The important characteristics of the rocks
relate to how well the materials serve in various applications such as subbases,
bases, or the various HMA courses used in pavement construction. Therefore, for
the most part, it is the physical properties of the rocks that are important for
highway construction. The chemical properties, which are not well understood, are
important to ensure a good bond between the asphalt and aggregate. Since the
natural rock materials coming from different areas within a quarry or gravel pit can
vary, it is important to sample and test the material on a regular basis to ensure that
aggregate properties are consistent and meet the specified standards.
2.1 Aggregate production

An aggregate's physical characteristics, such as resistance to abrasion and strength,
are determined primarily by the characteristics of the parent rock. However, the
production process in the quarry can significantly affect the quality of the
aggregate by the elimination of weaker rock layers and by the effect of crushing on
the particle shape and gradation of the aggregate.
2.3 Physical Properties of Aggregates

Aggregates for HMA are usually classified by size as coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, or mineral fillers. ASTM defines coarse aggregate as particles retained
on a No.4 (4.75mm) sieve, fine aggregate as that passing a No.4 sieve, and mineral
filler as the material with at least 70 percent passing the No.200 (75 µm) sieve.
Other agencies may use the No.8 (2.38mm) sieve (e.g., the asphalt institute) or the
No.10 (2.00mm) sieve as the dividing line between coarse and fine aggregates.
Aggregates for HMA are generally required to be hard, tough, strong, durable
(sound), properly graded; to consist of cubical particles with low porosity; and to
have clean, rough, hydrophobic surfaces.
Specifications for coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and mineral fillers are given
in ASTM D692, D1073, and D242, respectively. The suitability of aggregates for
use in HMA is determined by evaluating the following material characteristics:
1) Size and Gradation;
2) Cleanliness/Deleterious materials;
3) Toughness/hardness;
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(Aggregate)
4) Durability/ soundness;
5) Surface texture;
6) Particle shape;
7) Absorption; and
8) Affinity for Asphalt.
2.3.1 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

Aggregates, through internal friction, must transmit the wheel loads to the
underlying layers and also be resistant to abrasion and polishing due to traffic.
Aggregates are subject to crushing and abrasive wear during the manufacturing,
placing, and compaction of HMA.
2.3.2 Durability and Soundness

Aggregate must be resistant to breakdown or disintegration under the action of
wetting and drying and/ or freezing and thawing (weathering).
2.3.3 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

Aggregate particles suitable for use in HMA should be cubical rather than flat,
thin, or elongated. In compacted mixtures, angular-shaped particles exhibit greater
interlock and internal friction and hence result in greater mechanical stability than
rounded particles. On the other hand, mixtures containing rounded particles, such
as most natural gravels and sands, have better workability and require less
compaction effort to obtain the required density.
2.3.4 Cleanliness and Deleterious materials

Cleanliness refers to the absence of certain foreign or deleterious materials that
make aggregates undesirable for HMA. Washing the dirty aggregates can usually
reduce the amount of undesirable foreign matter to an acceptable level.
2.3.5 Size & Gradation

The gradation by volume and weight is approximately the same as long as the
specific gravities of the various aggregates being used are approximately equal.
11
(Aggregate)
Gradation is determined by sieve analysis, that is, by passing the material
through a series of sieves stacked with progressively smaller openings from top to
bottom, and weighing the material retained on each sieve. The gradation of an
aggregate is normally expressed as the total percent passing various sieve sizes.
The gradation of an aggregate can be graphically represented by a gradation

curve for which the ordinate is the total percent by weight passing a given size on
an arithmetic scale, while the abscissa is the particle size plotted to a logarithmic
scale.
The sizes of successive sieves usually differ by a factor of approximately 2;

therefore, when plotted on a logarithmic scale, the distances between adjacent
sieve sizes are usually about the equal, figure (2-1).
Figure (2-1): Typical Terms Used To Identify Aggregate Gradations
Aggregate gradations are sometimes described as dense or well-graded,

uniformly –graded (open), and gap graded as shown in figure (2-2).
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(Aggregate)
Figure (2-2): Different types of Mix aggregate
Numerous investigators have proposed ideal gradations for maximum density. One
of the best-known of these gradations is Fuller's curve proposed by Fuller and
Thompson. The equation for Fuller's maximum density curve is:
P = 100 (d/D) ⁿ
Where d is the diameter of the sieve size in question, P is the total percent passing
or finer than the sieve and D is the maximum size of the aggregate. Studies by
Fuller & Thompson showed that a maximum density can be obtained for an
aggregate when n=0.5.
13
(Aggregate)
Type Coarse Agg. Fine Agg.
1 100% 0%
2 ↓ ↓
3 ≈ 50% ≈ 50%
4 ↓ ↓
5 0% 100%
1- Bituminous Macadam Mixture.

2- Open Graded Mixture.
3- Dense Graded Mixture.
4- Smooth Texture Mixtures.
5- Sand Seal (Stabilized Sand).
2.4 Maximum Aggregate Size
The maximum particle size in a mixture is important to ensure good performance.
If the maximum particle size is too small, the mix may be unstable, if it is too
large, workability and segregation may be problems. There are two designations
for maximum particle size (ASTM C125):
1- The maximum size, designated as the smallest sieve through which 100
percent of the aggregate sample particle pass; and
2- The nominal maximum size, designated as the largest sieve retains some of
the aggregate particles, but generally not more than 10 percent.
Mix designations used in specifications typically use the nominal maximum size
of the aggregate. For example, in ASTM specification D3515, a blend having the
nominal maximum aggregate size of 1 inch is required to have 100 percent of the
material passing the 1.5- inch sieve and 90-100 percent passing the 1-inch sieve.
14
(Aggregate)
2.5 Blending
To meet the graduation requirement for asphalt mixes it is often necessary to blend
two or more aggregates together.
2.5.1 Methods of Blending
1- Trial and Error Method.
2- Mathematical Method.
3- Graphical Method.
1- Trial and Error Method

The most common method of determining the proportions of aggregate to use to
meet specification requirements is the trial-and-error method. As the name implies,
a trial blend is selected and calculations are made to determine the percent passing
each sieve size for the blend. The grading that is calculated from this trial is
compared with the specification requirements. Adjustments are made for the
second trial blend and the calculations are repeated for the critical sieves until a
satisfactory or optimum blend is obtained. This method, guided by a certain
amount of reasoning, mathematics, and experience, is the most widely used and is
the easiest procedure to determine a satisfactory blend.
The trial-and-error method involves the following steps:
1- Selecting critical sieves for the aggregates in the blend;

