The Global Polity

Democracy and Development

The Challenges
Rich countries tend to be more democratic than poor countries.
Understanding the link between democracy and development could
be crucial for policy making at the national and international level. In
addition to giving citizens more political freedoms, democracies are
on average less likely to be at war with each other than dictator-
ships.
A lack of democratic governance structures could be an obstacle
to sustainable development. Conversely, persistent poverty and a
lack of economic development could hamper the establishment of
democracy.
For policy purposes, it is important to understand the direction of causality between democracy
and development. Does development lead to democracy, as envisaged by various multilateral
development organizations?
Or does democracy lead to development, as implied in the economic transition plans of
Eastern and Central Europe? Or does causality run both ways? What are the implications for
foreign aid, foreign direct investment, international trade negotiations, business strategies, the
role of NGOs, and international institution-building?
What sort of democratic institutions are conducive to economic development and political
freedom? How should the will of the majority be balanced by protection of minority rights? How
should the activities of special interest groups be channeled through the political process so as
to promote an adequate balance between political freedom and diversity?
Is there a general strategy for policy makers that would help promote peace and prosperity on
a global scale? What is the role of business in this context? Does international investment and
trade promote democratic change or does it stabilize dictatorial regimes? Is development
cooperation with local NGOs an alternative strategy to undermine non-democratic regimes or
does it lead to dictatorial backlash?
Proposed Solutions

Sean Cleary
Chairman, Strategic Concepts

Democracy and development: attempt at solutions

1. Clarify development
Democracy is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as “government by the people; that
form of government in which the sovereign power resides in the people and is exercised either
directly by them or by officers elected by them.” Abraham Lincoln famously described it as
“government of the people, for the people, by the people.”
Development is defined by the OECD as “gradual unfolding, fuller working out; growth,
evolution; well grown state, state of advancement; product; more elaborate form…” The
essence of this definition is thus “evolution to a more advanced state.”
When we move beyond the abstract, problems arise. The concept of development is em-
ployed, in the technical literature and by institutions charged to advance it, in a wholly im-
precise way. We cannot claim to have a coherent theory of development, let alone success-
fully to have implemented it. So what is the development we are considering?
Economic development: For many years development was thought of as economic develop-
ment. Many would still consider the concepts equivalent. “Sustained increase in the economic
standard of living of a country’s population, normally accomplished by increasing its stocks of
physical and human capital and improving its technology” (Deardorff's Glossary of Inter-
national Economics).
A developed country is “[a] country whose per capita income is high by world standards;” and
a developing country is “[a] country whose per capita income is low by world standards; same
as less developed country. As usually used, it does not necessarily connote that the country's
income is rising.”(Deardorff)
Human development: But economic advancement is not the only meaning of the word
development: For the purposes of its Human Development Index, the United Nations Develop-
ment Programme defines and assesses three aspects of human development: life expectancy
and health; knowledge; and standard of living.
Poverty reduction: The World Bank group – whose World Development Reports are com-
prehensive essays on global development – describes itself as “a vital source of financial and
technical assistance to developing countries…[through]…two unique development institutions…
– the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International
Development Association (IDA)” – both of which aim to reduce poverty, (i) the IBRD “by
promoting sustainable development through loans, guarantees, risk management products,
and analytical and advisory services in middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries; and
(ii) the IDA “by providing interest-free credits and grants for programs that boost economic
growth, reduce inequalities and improve people’s living conditions” in those still poorer, or less
creditworthy. The Bank’s current developmental focus is therefore on poverty reduction based
on national Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers.
Where to? Wealth cannot be the sole measure of development! Measures of economic
performance based on GDP are inadequate in an inter-dependent world. The relevance of
GDP as a measure of societal well-being, or of economic, environmental and social sustain-
ability, is also questionable. In 2008, French Prime Minister Nicholas Sarkozy created a Com-
mission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress, which
includes Nobel laureates Amartya Sen and Joseph Stiglitz. Professor Sen also contributed to

3
the 2004 report Human Security Now and has prepared a set of indicators to complement
GDP.

