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FUNDAMENTALS OF
COMPUTING

MANUAL
©KLK
A computer can be explained as basic tool that makes work easy for every user. It makes
work easy by simply accepting the work from the user, doing the work and presenting the
results to the user.

The computer works by following the information processing cycle. This is the step by step
movement/operation to achieve the task of computer processing.

PROCESSING

INPUT OUTPUT

STORAGE

The computer accepts the work to be done (input), processes it and stores it whiles processing
and finally produces the results (output).

All this is possible using the computer and it’s done in a very short while.

A computer is therefore defined as an electronic device that accepts input, processes it, stores
it and gives an output based on a set of instructions given it.

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PROPERTIES OF THE COMPUTER.

The computer has become such a basic tool for development because of its three basic
properties.

• SPEED
• ACCURACY
• STORAGE

SPEED

The computer has a processor that does processing in a very short periods. This is possible
because of the extreme processing speeds it possesses. E.g.

• The time it takes a calculator to produce an answer to an operation typed on it. Note
that the processing time does not include the time it takes to type but the time taken
when the equal sign is pressed.
• The time it takes for a webpage to load when browsing on the internet. If you in Ghana
access a webpage in abroad and it takes two minutes to load, we deem it as slow (yet
no form of transportation could yield such speeds). We prefer the webpage loads in a
matter of micro seconds
• The time it takes for a copy of a document to be put on another sheet as in the
photocopier.
• The time it takes for a whatsapp message to be delivered

ACCURACY

Accuracy of operations is very important. Results of operations should be independent of

external conditions and should only be based on the operations set to produce the result. For
this reason the computer is a very important tool as it is able to do that perfectly. Eg.

• Compare the taste of food from a specific vendor on the street to the taste of Coca cola.
• Compare the result of a human undertaking an examination with fully armed military
officers invigilating and a computer operating in the same conditions

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STORAGE

When there are multiple operations to get a task done, its important to keep records of each
minor operations to enable referencing. For this matter, memory for storage is important. A
computer or computing device has such memory and for that matter, is able to keep records.
Eg.

• Compare the use of a type writer and the use of a desktop computer. Documents typed
can be saved on a desktop computer but cannot e saved on a typewriter.
• Compare the use of an old general calculator and a scientific calculator. The general
calculator cannot keep records of previous calculations but the scientific calculator
allows you to go back to previous calculations and even correct them.

Because of these three properties, everyone wants to apply their computer in their operation;

• Mobile phones
• TV broadcasting
• Radio Broadcasting
• Supermarket operations
• Banking
• Teaching
• Administrative works

A computer system works using both hardware and software. The hardware are the physical
components that you can see and touch. The software components are the set of instructions
that instruct the hardware what to do.

Computer
System

Hardware Software

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 COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware

Input Processing Storage Output Peripherals

Computer hardware has components for all the basic operations of the computer; there are

• Input hardware – all hardware that supports the computer accepting inputs for
processing
• Processing hardware – all hardware that process/does the work.
• Storage hardware – all hardware that helps the computer to store information and
processes
• Output hardware – all hardware that allows the computer to show the result of the
operations
• Peripheral hardware – all hardware that enhances that support enhanced operations of
the computer but without them the computer can still perform its basic operations.

Input Hardware

These are the hardware components that enable the computer to accept input from users. The
standard examples of input device are keyboard and mouse. Other examples include
microphone, scanner, web camera, stylus etc.

Classification of input devices

Keyboard

A keyboard is an input device that has a standard set of buttons on it. The basic operation is
called typing. When a key or combination of keys are typed or pressed on a keyboard, a
corresponding signal is sent into the computer. Keyboards can be classified using three
categories; type, connection and connector.

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 FUNCTIONAL KEYS

KEYS
NAVIGATIONAL
NUMERIC
KEYPAD

ALPHA NUMERIC KEYPAD

• Type:- There are two types of keyboards based on this classification category. They
are
o Standard Keyboard - Any keyboard that has an alpha numeric
keypad, a numeric keypad, functional keys, navigational keys. Laptops
and other handheld computing devices might keypads that are slightly
different

.
o Enhanced Keyboard – Any keyboard that has any additional features
on the keyboard other than what was indicated on the standard type.
Some might have volume control feature, sleep feature, direct internet
feature etc.

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• Connection:- There are two kinds of keyboards based on this category of
classification
o Cable Keyboard – These are keyboards that connect to the rest of the
computer system by means of a cable (wire)

o Wireless – These are keyboards that connect to the rest of the computer
system by wireless means. This means they employ the use of wireless
technologies such as Bluetooth, infra red, etc.