2- Determining an initial set of proportions a, b, c, etc., which will meet the
specification requirements for the critical sieves;
3- Checking the calculated blend using the proportions determined for all
sieves in the specification requirements; and
4- Adjusting the proportions, as necessary, to ensure that the percentages for all
sieves are within specification limits.
15
(Aggregate)
Example 2-1:
It desired to prepare a job mix formula for an asphaltic concrete surface course.
Determine the required proportioning of aggregates to fit the required specification
limits. The specification limit and the gradations of the available materials are
given below:
Sieve Size Aggregate gradation (%) Specification
(mm) Gravel Sand Cement Limit (%)
19.0 100 100 100 100
12.5 71 93 100 66 - 95
9.5 26 87 100 54 - 88
4.75 17 60 100 37 - 70
2.36 5 38 100 26 - 50
0.3 0 11 99 8 - 22
0.075 0 2 92 4 - 10
Solution : Trial One
Aggregate
Sieve Size (mm) Mid. Point Total
CA FA F
19 48 45 7 100 100
12.5 30.08 41.85 7 80.5 78.93
9.5 12.48 39.15 7 71 58.63
4.75 8.16 27 7 53.5 42.16
2.4 2.4 17.1 7 38 26.5
0.3 0 4.95 6.93 15 11.88
0.075 0 0.9 6.44 7 7.34
Trial Two
Aggregate
Sieve Size (mm) Mid. Point Total
CA FA F
19 45 48 7 100 100
12.5 31.95 44.64 7 80.5 83.59
9.5 11.70 41.76 7 71 60.46
4.75 7.65 28.8 7 53.5 43.45
2.4 2.25 18.24 7 38 27.49
0.3 0 5.28 6.93 15 12.21
0.075 0 0.96 6.44 7 7.4
H.W. Trial Three ???
16
(Aggregate)
2-Mathematical Method
An equation of general
aA + bB+ cC = T
a+b+c=1
A, B, and C are the percent either passing or retained on a particular sieve.
a, b, and c decimal values representing the portions of the blend to be taken
from each aggregate.
Example 2-2:
Determine the required proportioning of aggregates (job mix formula) to fit the
required specification limits.
Aggregate Specification
Sieve Size (mm)
A B C Limits (%) Mid Point
28 100 100 100 100 100
14 100 100 94 90-100 95
5 100 100 54 60-75 67.5
1.18 100 66.4 31.3 40-55 47.5
0.3 100 26.0 22.8 20-35 27.5
0.15 73.6 17.6 9.0 12-23 17
0.003 40.1 5.0 3.1 5-10 7.5
a + b + c = 1 - - - - - - - - - - - eq.1
100 a + 100 b + 54 c = 67.5 - - - - - - - (passing from sieve 5mm)
0 a + 0 b + 46 c = 32.5 - - - - - (Retained for sieve 5mm)-- eq.2
100 a + 66.4 b + 31.3 c = 47.5 - - - - - (passing from sieve 1.18mm)
17
(Aggregate)
100 a + 26 b + 22.8 c = 27.5 - - - - - - - (passing from sieve 0.3mm)
By subs.
0 a + 40.4 b + 8.5 c = 20 - - - - - - - - - eq.3
From eq.2 ==== c=0.71
From eq.3 ==== b= 0.35
From eq.1 ==== a= -0.06 ( negative value cannot accepted)
The computation is repeated using specification of 70% passing for 5mm

sieve and 45% passing for the 1.18mm.
0 a + 0 b + 46 c = 30 ======= c=0.65
0 a + 40.4 b + 8.5 c = 17.5 ======= b=0.3
From eq.1 a= 0.05
Check
aA + bB+ cC = specification limit for all values
18
(Bituminous Mix Design)
2nd Semester- (3rd lecture)
Bituminous Mix Design
3.0 Introduction
The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler,
fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates to produce a mix that is workable, strong,
durable, and economical. The requirements of the mix design and the two major
stages of the mix design, i.e dry mix design, and wet mix design will be discussed.
3.1 Evolution of road surface
1) Unsurfaced earthen roads, or cart-track.
2) Unsurfaced earthen roads upgraded with natural soil from borrowed pits and
attention to drainage, and compaction by traffic.
3) Dry aggregate and sand-clays mix, in which the former act as wear-resistant
and the latter as a natural binder.
4) Water-bound macadam, the above constituents, mixed together (pre-mix or
in-situ) with water and compacted to improve the strength.
5) Oiled roads, were introduced to reduce dust with bitumen-stabilized soils.
6) Seal coat: the base course is protected from traffic and moisture by sealing
the surface with a thin film of bitumen aggregate mix, which is the
structurally strong surface for pneumatic-tired traffic. This is provided on a
firm and smooth base course after a tack coat using cutback bitumen or
bitumen emulsions with a penetration of 5 mm.
7) Asphaltic concrete: Traffic and the axle configuration are increasing very
much which raises demand for a new type of pavement that can meet the
above requirements. Asphaltic concrete is a highly dense-graded premix and
it is termed the highest quality pavement surface course.
8) Bitumen mix or asphalt mix overlays of a minimum of 20 - 40 mm to as
high as 300 - 500 mm or even more.
20
(Bituminous Mix Design)
2nd Semester- (3rd lecture)
3.2 Objectives of Mix Design
The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportionating
various components so as to have:
1) Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,
2) Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher

temperatures,
3) Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional

compaction by traffic,
4) Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,
5) Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by

traffic, and
6) Sufficient flexibility at low temperatures to prevent shrinkage cracks.
3.3 Different layers in a pavement

1) Bituminous base course Consists of mineral aggregates such as stone,
gravel, or sand bonded together by a bituminous material and used as a
foundation upon which to place a binder or surface course.
2) Bituminous binder course A bituminous-aggregate mixture is used as an
intermediate coarse between the base and surface courses or as the first
bituminous layer in a two-layer bituminous resurfacing. It is sometimes
called a leveling course.
3) Asphaltic/Bituminous concrete consists of a mixture of aggregates
continuously graded from maximum size, typically less than 25 mm, through
fine filler that is smaller than 0.075 mm. Sufficient bitumen is added to the
mix so that the compacted mix is effectively impervious and will have
acceptable elastic properties.
21
(Marshall Mix Design)
2nd Semester (4th lecture)
Marshall Mix Design
4.0 Introduction
The mix design (wet mix) determines the optimum bitumen content. This is
preceded by the dry mix design discussed in the previous Lecture. There are many
methods available for mix design which varies in the size of the test specimen,
compaction, and other test specifications:
1- Marshall Method.
2- Hveem Method.
3- Hubbard Field Method.
Marshall's Method of mixed design is the most popular one and is discussed
below:-
The Marshall Stability and flow test provide the performance prediction
measure for the Marshall Mix design method. The stability portion of the test
measures the maximum load supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of
50.8 mm/minute (2 inches/minute). Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and
the maximum load is designated as stability. During the loading, an attached dial
gauge measures the specimen's plastic flow (deformation) due to loading. The flow
value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the same time when the
maximum load is recorded. The important steps involved in marshal mix design
are summarized next.
- Stability: is the highest resistance of the specimens to the imposed loads at a

temperature of 60°C.
- Note: If the thickness of the specimen differs from 63.5 mm, the correction
has to be made.
- Flow: The amount of strain or movement in (mm) that the specimens can
undergo during the Marshall test between the state of no loading and the
max. load, Allowable (2-4) mm.
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4.1 Specimen preparation
Approximately 1200 gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175-
190°C. Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121-125°C with the first trial
percentage of bitumen (say 3.5 or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates). The
heated aggregates and bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a temperature of 154-
160°C. The mix is placed in a preheated mold and compacted by a rammer with 50
blows on either side at a temperature of 138°C to 149°C. The weight of mixed
aggregates taken for the preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered to
obtain a compacted thickness of 63.5+/-3 mm.
Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0.5% and repeat the above
procedure. The number of trials is predetermined. The prepared mold is loaded in
the Marshall Test setup as shown in figure (4-1).
Figure (4-1): Marshall Test setup
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4.2 Properties of the mix
The properties that are of interest include the:
1- (CDM) Compacted Density of Mix For each specimen.
CDM = Wa / (Wa – Ww)
2- (CDMA) Compacted Density of Mix Aggregate.
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐁
𝑪𝑫𝑴𝑨 = 𝐂𝐃𝐌 ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
B = asphalt as the content of the total mix
B= w.t. of asphalt /w.t. of (agg.+ asphalt)
3- (SGMA) Specific Gravity of Mix Aggregate.
SGMA = 100/ (P1/SG1 + P2/SG2 + P3/SG3)
EX: - If Gravel is 40%, Sand 54%, & Filler 4%, the Specific Gravity of
Gravel is 2.65, Sand 2.75, and Filler 2.9, Find SGMA
SGMA = 100/ (40/2.65 + 54/2.75 + 4/2.90) = 2.77
4- (SGM) Specific Gravity of Mix.
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑮𝑴 = ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐁 𝐁
{( 𝑺𝑮𝑴𝑨 ) + (𝑺. 𝑮. 𝒂𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒕)}
5- (VIM) Voids in Mix.