2. Eradicate absolute poverty

The United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted in September 2000. In it, UN member
states asserted shared values of freedom, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature,
and shared responsibility, and committed to a global partnership to reduce extreme poverty by
2015 through the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):
• To halve the proportion of the world’s people whose income is less than US-$1/day and the
proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, to halve the proportion of people who are
unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.
• To ensure that children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full
course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of
education.
• To have reduced maternal mortality by three quarters, and under-five child mortality by two
thirds, of their current rates.
• To have halted, and begun to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS, the scourge of malaria and
other major diseases that afflict humanity.
• To provide special assistance to children orphaned by HIV/AIDS.
By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum
dwellers as proposed in the “Cities Without Slums” initiative.
In 2005, Jeffrey Sachs argued that the aim of the MDG’s was (Jeffrey D. Sachs, The end of
poverty: economic possibilities for our time, Penguin, 2005):
To transfer all the world’s extreme poor (1.1 billion people living below US-$1.08/day – with an
average income of US-$0.77/day) to an income level sufficient to meet their basic needs.
Sachs proposed a simple approach:
• Identify the basic needs.
• Identify the needs that are currently not met, by country.
• Calculate the cost of meeting these needs through investment, with provision for popu-
lation growth.
• Calculate the portion of the investment that can be financed by each less-developed
country.
• Calculate the financing gap.
• Assess what contributions each donor country can make on the basis of its national
income and allocate accordingly.
Donor contributions would need to be large enough to be effective; sustainable and predictable
over 2005–2015, and harmonised with the national Poverty Reduction Strategies of the
recipients. His team had concluded that the net ODA needs were: US-$135 billion (0.44% of
GDP) in 2006; US-$152 billion (0.46% of GDP) in 2010; and US-$195 billion (0.54% of GDP)
in 2015. This meant an increase in ODA of US-$70 billion in 2006, US-$87 billion in 2010, and
US-$130 billion in 2015. (At the Conference on Financing for Development, Monterrey,
Mexico, 18–22 March 2002, the Developed Countries committed, in what has become known
as the Monterrey Consensus, to increase their ODA to LDCs to 0.7 per cent of GDP).

3. Don’t seek for panaceas; understand the role of incentives

Bill Easterly has argued that most development economics paradigms since 1945 were based
on a search for panaceas or “silver bullets” and accordingly misplaced.

4
Easterly debunks (i) the Harrod-Domar model: “[T]here is no stable short-run link between
investment and growth” (William Easterly, The elusive quest for growth: economists’ ad-
ventures and misadventures in the tropics, MIT Press, 2002, p. 44); (ii) the emphasis on
education: “the growth in output per worker [despite an explosion in education] was 3% in the
1960s, 2.5% in the 1970s; –0.5% in the 1980s, and 0% in the 1990s” (Easterly, 2002, p. 74);
(iii) a focus on population control: “there is no association… between success at slowing
population growth and success at raising per capita growth” (Easterly, 2002, p. 92), (iv)
“adjustment with growth” programmes: despite some successes, “[a]djustment lending did not
create the right incentives for either the lenders or the recipients” (Easterly, 2002, p. 103);
“[t]here was too little adjustment, too little growth and too little scrutiny of the results.” (Easterly
2002, p. 115); and (v) debt forgiveness: “…two decades of debt relief failed to prevent
negative growth in [most] HIPCs” (Easterly, 2002, p. 129); “Debt relief is futile for countries
with unchanged government behaviour…to avoid the incentive to borrow more, the debt relief
programme has to attempt to establish a credible policy that debt relief will never again be
offered…” (Easterly, 2002, pp. 136–137).
He suggests that aid policies are, in part, accountable for this failure.
“As countries’ incomes rise because of their favourable policies for economic growth, aid
should increase in matching fashion. This is the opposite of what happens in actuality…giving
a negative incentive against getting richer” (Easterly, 2002, p. 119).
Easterly’s core contribution is his emphasis on the importance of incentives! Governments can
frustrate growth: Inflation, high taxes, supply-side controls and regulations inhibiting trade and
investment restrictions all inhibit citizens’ ability to better themselves. Political regulation of the
economy promotes privilege and corruption. Politically-connected people become wealthier
and society becomes poorer.
• Effective institutions must promote market-based incentives to foster savings, honesty,
trust, industry, creativity and responsibility.
• Education is optimized when students see future income possibilities from the knowledge
and skills they acquire.
• The acquisition, generation and dissemination of knowledge enables increasing returns to
capital invested, as technological adoption translates into higher productivity, enabling
sustained growth.
Drawing on Schumpeter’s concept of creative destruction, he also emphasizes the importance
of innovation.
Replacing existing means with new ones is necessary to achieve rising standards of living,
although some will always be negatively affected in the short run, by changes in the
competitive landscape.
Growth flows directly from the adoption of new technologies and the postponement of
consumption which is needed to introduce them.