• Connector:- All cable keyboards have a specific connector at the tip of the
cable. This connector also defines what kind of keyboard is being used. They are
o USB – This kind of connector resembles that of a pendrive. It
employs the use of a universal serial bus connector.

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 o Serial/PS2 – This kind of keyboard employs the use of a serial/ps2
connector. This has a round shape with several pins that make the
connection.

Mouse

The mouse is a pointing device and per its movement a pointer also moves to enable the user
to select options. Its basic operation is clicking. Mouse can be classified using three
categories; type, connection and connector.

• Type:- There are two types of mouse based on this classification category. They
are
o Ball/Mechanical Mouse - this is the kind of mouse that employs the
use of a roller ball or hand (touchpad as in laptops). When the mouse
is moved, the ball also moves. The ball is in touch with sensors that
interpret the movement of the ball and the mouse pointer moves
accordingly. This therefore required a special surface hence the mouse
pad. It however has a unique problem, wearing. The ball wears out due
to the friction and becomes smaller thus does not make contact with
the sensors. When this happens, the ball will have to change.

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 o Optical Mouse – Any mouse that employs the use of an optical laser
and sensor for its operations is an optical mouse.

o Track Pad / Track Ball

Any Pad or Ball that requires human finger movement over its surface
to get the pointer moving. The Pad is usually a flat surface on which
we move our fingers, usually found in laptops; the ball also requires
our fingers to roll over it for mouse pointer movement.

• Connection:- There are two kinds of keyboards based on this category of

classification
o Cable – This is a mouse that connects to the rest of the computer
system by means of a cable (wire)

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 o Wireless – This is a mouse that connects to the rest of the computer
system by wireless means. This means they employ the use of wireless
technologies such as Bluetooth, infra red, etc.
• Connector:- All cable mouse have a specific connector at the tip of the
cable. This connector also defines what kind of mouse is
being used. They are
o USB – This kind of connector resembles that of a pendrive. It employs
the use of a universal serial bus connector.

o Serial/PS2 – This kind of mouse employs the use of a serial/ps2

connector. This has a round shape with several pins that make the
connection.

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PROCESSING HARDWARE

The hardware that does the processing is called the processor. A processor is the logic
circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a computer. The four
primary functions of a processor are fetch, decode, execute and write-back.

The basic elements of a processor are

• The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which carries out arithmetic and logic operations on
the operands in instructions.
• The floating point unit (FPU), also known as a math coprocessor or numeric
coprocessor, a specialized coprocessor that manipulates numbers more quickly than the
basic microprocessor circuitry can.
• Registers, which hold instructions and other data. Registers supply operands to the
ALU and store the results of operations.
• L1 and L2 cache memory. Their inclusion in the CPU saves time compared to having
to get data from random access memory (RAM).

Most processors today are multi-core, which means that the IC contains two or
more processors for enhanced performance, reduced power consumption and more efficient
simultaneous processing of multiple tasks. Multi-core set-ups are similar to having multiple,
separate processors installed in the same computer, but because the processors are actually
plugged into the same socket, the connection between them is faster.

The term processor is used interchangeably with the term central processing unit (CPU),
although strictly speaking, the CPU is not the only processor in a computer. The GPU (graphics
processing unit) is the most notable example but the hard drive and other devices within a
computer also perform some processing independently. Nevertheless, the term processor is
generally understood to mean the CPU.

The processor in a personal computer or embedded in small devices is often called

a microprocessor. That term simply means that the processor's elements are contained on a
single integrated circuitry (IC) chip.

Processors are classified using two (2) categories; Type and Speed.

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Type

The two main competitors in the processor market are Intel and AMD. Thus the type of
processor is based on the brand. They all have processors for high end users, middle range and
low end users. Intel processors are more predominant in Africa but however there are also some
AMD processors.

Intel processors have been improved over the years. The generic names change over the period;
Pentium 1 (PI), Pentium 2 (PII), Pentium 3 (PIII), Pentium 4 (PIV), Core duo, core 2 duo, quad
core, core i3, core i5 and Core i7, Celeron, Atom.