VIM % = {(SGM – CDM) /SGM} × 100
6- (VIMA) Voids in Mix Aggregate.
𝑺𝑮𝑴𝑨−𝐂𝐃𝐌𝐀
𝑽𝑰𝑴𝑨% = ( )𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑮𝑴𝑨
7- (VFB) Voids Filled with Bitumen

𝑽𝑰𝑴𝑨 − 𝑽𝑰𝑴
𝑽𝑭𝑩% = ( ) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑰𝑴𝑨
23
Example (4-1): An asphaltic concrete surface course mixture is being designed
by the Marshall method. The aggregate combination in a trial mix contains (53%)
coarse aggregate, (41%) fine aggregate, and (6%) mineral filler. The specific
gravity of these materials is (2.63), (2.57), and (2.9) respectively, with (6.1%)
bitumen content of mixed aggregate, if the specific gravity of this bitumen is
(1.01), and the compacted density of the mix is (2.345). Find the Voids Filled with
Bitumen of the mix.
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐁
Solution:- 𝑪𝑫𝑴𝑨 = 𝐂𝐃𝐌 ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎
)
B= w.t. of asphalt /w.t. of (agg.+ asphalt)

B = 6.1/(6.1+100)= 5.75% (Asphalt as the content of total Mix.)
CDMA = 2.345x ((100-5.75)/100) = 2.210
SGMA = 100/ (P1/SG1 + P2/SG2 + P3/SG3)
SGMA = 100/((53)/2.63)+(41)/2.57)+(6)/2.9))= 2.620 %
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑮𝑴 = ( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐁 𝐁
{( 𝑺𝑮𝑴𝑨 ) + (𝑺. 𝑮. 𝒂𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒕)}
SGM = 100/ {(100-5.75/2.620) + (5.75/1.01)}= 2.400

VIM % = {(SGM – CDM) /SGM} × 100
VIM % = {(2.400 – 2.345) /2.400} × 100= 2.292%
𝑺𝑮𝑴𝑨−𝐂𝐃𝐌𝐀
𝑽𝑰𝑴𝑨% = ( )𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑮𝑴𝑨
VIMA % = {(2.620 – 2.210)/ 2.620} × 100= 15.650 %

𝑽𝑰𝑴𝑨−𝑽𝑰𝑴
𝑽𝑭𝑩% = ( ) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑰𝑴𝑨
VFB % = {(15.650 – 2.292) / 15.650} × 100= 85.355%
24
4.3 Determine Marshall Stability and Flow
Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce
failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a
special test head and the load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute).
While the stability test is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical
deformation of the specimen. The deformation at the failure point expressed in
units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow value of the specimen.
4.3.1 Apply stability correction

It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly varies from the
standard specification of 63.5mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be
corrected to those which would have been obtained if the specimens had been
exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by multiplying each measured stability value by an
appropriate correction factor as given in the table below.
25
4.3.2 Prepare graphical plots
The average values of the above properties are determined for each mix with
different bitumen content and the following graphical plots are prepared in figure
(4-2):
1- Binder content versus corrected Marshall Stability.
2- Binder content versus Marshall Flow.
3- Binder content versus voids in the total mix (VIM).
4- Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFB).
5- Binder content versus compacted density of mix (CDM).
Figure (4-2): Marshal graphical plots
26
4.3.3 Determine optimum bitumen content
Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking the average
value of the following three bitumen contents found to form the graphs obtained in
the previous step.
1- Binder content corresponds to maximum stability.
2- Binder content corresponds to a maximum compacted density of mix
(CDM).
3- Binder content corresponds to the median of designed limits of voids in the
total mix (VIM).
The stability value, flow value, and VFB are checked with the Marshall mix
design specification chart given in the table below. Mixes with very high stability
value and low flow value are not desirable as the pavements constructed with such
mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.
Marshall Mix design specification

No. Test Property Specified Value
1 Marshal Stability, kg 340 (minimum)
2 Flow value, 0.25mm units 8 – 17
3 Voids in the total mix (VIM) % 3-5
4 Voids filled with bitumen (VFB)% 75 - 85
4.4 Summary
The Marshal stability test is the performance prediction measure conducted on
the bituminous mix. The procedure consists of the determination of properties of
the mix, Marshal Stability and flow analysis and final determination of optimum
bitumen content. The concept of a phase diagram is used for the calculations.
27
(Stress Distribution through Pavement)
2nd Season- (5th lecture)
Stress Distribution Through Pavement
5.0 Introduction
The primary function of the pavement structure is to reduce and distribute the
surface stresses (contact tire pressure) to an acceptable level at the subgrade (to the
level that prevents permanent deformation). A flexible pavement reduces the
stresses by distributing the traffic wheel loads over greater and greater areas,
through the individual layers, until the stress at the subgrade is at an acceptably
low level. The traffic loads are transmitted to the subgrade by aggregate-to-
aggregate particle contact. Confining pressures (lateral forces due to material
weight) in the subbase and base layers increase the bearing strength of these
materials. A cone of distributed loads reduces and spreads the stresses to the
subgrade, as shown in Figure (5-1).
Figure (5-1): Distributed load on a flexible pavement.
28
5.1 Change in Vertical Stress
The change in vertical stress (Δσ) is caused by the load at the surface of the soil
profile. As shown in Figure (5-2), the total load (P) causes surface stress that is
felt at all points below the surface. As indicated, this influence is strongest at the
surface and tapers off as the depth under the soil profile increases. Also, note that
the influence at any particular layer is greatest along the centerline of the structure
and decreased gradually as the distance from the centerline increases.
Figure (5-2): Influence of surface stress.

Because the maximum influence of the surface stress will be felt along the
centerline, the change in vertical stress can be represented along the centerline by
the curve shown in Figure (5-3).
Figure (5-3): Change in vertical stress along the centerline of load.
29
As indicated, the change in vertical stress (Δσ) is determined by multiplying the
surface stress by an influencing factor (I) obtained from a Boussinesq diagram.
Figure (5-4) shows a Boussinesq diagram for circular areas. There are Boussinesq
diagrams for rectangular areas, however, they are much more complicated.
Therefore, to keep the description of the process as simple as possible, only
circular areas will be considered.
Figure (5-4): Boussinesq diagram for circular areas.

(Note: For a simple rectangle, and certainly for a square area, using an enclosed
circular area works well and avoids the complications of the more detailed
diagrams).
Figure (5-5): Nondimensional vertical and horizontal distances.
30
As can be seen, the distance downward (z) and the distance outward (x) have
been made nondimensional by dividing each by the radius of the circular load (R).
This can be more clearly seen in Figure (5-5).
Because we are interested in the change in vertical stress (Δσ) at the midpoint of
the clay layer, then this is the distance (z). And because the maximum influence
will occur along the centerline, the distance (x) will be zero.
5.2 Calculation of Flexible Pavement Stresses and Deflections

To design a pavement, one must be able to calculate the stresses and deflections in
the pavement system. In the simplest case, the wheel loads can be assumed to
consist of a point load on a single-layer system, as shown in Figure (5-6). This type
of load and configuration can be analyzed with the Boussinesq solutions that were
derived for soil analysis.
Figure (5-6): Point load on a one-layer pavement.
31
Although the Boussinseq theory (1885) is useful for beginning the study of
pavement stress calculations, it is not very representative of pavement system
loading and configuration because it applies to a point load on one layer. A more
realistic approach is to expand the point load to an elliptical area that represents a
tire footprint Figure (5-7). The tire footprint can be defined by an equivalent
𝑝1
circular area with a radius calculated by:- a = √( 𝑝𝜋 )
1000
Where
a = Equivalent load radius of the tire footprint in (mm).
𝑝1 = Tire load in (N).
𝑝 = Tire pressure in (kPa).
Figure(5-7): Tire pressure is distributed downward according to Boussinsq.
32
The Boussinesq theory assumes that the pavement is one layer thick and the
material is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic, continuous in all directions, and
obeys Hook’s law. Vertical stress at any point is given by:-
Where:-
P = vertical stress,
a = radius of area of contact,

z = vertical distance under wheel load (under loading point).
The radial stress is given by:-
Where:- µ= Poisson’s ratio.
33
5.2.1Flexible deformation under circular loading
5.2.2 Deflection of Rigid Plate
If we consider a minute (very small) cube element of soil at depth (z) under the
surface and knowing the stresses acting on it, then:
34
5.3 Two-Layer Vertical Stresses
35
5.3.1 Vertical Surface Deflection in a two-layer System