4. Enable institutional (and human) capacity

If less-developed countries are to advance on a sustainable path to economic and social
development, they need much better domestic institutional capacity.
If government is to place its country on a sustainable path to economic and social develop-
ment, it needs the institutional capacity to (i) ensure the safety of its citizens and foreign
investors, (ii) manage a growing economy, and (iii) deliver the social services needed both to
promote domestic social equity and build a globally competitive workforce.
Political, macro-economic, monetary (and corporate) governance frame the context within
which development takes place; effective public health care and education build the human
capital to sustain it; efficient water, power, transport and ICT infrastructures underpin
economic growth; and governments must create environments that facilitate domestic and
5
foreign investment, and appropriate public-private partnerships to enable it. None of this is
possible unless the country has, and continues to improve, the [appropriate] institutional
capacity.”
The East Asian economic miracle (World Bank, The East Asian miracle, 1993) was achieved
without much by way of civil liberties or political freedoms. Significant investment in social
opportunities and economic facilities was at the heart of the strategy. There were four
components:
• Macroeconomic stability, ensured by moderate inflation and high savings
• Prudent social investment in basic housing, universal access to primary and then
secondary education and training, and effective primary health care
• Structural reforms, focused on encouraging business development and entrepreneurship in
conditions of market discipline, facilitated by financial sector liberalization in the context of
what was seen to be effective regulation; and
• Export orientation, supported by information-sharing facilitated by government agencies, to
identify lucrative export niches and effect cooperation within industry clusters, to strengthen
export competiveness (cf. Michael E. Porter, The competitive advantage of nations, The
Free Press, 1990).
Government capacity was essential for, and lay at the heart of, all these actions.

5. Level the playing field

Less-developed countries do not enjoy level playing fields! Agricultural subsidies and tariffs
and non-tariff trade barriers frustrate their integration into the global economy. High – and in
some cases, unsustainable – levels of debt and debt-service, despite the HIPC debt-retire-
ment programme, divert scarce savings and fiscal revenues from investment in economic and
social infrastructure. The volatility of global short-term portfolio capital flows plays havoc with
exchange rates and causes imbalances on the Balance of Payments of well-run LDCs. The
financial crisis and global economic contraction of 2008–2009 is having a devastating impact,
pushing growth rates below the rate of population increase.
Those countries with superior human capital and well developed institutional capacity can find
ways around these challenges. The least developed countries cannot do this.

6. Create freedom if development is to be sustainable

Amartya Sen argues that five freedoms – political freedoms (political and civil rights), eco-
nomic facilities (the use of economic resources for consumption, production and exchange),
social opportunities (education and health care), transparency guarantees (including the right
to disclosure); and protective security (social safety nets) – are central to the achievement of
development:
Although he defines development as freedom and argues for the intrinsic, instrumental and
constructive virtues of democracy (Sen, 1999, p. 153), he concludes that there is no causal
relation (or conflict) between political freedoms and economic performance, “[s]ystematic
empirical studies give no real support to the claim that there is a general conflict between
political freedoms and economic performance. … On balance the hypothesis that there is no
relation between them in either direction is hard to reject” (Sen, 1999, p. 150).
Rodrik (2006) concludes that particular institutional design features are not causally linked to
growth: “[T]he cross-national literature has been unable to establish a strong causal link
between any particular design feature of institutions and economic growth. We know that
growth happens when investors feel secure, but we have no idea what specific institutional
blueprints will make them feel more secure in a given context. The literature gives us no hint
as to what the right levers are (Rodrik, 2006, p. 11).

6
More robustly, Glaeser et al. (Edward L. Glaeser, Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silane,
and Andrei Shleifer, Do institutions cause growth? NBER working paper no. 10568, June,
2004) conclude that “economic growth and human capital accumulation cause institutional
improvement, rather than the other way around.” “[I]nstitutions have only a second order effect
on economic performance. The first order effect comes from human and social capital, which
shape both institutional and productive capacities of a society.”
They note that while countries with high human capital in 1960 grew faster than countries with
low human capital, constitutional rules, judicial independence and proportional representation
do not predict the growth of income per capita, and argue that the economic success of East
Asia “has been a consequence of good-for-growth dictators, not of institutions constraining
them.”
The important insight emerges, however, from their two key conclusions: “…countries that
emerge from poverty accumulate human and physical capital under dictatorships, and then,
once they become richer, are increasingly likely to improve their institutions.”
Economic growth and social development cannot be sustained in an integrated, global
knowledge-based economy in the absence of the freedoms that are prized by educated,
skilled humans. If they are unable to express themselves at home, they vote with their feet.