1- Burmister (1958) developed a chart for computing vertical surface deflection in
a two-layer system.
2- The deflection factor, F2, is obtained from the chart based on the values of
a/h1 and E1/E2.
3- Then the deflection is computed from the following equations:
36
(Introduction to Pavement Design)
Introduction to Pavement Design
6.0 Introduction
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute
the applied vehicle loads to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to
provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable
light-reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to
ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced so
that they will not exceed the bearing capacity of the subgrade.
Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose, namely
flexible pavements, and rigid pavements.
6.1 Requirements of Pavements

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
1) Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on
the sub-grade soil,
2) Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
3) Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
4) Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
5) Produce the least noise from moving vehicles,
6) The dust-proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing
visibility,
7) Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
8) Long design life with low maintenance cost.
6.2 Types of Pavements

The pavements can be classified based on their structural performance into two,
flexible pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are
transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure
Figure (6-1). The flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a
flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road).
37
On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade
soil by the flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts as a rigid plate
(e.g. cement concrete roads). In addition to these, composite pavements are also
available.
A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with
the most desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new
construction because of the high cost and complex analysis required.
Figure (6-1): Load transfer in granular structure
6.2.1 Flexible Pavement

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the
stress decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of these stress distribution
characteristic, flexible pavements normally has many layers.
Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of a layered system.
Based on this, the flexible pavement may be constructed in several layers and the
top layer has to be of the best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in
addition, to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience a lesser magnitude of
stress and low-quality material can be used. Flexible pavements are constructed
using bituminous materials.
38
Figure (6-2): Typical cross-section of flexible pavement
6.2.1.1 Types of Flexible Pavements

 Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high-quality
expensive materials placed at the top where stresses are high, and low-
quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
 Full-depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers
directly on the soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic
and local materials are not available.
 Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open-
graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense
graded asphalt concrete placed above the subgrade will significantly reduce
the vertical compressive strain on the soil subgrade and protect it from
surface water.
6.2.1.2 Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement include a seal coat, surface
course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course,
compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade Figure (6-2).
Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to waterproof the surface and
provide skid resistance.
39
Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layers of
binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very
fast.
Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an

absorbent surface like granular bases on which the binder layer is placed. It
provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into
the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water-tight surface.
Surface course: is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded
asphalt concrete (AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:
1) It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also, it

will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the
underlying base, sub-base, and sub-grade,
2) It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth
and skid-resistant riding surface,
3) It must be waterproof to protect the entire base and subgrade from the
weakening effect of water.
Binder course: this layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its
chief purpose is to distribute the load to the base course. The binder course
generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as
high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course with the binder
course results in a more economical design.
Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the
surface of the binder course and it provides additional load distribution and
contributes to the sub-surface drainage. It may be composed of crushed stone,
crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base
course and the primary functions is to provide structural support, improve
drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement
40
structure If the base course is open-graded, then the sub-base course with more
fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course. A sub-base
course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high-quality, stiff subgrade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-
base course. In such situations, the sub-base course may not be provided.
Sub-grade: The topsoil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive

the stresses from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil subgrade is
overstressed. It should be compacted to the desired density, near the optimum
moisture content.
6.2.2 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load
stresses to a wider area below. A typical cross-section of the rigid pavement is
shown in Figure (6-3). Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed
either directly on the prepared subgrade or on a single layer of granular or
stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete
and the subgrade, this layer can be called the base or sub-base course.
Figure (6-3): Typical Cross section of rigid pavement
41
6.2.2.1 Types of Rigid Pavement
Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
1- Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
2- Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
3- Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
4- Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
6.3 The main difference between Flexible & Rigid pavement
No. Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Consist of a series of layers with Consists of a Portland cement
the highest quality materials concrete slab resting either
1
acting under the surface. directly on the subgrade or on the
base course.
The thickness design of flexible The rigid pavement distributes the
2 pavement is influenced by the load over a relatively wide area of
strength of the subgrade. soil.
The fundamental purpose of the Base under rigid highway
base course and the sub-base pavement is used mainly for
3
course is the control stress controlling the bending action of
distribution. the slab.
4 Without joints. With joints.
Deflects under the load and Can bridge the weak points by
5 resumes its position after the load distributing the stress over a wide
is removed. area.
The major failures are fatigue Traditionally fatigue cracking has
6 cracking, rutting, and thermal been considered the major
cracking.
42
Flexible Pavement Design Methods
1- CBR Method
This method depends on CBR values in order to determine the depth of different
layers of pavement Figure (6-4) below shows the relation between (CBR) and the
depth of pavement. We can use this empirical equation in order to determine the
depth for different loads:
Where:
t = depth of pavement layer (cm),
P = load on the tire (Kgm),
p = tire pressure (Kgm/cm²),
A = tangent area (cm²).
Figure (6-4): Relationship between CBR & Depth of pavement
43
Example 6-1: For CBR flexible design method, calculate the area of contact with
pavement in (cm²) for this case: CBR of base course is 6%, number of commercial
vehicles/day is 149, and load on the tire is 6000 kg.
Solution:
From figure (CBR= 6% , Curve C t = 30 cm)
𝟏.𝟕𝟓 𝟏
𝟑𝟎 = √𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎√( − )
𝟔 𝝅𝒒
𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 𝟏
𝟗𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎( − )
𝟔 𝝅𝒒
𝟏.𝟕𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏.𝟕𝟓 𝟏 𝟏.𝟕𝟓
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 = ( − ); = − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓; = − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
𝟔 𝝅𝒒 𝝅𝒒 𝟔 𝝅𝒒 𝟔
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓; = (𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟐)𝒙 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 ; ; 𝐪 = = 2.243
𝝅𝒒 𝒒 (𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟔)
𝑷 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒒= ; 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟑 =
𝑨 𝑨
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 = = 2675 cm²
𝟐.𝟐𝟒𝟑
44
(AASHTO Design Method)
Prof. Dr. Wisam Al-Rekabi
2nd Season (7th lecture)
AASHTO Design Method
7.0 Introduction
In the previous lecture, we discussed the types of pavements and their failure
criteria. There are many factors that affect pavement design which can be classified
into five categories as traffic and loading, structural models, material
characterization, environment, and reliability. They will be discussed in detail in
this lecture.
7.1 Factors that affect the Design of flexible pavement
1- Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in pavement design. The key factors include
contact pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load
repetitions.
45
Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)
According to the AASHTO design method, axles with different magnitudes and
different numbers of repetitions are converted to an equivalent number of
repetitions of standard axle load that causes the same damage to the pavement. A
standard axle load was selected as 18000 Lb (80 KN) applied on a single axle with
a dual wheel at each end. The ESAL is the equivalent number of repetitions of the
18-kip (80KN) standard axle load that causes the same damage to the pavement
caused by one pass of the load in question.
Factor = (𝑳/𝑳𝑺)𝒏
Where;
L = Load of any axle,
Ls= Standard axle load (80KN for single axle & 145KN for tandem axle),
n= Exponent depends on environmental conditions & materials (n=4).
Total ESAL = W´18 = ∑ 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 ∗ 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲
Example 7-1: - Find the total ESAL for the following loading on the design lane.
Axle load (KN) No. of Axle/day Factor = (𝑳/𝑳𝑺)𝒏 ESAL/day
40 600 0.0625 37.5

Single
80 278 1 278
120 75 5.0625 379.688
160 60 16 960
100 300 0.2262 67.866
Tandem
145 115 1 115

200 45 3.6195 162.877
∑ ESAL/day = 2000
46
2- Environmental:- Effects (n) value,
Temperature: affects the properties of asphalt,
Moisture: affects the strength of the sub base & subgrade (reflects the
surface in the form of rutting).
3- Material characteristics:- the type of asphalt, type, and shape of aggregate
& subgrade soil.
4- Reliability:- a reliability level is selected depending on the functional
classification of the road and whether the road is in an urban or rural area,
reliability is the chance that pavement will last for the design period without
failure.
7.2 Cumulative Equivalent Single Axle Load
W18 = W´18* DD * DL
Where:-
W´18 = Total ESAL in both directions per lifetime = (ESAL*365*years).
DD = Directional distribution factor for normal traffic = (50% = 0.5),
DL = Lane distribution factor:
No. of Lanes in each direction DL ( lane distribution factor) %

1 100
2 80 - 100
3 60 - 80
4 50 - 75
7.3 Structural Number (SN)
The structural number (SN) is an index value that combines layer thicknesses,
structural layer coefficients, and drainage coefficients. The required structural
number above the subgrade (SN3) is determined first using the equation below:-
47
Where:-
W18 = Cumulative expected 18kip ESAL during the designed life in the design
lane.
ZR = Reliability factor (0.9-0.99).
S0 = Standard deviation (0.45 for flexible pavement, 0.35 for rigid pavement).
MR = Effective roadbed soil resilient modulus (MR = 1500 x CBR).
For example if CBR= 6%, MR = 1500 x 6 = 9000 Psi
∆PSI = The serviceability loss is the difference between the initial serviceability
index (P0) and the terminal serviceability index (Pt):-
∆PSI = P0 – Pt
48
The typical P0 value for a new pavement is 4.6 or 4.5.
The recommended values of Pt are 3.0, 2.5, or 2.0 for major roads, intermediate
roads, and secondary roads, respectively.
Note: SN can be obtained from equation either by trial and error or by iteration
using a computer program.
This process is repeated two or more times to obtain the required structural number
above the subbase (SN2) and the required structural number above the base (SN1).
SN1 = a1.D1
SN2 = a1.D1 + a2.D2
SN3 = a1.D1 + a2.D2+ a3.D3
Where:-
a = coefficient of relative stiffness,
D = Thickness of layer (in),
a1 = 0.4 – 0.44 for asphalt (bituminous) treated base.
49
a2 = 0.17 – 0.23 for cement stabilized, 0.15 – 0.3 for lime stabilized, and 0.14 for
Macadam.
a3 = 0.11 for granular subbase and 0.05 for sand or sandy clay.
m2,m3 = Drainage coefficient.
Example 7-2:- An arterial highway of four lanes is to be designed to carry a
total traffic of (2000) standard axles per day from Example 7-1 .
a) Determine the pavement components thicknesses of the highway in a

marshland, where the soil's CBR=2.5%, the available granular materials for
sub base have a CBR=25% and a3=0.11, the base is cement stabilized
having a CBR=80% a2=0.2, the surface is an asphaltic concrete layer of
a1=0.44, and the drainage coefficients for base and subbase are (0.8) and
(0.6) respectively and if the reliability factor and the standard deviation are
(90%) and (0.45) respectively, let (∆PSI=2.7) and lifetime = 20 years.
b) Is it possible to decrease these thicknesses yes…how? And if not…why?
= 0.44
= 0.20, CBR= 80%

= 0.11, CBR = 25%
CBR = 2.5%
Solution;-
a) W18'= 2000 x 20 x 365 = 146000000 ESAL
W18 =DD * DL * W´18, DL= 0.8 (2 lanes in each direction), DD= 0.5
W18 = 0.5 * 0.8 * 14600000 = 5840000 ESAL for the design lane.
50
Log 5840000 = 0.9 x 0.45+9.36 log (SN+1) – 0.2 + 2.32 log MR – 8.07
For CBR = 2.5% , SN3 = 3.757 , 3.757 x 2.54 = SN3 (cm)
SN3 = a1.D1+a2.m2.D2+a3.m3.D3
3.757 x 2.54 = 0.44D1 + 0.16D2 + 0.066D3 ------------ (1)
For CBR = 25% , SN2 = 1.688
So 1.688 x 2.54 = 0.44D1 + 0.16D2 ----------------------- (2)
For CBR = 80% , SN1 = 1.015 , 1.015 x 2.54 = 0.44D1
D1 = 5.86 cm , D2 = 10.682 cm & D3 = 79.625 cm
b) Yes, by using a good material for base by increasing the coefficient of relative
stiffness such as bituminous treated base (a2 = 0.4 – 0.44).
51
(Rigid Pavement Design)
Rigid Pavement Design
8.0 Introduction
Rigid pavements are mostly found on major highways and airports. They also
serve as heavy-duty industrial floor slabs, port and harbor yard pavements, and
heavy vehicle park or terminal pavements. Rigid highway pavements, like flexible
pavements, are designed as all–weather, long-lasting structures to serve modern-
day high-speed traffic. As the name implies, rigid pavements are rigid i.e, they do
not flex much under loading like flexible pavements. A rigid pavement is
composed of a relatively thin concrete slab placed on a subgrade or a base, the
most common type of material used for rigid pavement slab construction is
Portland cement concrete, mainly because of economic reasons and its easy
availability. The concrete slab must be designed to withstand repeated traffic
loadings. Fatigue failure of the pavement due to repeated loadings caused by daily
traffic is a major design consideration of rigid pavements. This form of failure is
common for highway pavements because a typical highway will receive millions
of wheel passes during its receive life. While the design life of flexible pavement
may be in the range of 15 to 20 years, it is common for the concrete pavement to
be designed with a service life of 30 to 40 years.
Since the modulus of elasticity of concrete is much greater than the underlying
layer, then the concrete takes the major part of the load and distributes it on a large
area. This is called (slab action). H.M. Westergaard is considered the pioneer in
providing the rational treatment of rigid pavement analysis.
-a- -b-
Figure (8-1): a- Typical cross-section of rigid road pavement,
b- Load transmission in the rigid pavement.
52
8.1 The function of the Base (or Subbase)
1- Drainage purpose.
2- Reduce the effect of subgrade volume change on the concrete layer.
3- Prevent pumping of fines through joints & edges.
4- Increase K modulus of subgrade reaction.
8.2 Rigid Pavement Types
1- Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

a- No reinforcement except for using tie bars (for longitudinal joints).
b- Closer spacing between contractions joint (as transverse joints).
c- Inclined joints may be used (for better load transfer).
d- Very limited use.
Figure (8-2): Jointed plain concrete pavement
53
2- Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
a- Temperature (wire-mesh. B.R.C.) Reinforcement between joints to
control cracking (close to the upper surface).
b- Dowel bars across transverse joints.
c- Tie bars across longitudinal joints to control warping.
d- Wider spacing between joints (from 3-6 m 12-14 m).
e- Widely used.
Figure (8-3): Jointed reinforced concrete pavement.
3- Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

a- No joints except some expansion joints & maybe some contraction joints.
b- Heavy reinforcement (≥ 0.6% of the cross-sectional area).
c- High cost.
d- Used in very – weak subgrade & high traffic load.
4- Pre-stressed concrete pavement

a- Fewer joints.
b- More expensive.
54
Figure (8-4): Continuous reinforced concrete pavement.
8.3 Type of Joints in Rigid Pavement