Erich Gundlach
Kiel Institute for the World Economy

Acknowledging the immense diversity of countries with regard to historical, economic, political,
and cultural factors, it is almost self-evident that there will be no one-size-fits-all solution for
policy makers that would help promote peace and prosperity on a global scale, “anytime and
anywhere, under any circumstances” (Jeanne Kirkpatrick).
But despite ongoing controversial academic debates, it is probably fair to say that a consensus
view would emphasize that the degree of democracy in a particular country is shaped by its
institutional framework and by its economic performance. This is not to deny that there may
also be reverse causality, but the first order effects appear to run from institutions and
economic performance to democracy. So these are the two principal avenues that policy
makers could use to increase the degree of democracy.
If history is any guide, the evidence appears to suggests that counties which have achieved
the status of a full democracy are (very) unlikely to revert to an autocratic regime. But
according to the same logic, democracy is unlikely to last in poor countries which have not
developed a set of deep institutions that are conducive for sustained growth. The focus of
international policy makers should be on middle income countries, where the degree of
democracy appears to be rather volatile, sometimes even in the presence of strong economic
growth.
Placing effective constraints on executive authority appears to be the number one strategy if
democracy is to consolidate and prosper in fragile middle income countries. This is not to deny
that there are many open questions on the details and on the implementation of such a
strategy, which may require country-specific answers. It would be essential to identify which
parts of an institutional framework would matter most for a given country, conditional on the
historical, political, cultural, and economic context.
A successful strategy will also have to redistribute political and economic power. This problem
is acute in deeply divided societies, where ethnic fragmentation and the extraction of resource
rents may dominate the political and economic decision making of the elites. Strong economic
growth is probably necessary but not sufficient to overcome the institutional status quo, which
may be the very reason for the absence of a sustainable path of development in the first place.

7
While it is fairly obvious that the prevailing type of institutions matter for the success of
democracy, the type of economic growth may also matter. Pro-poor growth is much more likely
to gather support for democracy compared to a growth regime where most benefits go into a
few pockets only. This channel should be kept in mind by international policy makers when
deciding on foreign aid. However, it would be important to recognize that (domestic) politics
will greatly matter for economic outcomes, so both areas should never be considered in
isolation.
Support for democracy by the international community will also depend on the geopolitical
situation. Democracies that developed after the demise of the Former Soviet Union apparently
had a much better start than democracies that emerged during the Cold War. It is an open
question for debate whether the ongoing financial crisis will rebalance contemporary world
politics towards a model of authoritarian capitalism, or whether economic forces will finally
generate a change towards democracy in fast-growing authoritarian societies.

Seth D. Kaplan
Managing Partner, Alpha International Consulting

The dichotomy between democracy and development is a false one. Far from being discrete
phenomena, the democratization of a society and the development of an economy are in fact
two facets of a much larger transformative process: modernization.
By “modernization” I mean a process that transfigures not just the political and economic life of
a country but also familial, commercial, technological, intellectual, and cultural values,
behaviors, and relationships. Modernization is a long – multigenerational – process that rarely
occurs in an orderly, bloodless fashion. Progress on different fronts (economic, political,
cultural, and so forth) is uneven, bedeviled by setbacks, and difficult to measure. Yet, once
started, progress is hard to arrest if a country possesses the requisite degree of cohesion
among its elite and within its broader population. Such cohesion, however, is often lacking in
developing countries today – a deficiency that explains much of their stagnation and instability.

The politics and economics of modernization

Modernization can take many forms, but typically politics plays a far greater role in the key
take-off stages as a society lurches between competing agendas, ideologies, and concepts of
the state. Economics comes to the forefront once a country reaches a consensus on the kind
of state it wants to build and the core institutions and identity that will nurture and regulate that
state. The development of a state, therefore, is crucially tied to its citizens’ ability to cooperate
– both among themselves and in partnership with the state – in increasingly sophisticated
ways. It needs to be firmly rooted in communities that possess strong social networks, durable
shared loyalties, widely accepted institutions, and deep reservoirs of social capital.
The important role played by social cohesion in forging the national consensus necessary at
early stages of this process explain why the non-Western countries that have modernized
most successfully – Japan, China, Taiwan, and Korea – have all been built on the strong
bonds that thousands of years of common social, economic, and political evolution have
bequeathed them. These robust nations all have high levels of social capital, well-established
informal mechanisms for working together, and deep reserves of group affinity that could be
funneled toward national modernization missions. These have, in turn, produced increasingly
prosperous and increasingly democratic societies and states. Democratization has not, of
course, roared in like a spring tide; its advance has been halting and unsteady and has
provoked strong resistance from entrenched regimes. But even China, with its highly
authoritarian traditions and political system, has been forced to become far freer as its
economy has advanced, its government more accountable to the demands of an increasingly
autonomous society with rising expectations.