The main kinds of joints commonly found in rigid pavements are contraction,
warping, expansion, and construction joints. These different types of joints, with
their typical forms of construction details, are provided in a concrete pavement
system to serve various functions while maintaining a certain degree of structural
continuity through provisions for some form of load transfer.
In addition, it is important to ensure that all joints must be sealed against water
seepage and to exclude grit and debris. They must also not adversely affect the
riding quality of the pavement surface, and not cause much interference in the
process of pavement construction.
1- Contraction Joints
The purpose of the contraction joint is to allow the contraction of the slab
due to a fall in slab temperature below the construction temperature. The
design considerations are:
a- The movement is restricted by the subgrade friction
b- Design involves the length of the slab given by:
55
Where Sc is the allowable stress in tension in cement concrete and is taken
as 0.8 kg/cm³, W is the unit weight of the concrete which can be taken as
2400 kg/cm³ and f is the coefficient of subgrade friction which can be taken
1.5.
c- Steel reinforcement can be used, however with a maximum spacing of
4.5m.
Figure (8-5): Contraction joint.
2- Expansion Joints
The purpose of the expansion joint is to allow the expansion of the pavement
due to a rise in temperature with respect to construction temperature. The
design considerations are:
a- Provide along the longitudinal direction.
b- Design involves finding the joint spacing for a given expansion joint
thickness (2.5 cm).
Figure (8-6): Expansion joint.
56
3- Warping Joints
Warping joints, also known as hinge joints are transverse or longitudinal
breaks formed in the pavement slab to allow for a small amount of angular
movement. The purpose is to relieve tensile stresses due to warping because
of the difference in temperature between the top and bottom of the slab
(night & day). Warping joints are also constructed by forming surface
grooves. However, unlike contraction joints, the opening of the joints due to
contraction of concrete is prevented by tie bars or reinforcements.
Figure (8-7): Warping joint.

4- Construction Joints
Construction joints are installed at the end of the day's placement or when
the casting of a concrete slab is interrupted due to equipment breakdown or
other reasons such as unfavorable weather conditions. The placement of
concrete can be planned to have transverse construction joints coincide with
either contraction or expansion joints. Longitudinal construction joints are
usually positioned at the slab edge to minimize their effect on riding quality.
Figure (8-8): Construction joint.
57
8.4 Dowel Bars
The purpose of the dowel bar is to effectively transfer the load between two
concrete slabs and to keep the two slabs at the same height. They are smooth steel
bars installed across a transverse joint to provide a mechanical connection between
slabs without restricting horizontal joint movements. Dowelled joints are required
for major roads, main urban streets, industrial roads, airports, and harbor
pavements. The design of dowel bars is mostly based on experience. AASHTO
(1993) recommended the use of dowel bars with a diameter equal to 1/8 of the slab
thickness. Most road agencies adopt the standard center-to-center spacing of
300mm (12 in.). The typical length of dowel bars is 460mm (18 in.). Corrosion of
dowel bars may cause joints to lock up. Epoxy-coated and stainless steel dowels
have been used to prevent corrosion. The design considerations are:
- Mild steel rounded bars,

- Bonded on one side and free on the other side.
8.5 Tie Bars

Tie bars are deformed steel bars installed in contraction or warping joints to hold
the faces of two adjacent slabs tightly together, thereby promoting aggregate
interlock. They are also used in keyed joints to ensure load transfer. They are
commonly used in longitudinal joints to provide load transfer through aggregate
interlock and to prevent lanes from separating. Tie bars are typically 12.5mm (1/2
in.) in diameter with lengths between 0.6 and 1.0m (24 and 39in.), and spaced
intervals of 0.75 to 1.1m (30 to 40 in.). In contrast to dowel bars, tie bars are not
load transfer devices, but serve as a means to tie two slabs. Hence tie bars must be
deformed or hooked and must be firmly anchored into the concrete to function
properly. They are smaller than dowel bars and placed at large intervals. They are
provided across longitudinal joints.
58
8.6 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Westergaard considered the rigid pavement slab as a thin elastic plate resting on
the soil subgrade, which is assumed a dense liquid. The upward reaction is
assumed to be proportional to the deflection. Based on this assumption,
Westergaard defined a modulus of subgrade reaction K in N/mm³ given by (K=
p/w) where w is the displacement level taken as 0.125 cm and p is the pressure
sustained by the rigid plate of 75 cm diameter at a deflection of 0.125 cm.
K depends on soil texture, density, moisture, and related factors that affect soil
strength.
Assumptions: - only vertical stresses are considered and the effects of forces from
friction are neglected.
8.6.1 Relative Stiffness of Slab to Subgrade

A certain degree of resistance to slab deflection is offered by the subgrade. The
subgrade deformation is the same as the slab deflection. Hence the slab deflection
is a direct measurement of the magnitude of the subgrade pressure. This pressure
deformation characteristic of rigid pavement leads Westergaard to define the term
radius of relative stiffness l in mm as given by the equation:
Where:
E = is the modulus of elasticity of cement concrete in (N/mm²),
µ = is the Poisson's ratio of concrete,
h = is the slab thickness in (mm),
K= is the modulus of the subgrade reaction (N/mm³).
59
8.7 Critical load position
Westergaard (1926) was the first to propose a complete theory of the structural
behavior of rigid pavements. This theory is still the bases of computed load-
induced stresses in many of the design procedures in use today. Westergaard
modeled the pavement structure as a homogenous, isotropic, elastic, thin slab
resting on a dense liquid foundation. From existing test data and experience, he
identified the three most critical loading positions, the interior (also called center),
edge, and corner, as illustrated in Figure (8-9), and derived equations for
computing the critical stresses and deflections for loads placed at the edge, corner,
and center, respectively.
Figure (8-9): Loading positions considered by Westergaard
60
8.7.1 Interior loading
Westergaard derived the following expressions for the maximum stress σ and
maximum deflection w under a circular distributed wheel load P acting at the
interior loading position:
Where:-
a = The radius of the wheel load distribution in (mm),
h = The slab thickness in (mm).
b = The equivalent radius of the resisting section in (mm)
8.7.2 Corner Loading

Westergaard considered a slab that extends to infinite length and width from the
loaded corner. He derived the following equations for computing the maximum
bending stress and deflection w when the slab is subjected to corner load P:
61
8.7.3 Edge Loading
Westergaard defined edge loading as the case when "the wheel is at the edge of the
slab, but is at a considerable distance from any corner". The maximum bending
stress σ and maximum deflection w are computed as:
8.8 Temperature Stresses

Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variations
in slab temperature. This is caused by (i) daily variation resulting in a temperature
gradient across the thickness of the slab and (ii) seasonal variation resulting in an
overall change in the slab temperature. The former results in warping stresses and
later in frictional stresses.
8.8.1 Warping stress