8
Outside Northeast Asia, the countries that have achieved the most progress have likewise
been able to depend on the social cohesion and social capital of people with common
backgrounds. The most successful countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America –
Botswana, Somaliland, Turkey, Kuwait, Chile, and Costa Rica – are all built upon common
identities and institutions accepted by the great majority of their citizens. In contrast, countries
with the most socially divisive populations – such as Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC), Somalia, Syria, Lebanon, Bolivia, and Guatemala – are much more likely to
have corrupt officials, illegitimate states, and struggling economies with great income
inequities. These latter states have made little progress toward building the kind of institutions
that foster democratization and development.
Once a consensus on institutions and a shared mission has been forged, economics begins to
play the dominant role in the modernization process, with businesses leading a process of
market-driven change that eventually reaches every aspect of a country’s life. This process
usually occurs slowly, with change seeping through a society gradually, often fueled by the
demands of expanding companies and new taxpayers. Competition plays an important – and
underappreciated – role here. When people try to meet customer needs and raise productivity,
they change their outlooks on how to manage time, assess information, and judge their
leaders. Growth feeds rising incomes and expectations, which in turn generate increasing
demands on private firms and public service providers. Where a government must depend on
taxes from local businesses and citizens, it, in turn, becomes more accountable and
responsive to a population’s needs. The cycle feeds upon itself: progress generating
confidence, profits yielding more investment, rising expectations forcing reform upon one
sector after another. As Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations, “commerce and
manufacturers gradually introduced order and good government and, with them, the liberty
and security of individuals among the inhabitants of the country who had before lived . . . in a
state of servile dependency upon their superiors.” The more compact the entity or region, the
faster the transformation; in larger populations, such as in China and India, the ripples of
development and democratization naturally take longer to spread.

How to spur modernization

Modernization – of which democratization and development are components – is a process of
social change that needs to be strongly rooted in socially cohesive groups of people with
common institutions. International efforts to spur development and democratization should
thus focus on actions that are likely to reshape broad societal patterns rather than – as at
present – on overly narrow goals such as competitive elections and economic policy reform
and on rather crude instruments such as election monitoring and IMF loans.

Unify disparate peoples

As a start, international actors should emphasize measures that unify disparate peoples in
divided states. This is especially important in countries where multiple identity groups are not
geographically concentrated but are spread throughout the country, making it pointless to
introduce federalism and other territorially based institutional arrangements. In such countries,
programs should be adopted that create stronger social and cultural bonds across groups, that
institutionalize cooperation, and that promote reconciliation where there has been a history of
intergroup hostility.
Some states have found a unifying force – such as Swahili in Tanzania, a unique Islamic
heritage in Senegal, a state-backed ideology in Syria, and a charismatic leader (Félix
Houphouët-Boigny) in Côte d'Ivoire – to bridge their geographical, historical, and identity
divides. But the unity based on such forces can prove fleeting, whereas the process of
institutionalizing a sense of common identity and common formal structures can take
generations. Thus, for instance, despite Houphouët-Boigny’s popularity in his day, Côte
d'Ivoire descended into civil war in the years after his demise.

9
In states such as Syria containing combustible mixes of identity groups living side by side,
formal bodies should be designed to institutionalize cross-group cooperation and to minimize
the potential for ethnic, religious, tribal, or clan divisions sparking verbal or violent conflict that
undermines the state. Instead of introducing the kinds of sweeping political and economic
changes that many in the West claim to be the keys to improving the wellbeing of populations,
divided countries need to create a secure and unified environment before introducing
significant change. Iraq shows what can happen when cross-group trust completely breaks
down; Bolivia, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, and Lebanon also stand as cautionary tales.

Use local state models

Building state institutions around local histories, values, and worldviews will catalyze the
political consensus necessary to launch the modernization process. At present, however, the
international community tends to recommend and support impersonal governing bodies in
capital cities often distant – physically, culturally, and politically – from the great majority of the
citizens they are meant to serve.
Countries need to look inward for their resources and institutional models and adopt political
structures and processes that reflect the history, complexity, and particularity of their peoples
and environment. Far too many postcolonial regimes have looked outward for their governance
models and resources, becoming dependent on foreign aid and effectively guaranteeing that
their domestic roots will always be too shallow to support them. Robust states and formal
institutions can develop only when political and economic systems are constructed according
to indigenous governance models, patterns of behavior, needs, realities, and resources.
This does not mean that conventional, Western political models have no relevance to non-
Western societies, but it does mean that those models need to be adapted to accommodate
local political, economic, and societal customs and conditions. Outside assistance should not
focus on building centralized states with Western-style laws and a democracy defined solely in
terms of regular elections, but on the promotion of capable, inclusive, participatory, responsive,
and accountable governments no matter what form they take. Somaliland, Botswana, and the
Arab emirate-states, for example, have sought to root their political systems within a traditional
paradigm that leverages widely accepted norms of governance.
Far more emphasis must be placed on seeking locally appropriate solutions for problems of
governance, land and resource management, and knowledge transfer if development and
democratization are ever going to become locally propelled and thus sustainable. No society
that has developed successfully developed has depended as heavily on foreign resources,
foreign political models, foreign languages, and foreign laws as many developing countries
typically do today.

Construct states bottom-up

In many cases, the best chance to promote the political consensus necessary for
modernization will be to focus on building up local governments and tying them as closely as
possible to their local communities. While in some cases (especially in rural areas and small
cities) this may mean leveraging traditional identities and institutions, in the case of many large
cities whose populations are diverse and increasingly divorced from their traditional roots, the
best way to introduce accountability into state organs and take advantage of the communal
social capital necessary to promote investment will be to structure governments around greatly
empowered urban administrations.
While central governments (or, in some case, regional organizations) have important roles to
play in ensuring a stable currency, promoting an extensive market for goods, constructing
intercity transportation links, and setting basic banking, legal, health, and education standards,
most state services that affect families and small companies are provided by local or district
governments. They provide, for example, most education, health, and road construction

10
services, and may even play a major role in judicial, police, real estate, and corporate regulation
and oversight.
Given that many developing countries are riven by identity, cultural, and linguistic differences,
and that their different parts are weakly connected because of poor infrastructure, dis-
advantageous political geographies, and feeble administrative systems, locally driven models
of government are more likely to succeed than top-down models. A locally based model would
emphasize the construction of a series of competent city-based provincial bureaucracies built
around relatively cohesive populations and based upon locally accepted institutions rather
than trying to build a robust national government, especially in large countries such as the
DRC and Sudan.
Establishing various forms of iterative accountability loops and decentralized democratic
bodies such as oversight committees, deliberative forms of public participation, and traditional
forms of consultation, can institutionalize processes whereby the state is tied more closely to
society, thereby making it more legitimate, more accountable, more reflective of people’s
needs, and more effective in the delivery of public services. Focusing on the iterative
relationship on multiple fronts will strengthen civil society and the state-society relationship,
making both democratization and development more likely.

Introduce change gradually

Seeing modernization as an organic, gradual, society-wide process of change instead of a
series of discrete events and policy choices reveals myriad opportunities to render diplomatic
and foreign assistance in more effective forms. For example, in states where elections and
rapid economic restructuring may be detrimental to stability (such as in some post-conflict
situations) or may be obstructed by elites (such as in many authoritarian countries), inter-
national policies could seek to foster broad social processes that will over time create a
more democratic and developed entity. Promoting broad coalitions across disparate groups,
integrating informal institutions into the formal governing mechanisms of the state, and
decentralizing government so that it can better leverage local capacities for self-government
will all help to create more legitimate states with stronger pro-modernization leaderships.
For too long, policymakers have analyzed the problems facing underdeveloped countries
through the overly narrow, and thus distorting, lenses of “democratization” and “development.”
One result has been a series of policies that do not address the greatest problems these
states face. Another consequence has been the creation of artificial and counterproductive
institutional divisions within the international aid community, with some organizations focusing
on development, others on democratization – and all too few taking the kind of holistic
approach that can actually foster the process of modernization.
A better understanding of the fundamental drivers of social change in developing countries is a
prerequisite to formulating effective policies. To be sure, making political leaders more
accountable and economic climates healthier are worthwhile goals, but those goals will remain
elusive until the international community can help underdeveloped states develop cohesive
polities, appropriate institutions, and stronger state-society ties.

11