If a concrete slab is exposed to heat through its thickness, the surface warps. This
condition is resisted by the weight of the slab itself. If the top of the slab is cooler
than the bottom, the corners warp upwards, but the weight of the slab tends to keep
the slab in its original position, therefore stresses develop in the slab. Solutions
were presented by Westergaard and developed by Bradbury in the present forms:
Bradbury has given the following expression to evaluate the stresses in the
interior region in longitudinal and transverse directions::-
1- Bradbury has given the following expression to evaluate the stresses in the
interior region in longitudinal and transverse directions::-
𝑬 𝜺𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∁𝒙+𝛍 ∁𝐲
Interior stress = 𝝈𝒊 = ( )
𝟐 𝟏−𝝁²
62
Where:-
∁𝑥 = The coefficient based on Lx/l in the desired direction, and,
∁y = The coefficient based on Ly/l at right angles to the above direction,
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete,
µ = Poisson's ratio of concrete,
εt = Coefficient of thermal expansion.
Lx and Ly = the dimensions of the slab in X and Y directions of length and width in
meters.
2- The warping stress at the edge region is given by the following expression:
∁𝒙 .𝑬.𝜺𝒕.∆𝒕 ∁𝒚 .𝑬.𝜺𝒕.∆𝒕
Edge stress = 𝝈𝒆 = 𝒐𝒓 (whichever is higher)
𝟐 𝟐
Where:-
∁𝑥 = The coefficient based on Lx/l in the desired direction, and,
∁y = The coefficient based on Ly/l at right angles to the above direction,
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete,
εt = Coefficient of thermal expansion,
∆t = Temperature difference between top & bottom slab.
𝑬 𝜺𝒕 ∆𝒕 𝒂
3- Corner stress = 𝝈𝒄 = √
𝟑(𝟏−𝝁) 𝒍
The values of the warping stress coefficients Cx and Cy for cement concrete
pavement are obtained from the chart developed by Bradbury Figure (8-10).
Figure (8-10): Bradbury’s chart for warping stress coefficients
63
8.8.2 Frictional Stresses
When the ambient temperature falls or rises, besides the tendency to warp
vertically, the pavement slab also undergoes horizontal contraction or
expansion which leads to some relative movements between the subgrade and
the bottom face of the slab. Friction between the pavement slab and subgrade
provides restraint to these relative movements, thereby creating stresses within
the slab. The pavement designer is more interested in the case where the
temperature falls because tensile stresses will develop as the subgrade friction
restrains the slab from contracting.
Note: In general frictional stresses are effective in the long slab.
∑ 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆
𝑳
𝒇∗ ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝜸𝒄 ∗ 𝒉 = 𝝈𝒄 ∗ 𝑨𝒄 , (𝑨𝒄 = 𝑩 ∗ 𝒉)
𝟐
But 𝝈𝒄 ∗ 𝑨𝒄 = 𝝈𝒔 ∗ 𝑨𝒔
𝑳 𝜸𝒄∗ 𝑩∗𝒉 𝒇∗ 𝑳∗𝜸𝒄
𝝈𝒄 = 𝒇 ∗ ∗ , 𝝈𝒄 = ,
𝟐 𝑩∗𝒉 𝟐
Where: f = 1.5 – 2.0 & 𝜸𝒄 = 𝟐𝟒𝑲𝑵/𝒎³

𝝈𝒄∗𝑨𝒄 𝒇∗ 𝑳∗𝜸𝒄∗ 𝑩∗𝒉
𝑨𝒔 = =
𝝈𝒔 𝟐∗𝝈𝒔
Where:-
64
𝝈𝒔 = Tension in steel
= allowable steel tension 𝝈𝒘 (working stress)
𝝈𝒘 = 0.7 𝜎𝑦 (for steel bars 𝜎𝑦 = 330 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²)
𝒇 ∗ 𝑳 ∗ 𝜸𝒄 ∗ 𝑩 ∗ 𝒉
𝑨𝒔 =
𝟐 ∗ 𝝈𝒘
Example 8-1: Find the frictional stress in concrete and the steel area of
temperature reinforcement for the following condition:- length of slab l =20m,
width (B)= 3.75m, thickness (h)= 250mm, Concrete Density = 24 KN/m³, the
average coefficient of subgrade resistance (f) = 1.5 - 2.0.
Solution:
𝒇 .𝑳.𝜸𝒄 𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝟎𝒙 𝟐𝟒
𝝈𝒄 = = = 480 KN/m2 = 0.48 N/mm2
𝟐 𝟐
𝒇 .𝑳.𝜸𝒄.𝑩.𝒉 𝟐𝒙.𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟐𝟒𝒙𝟑.𝟕𝟓𝒙𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝑨𝒔 = = =
𝟐𝝈𝒘 𝟐𝒙𝟎.𝟕𝒙𝟑𝟑𝟎
8.9 Calculation of Thickness of the Slab

The empirical formula given by Sheets and recommended for general use for the
calculation of the thickness of the slab is:-
𝟐. 𝟒𝑷𝒄
𝒕= √
𝒔
Where:
t = The thickness in centimeters of the slab at the corner is the equivalent in the
case of thickened edge or else the uniform thickness in the case of a uniform slab.
(The thickness in the center of the slab and at the edge, in the case of the thickened
edge, is generally kept in the ratio of 2:3 to obtain a balanced design ensuring
equal strength at all sections.),
65
s = The unit stress in tension in kg/cm2 (not exceeding half the modulus of rupture
of concrete),
c = The coefficient of subgrade support having the following values:
Very soft and plastic ground 1.09

Soft and plastic ground 1.00
Fairly hard ground 0.90
Hard ground 0.84
Very hard ground 0.80
Extremely hard ground 0.77
Example 8-2: Determine the thickness of the slab for the corner wheel load of
4700 kg, generating the maximum tensile strength of 40 kg/cm2. Take the value of
c = 0.80 for very hard ground.
𝟐.𝟒𝑷𝒄
Solution: 𝒕 = √
𝒔
𝟐.𝟒 𝒙 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎𝒙 𝟎.𝟖

𝒕= √ , t = 15.02 cm ≈ 15 cm
𝟒𝟎
8.10 Combination of stresses

The various stresses acting in a cement concrete pavement combine to give the
most critical combinations of the stresses, and it becomes necessary to consider the
conditions under which they combine.
The following are the conditions that provide critical combinations of the stresses:
1- In summer, the critical combination for interior and edge regions during the
mid-day exists when the warping of the slab is downwards. During this
period maximum tensile stress is developed due to warping, and this is
cumulative with the tensile stress due to loading.
The critical combination of stresses at the edge region = [load stress +
warping stress – frictional stress].
66
2- In winter, the critical combination of stresses at the interior and edge
regions exists when the slab contracts and warps downwards during the mid-
day.
Critical combination at the bottom fibers at edge region = [load stress +
warping stress+ frictional stress].
3- The critical combination of stresses exits for the corner region when the slab
warps upward during the mid-nights.
Critical stress at the top fiber at the corner region = [load stress + warping
stress].
Example 8-3: A cement concrete pavement slab of thickness 30 cm is constructed

over a granular subbase whose modulus of reaction is 50 kg/cm3. The maximum
temperature difference between the top and bottom of the slab during a summer
day and night is recorded as 18°C. The spacing between the transverse contraction
joints is 4.5 m and that between the longitudinal joints is 3.5 m.
Find the worst combination of stresses during the day & night using the following
data:
Design wheel load 4500 kg
The radius of the contact area 15 cm
Modulus of elasticity of concrete 300000 kg/cm2
Poisson’s ratio of concrete 0.15
Thermal coefficient of concrete 0.000011/°C
Unit weight of concrete 2400 kg/m3
Coefficient of subgrade restraint 1.5
Solution: a-
𝟒 𝑬𝒉𝟑 𝑬𝒉𝟑
𝒍= √ 𝟐
= ( 𝟐
)𝟏/𝟒
𝟏𝟐(𝟏 − 𝝁 )𝒌 𝟏𝟐(𝟏 − 𝝁 )𝒌
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑥 𝟑𝟎𝟑
𝒍=( 𝟐
)𝟏/𝟒 = 𝟔𝟏 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟐(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 )𝒙 𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟐 𝑷 𝒍
𝛔𝐞 = [ 𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟗]
𝒉² 𝒃
67
b = The equivalent radius of the resisting section in (mm)
150 < 1.724 (300) ok
b =√1.6 ∗ 1502 + 3002 _ 0.675 (300) = 152.465mm

0.572∗4500 61
σ= [ 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 0.359] = 7.915 kg/cm² (edge stress)
(30)² 15.2465
Lx = 4.5m = 450 cm , Ly= 3.5m = 350 cm,
From Bradbury’s chart for warping stress coefficients
Lx/l =450/61 = 7.38, the value of Cx = 1.02, and for Ly/l =350/61 = 5.74, Cy = 0.87
∁𝒙 .𝑬.𝜺𝒕.∆𝒕
Edge stress = 𝝈𝒆 = because Cx > Cy
𝟐
1.02×300000×0.000011 x18
σe = = 30.294 kg/cm2
2
68
𝒇 .𝑳𝒙.𝜸𝒄
The frictional stress as: 𝝈𝒇 =
𝟐
𝟏.𝟓 × 𝟒.𝟓× 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝝈𝒇 = = 8100 kg/m2 = 0.81 kg/cm2
𝟐
Combined stress at the edge region:
The critical combination of stress during summer mid-day = Load stress +

warping stress – frictional stress
= 7.915 + 30.294 – 0.81 = 37.399 kg/cm2
𝟎.𝟔
𝟑𝑷 𝒂√𝟐
b- Corner load stress 𝛔𝐜 = [𝟏−( )
𝒉𝟐 𝒍
𝟎.𝟔
𝟑 𝒙 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟓√𝟐
Corner load stress 𝛔𝐜 = [𝟏−( ) = 7.041 kg/cm²
𝟑𝟎² 𝟔𝟏
𝑬 𝜺𝒕 ∆𝒕
Corner stress = 𝝈𝒄 = √𝒂𝒍
𝟑(𝟏−𝝁)
𝑬 𝜺𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝒂 300000× 0.000011 ×18
Warping stress at corner 𝝈𝒄 = √ = √𝟏𝟓
𝟑(𝟏−𝝁) 𝒍 3(1−0.15) 𝟔𝟏
Warping stress at corner 𝜎𝑐 = 11.551 kg/cm²

The frictional stress at the corner region is zero.
Combined stress at the edge region:
The critical combination of stress during summer mid-night = Load stress +

warping stress
= 7.041 + 11.551 = 18.592 kg/cm²
Note: It may be seen that under identical conditions of pavement, load, and
temperature, the critical combination of stresses at the edge region is higher than
that at the corner region.
69
Discussion for Eighth Lecture
Q1]
a) If the Elastic modulus of pavement slabs concrete (4m length,3m width, and
300mm thick) is (30000 MPa), Poisson’s ratio is (0.15), Coefficient of thermal
expansion of concrete is (0.000011/°C), C coefficient is ( 2), Temperature at slab
top is (55°C), and the stress at the edge slab is (4.95 MPa), Determine the
temperature at slab bottom.
b) Find the corner stress for the above mentioned slab, if the Modulus of subgrade
reaction is (50 MN/m³) and the radius of the contact area is (200 mm).
Solution
∁ .𝑬.𝜺𝒕.∆𝒕
a- Edge stress = 𝝈𝒆 =
𝟐
2×30000×0.000011 ∆t
4.95 = => 9.9 = 0.66 (55-t bottom)
2
15 = (55-t bottom) => t bottom = 40ºC

b-
𝟏/𝟒
𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙(𝟎.𝟑)³
l=( ) = 1084 mm
𝟏𝟐(𝟏−𝟎.𝟏𝟓)𝟐 𝒙𝟓𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−³
𝑬 𝜺𝒕 ∆𝒕 𝒂
Corner stress = 𝝈𝒄 = √
𝟑(𝟏−𝝁) 𝒍
200
30000×0.000011 x (55−40)√(1084)
σc = = 0.834N/mm²
3x(1−0.15)
1
Q2]
A (75 KN) wheel load is placed on a Portland cement concrete slab that is (0.200 m)
thick. The concrete has a modulus of elasticity of (30000 N/mm²) with a Poisson ratio
of (0.15). The modulus of subgrade reaction is (0.0500 N/mm³). Using the revised
Westergaard equations, calculate the edge and interior (stresses and deflections) due to
a wheel load applied on an equivalent circular area whose radius is (19.0 cm) for above
mentioned slab.
Solution
𝑬𝒉𝟑
𝒍=( 𝟐
)𝟏/𝟒
𝟏𝟐(𝟏 − 𝝁 )𝒌
𝟏/𝟒
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙(𝟐𝟎𝟎)³
l= ( ) = 799.81 mm
𝟏𝟐(𝟏−(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)𝟐 )𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟎
190 < 1.724 (200) ok
b =√1.6 ∗ 1902 + 2002 _ 0.675 (200) = 177.666mm

𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟐 𝑷 𝒍
𝛔= [ 𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( ) + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟗]
𝒉² 𝒃
0.572∗75000 799.81
σ= [ 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 0.359] = 3.188 N/mm² (edge stress)
(200)² 177.666
𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟏 𝑷 𝒂
𝒘= [ 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐 ( )]
𝒌𝒍² 𝒍
0.431∗75000 190
𝑤= [ 1 − 0.82 ( )] = 0.814 mm (edge deflection)
0.050∗799.81² 799.81
𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔 𝑷 𝒍
𝛔= [ 𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( ) + 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟗]
𝒉² 𝒃
2
0.316∗75000 799.81
σ= [ 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 1.069] = 2.182 N/mm² (int. stress)
200² 177.666
𝑷 𝟏 𝒂 𝒂 𝟐
𝒘= {𝟏 + [ 𝐥𝐧 ( ) − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟑] ( ) }
𝟖𝒌𝒍² 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝒍 𝒍
75000 1 190 190 2
𝑤= {1 + [ ln ( ) − 0.673] (799.81) } = 0.00916 mm
8∗0.050∗799.81² 2𝜋 2∗799.81

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Civil Engineering Department

Highway Pavement Analysis & Design

Figure (1-1): distillation of petroleum crude in refinery

1.2 Requirements of Bituminous Materials

It is made up of five parts:-

1- Asphaltenes: The basic matter with a high molecular weight. It is of an

1.4 Liquid Asphalt

1.6 Tests for Bituminous Materials

The bitumen is manufactured in a variety of types and grades. Therefore, it

1.6.1 Penetration test

Figure (1-2): Penetration test

1.6.2 Ductility test

Figure (1-3): Ductility test

1.6.3 Softening point test

Figure (1-4): Softening point test

1.6.4 Flashpoint test

Figure (1-5): Flash point test

1.6.7 Solubility Test

2.1 Aggregate production

2.3 Physical Properties of Aggregates

2.3.1 Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

2.3.2 Durability and Soundness

2.3.3 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

2.3.4 Cleanliness and Deleterious materials

2.3.5 Size & Gradation

The gradation of an aggregate can be graphically represented by a gradation

The sizes of successive sieves usually differ by a factor of approximately 2;

Figure (2-1): Typical Terms Used To Identify Aggregate Gradations

Aggregate gradations are sometimes described as dense or well-graded,

Figure (2-2): Different types of Mix aggregate

1- Bituminous Macadam Mixture.

1- Trial and Error Method

1- Selecting critical sieves for the aggregates in the blend;

100 a + 100 b + 54 c = 67.5 - - - - - - - (passing from sieve 5mm)

0 a + 0 b + 46 c = 32.5 - - - - - (Retained for sieve 5mm)-- eq.2

100 a + 66.4 b + 31.3 c = 47.5 - - - - - (passing from sieve 1.18mm)

0 a + 40.4 b + 8.5 c = 20 - - - - - - - - - eq.3

From eq.2 ==== c=0.71

From eq.3 ==== b= 0.35

From eq.1 ==== a= -0.06 ( negative value cannot accepted)

The computation is repeated using specification of 70% passing for 5mm

0 a + 40.4 b + 8.5 c = 17.5 ======= b=0.3

From eq.1 a= 0.05

aA + bB+ cC = specification limit for all values

2) Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher

3) Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional

4) Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,

5) Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by

6) Sufficient flexibility at low temperatures to prevent shrinkage cracks.

3.3 Different layers in a pavement

- Stability: is the highest resistance of the specimens to the imposed loads at a

Figure (4-1): Marshall Test setup

5- (VIM) Voids in Mix.

7- (VFB) Voids Filled with Bitumen

B= w.t. of asphalt /w.t. of (agg.+ asphalt)

SGM = 100/ {(100-5.75/2.620) + (5.75/1.01)}= 2.400

VIMA % = {(2.620 – 2.210)/ 2.620} × 100= 15.650 %

4.3.1 Apply stability correction

Figure (4-2): Marshal graphical plots

W´18 = Total ESAL in both directions per lifetime = (ESAL365years).