AMD processors also have different types; AMD Sempron, AMD Athlon Neo., Opteron,
Turion 64

Speed

All processors have their ability to process or carry out the activities it’s been designed for.
There is also the rate at which it can perform this action. You can have two same types of
processors but with different speeds. Speed of the processor is measure in Hertz (Hz). Thus
it’s rated in Hz, KHz, MHz, GHz, THz etc

Therefore in describing a processor, the type of processor is mentioned alongside the speed of
the processor e.g. Pentium 3, 766MHz or core i5, 1.8GHz.

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STORAGE HARDWARE

Storage simply refers to space for storing. Storage can be classified using two categories;
type and size.

Type of storage

Storage hardware can be classified into two; Primary and Secondary. Storage devices are
designed using either magnetic technology or optical technology.

Storage

Primary Secondary

ROM Removeable

RAM Stationary

Primary Storage

Primary storage refers to the storage space required by the computer system for its operations.
There are two types of primary storage; RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read
Only Memory).

ROM is the space/memory allocation that holds information about the specification of the
computer and other details. ROM contains the programming that allows your computer to be
"booted up" or regenerated each time you turn it on. The ROM is sustained by a small long-
life battery in your computer known as CMOS battery. Users cant under normal circumstances
change values in there.

RAM is the space required by the computer as it is operating (just like a working table). It is
said to be volatile meaning it’s only operational when the computer is powered. Users can alter

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the value of RAM fixed inside a computer. The size of the RAM directly affects the overall
speed of the computer. Some Operating systems have their required RAM sizes for operation.

Secondary Storage

Secondary storage simply refers to the storage space required by the user to store data and
programs. Unlike the RAM, the secondary storage is able to keep the information stored in it
even when the power is off. Secondary storage devices can either be stationary or removable.

Stationary ones are fixed inside the systems. An example is the hard disk.

Removable ones are the types that can be removed and transported easily e.g. Pen drives, cd,
DVD, magnetic tapes etc.

Size of Storage

A unit of information is known as a bit. Storage space is measured in Bytes (B). Therefore
there can kB, MB, GB, TB etc.

Since ROM size cannot be altered by users easily, memory requirements or definition for a
computer or computing device only applies to RAM and Hard disk. Both are measured in bytes
and per their respective operation, the RAM size is normally smaller than the Hard disk.
Therefore if the specification states 512MB, 40GB, it clearly means that the RAM is the
smallest (512MB) and the Hard disk is the largest (40GB)

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OUTPUT HARDWARE

An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user.
Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Thus,
most output devices used by humans are in these categories. Examples include monitors,
projectors, speakers, headphones and printers. The standard output device is a monitor. In
computers, a monitor is a computer display and related parts packaged in a physical unit that
is separate from other parts of the computer. Notebook computers don't have monitors because
all the display and related parts are integrated into the same physical unit with the rest of the
computer. In practice, the terms monitor and display are used interchangeably. The monitor
can be classified by two categories; type and size.

Type

With regards to computer monitors, there are two types of monitors; CRT monitors and flat
screen monitors.

A cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor is an analog computer display or television set with a large,
deep casing. This type of monitor uses streams of electrons that activate dots or pixels on the
screen to create a full image. In contrast to this, liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors
and plasma television sets, or flat panel displays, use newer digital technologies. While flat-
screens have become increasingly popular, there are still some advantages to CRT models that
can make them better for some situations. Inside a CRT monitor is a picture tube that narrows
at the rear into a bottleneck. In the bottleneck area is a charged filament or "cathode" enclosed
in a vacuum tube. When electricity is supplied to this, the filament heats up and a stream or
"ray" of electrons pours off of it. The negatively charged electrons are attracted to positively
charged "anodes" which focus the particles into three narrow beams, accelerating them to strike
a phosphor-coated display screen. Phosphor glows when exposed to radiation, absorbing
ultraviolet light and emitting visible, coloured light. Materials that emit red, green and blue
light are used in a colour monitor, arranged as "stripes" made up of dots of colour. The three
beams are used to excite the three colours in combinations needed to create the various hues
that form the picture.

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Flat screen monitors, sometimes abbreviated as FPD, a flat-panel display is a thin screen
display found on all portable computers and is the new standard for desktop computers. Unlike
(CRT) monitors, flat-panel displays use liquid-crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting diode
(LED) technology to make them much lighter and thinner compared to a traditional monitor.

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 Topic CRT LCD / FLAT SCREEN
Size Because of the CRT in a CRT monitor LCD monitors are much thinner than
the physical size of these displays is CRT monitors, being only a few
much larger than an LCD and usually inches in thickness (some can be near
awkward on small desks. 1 inch thick). They can fit into
smaller, tighter spaces, whereas a
CRT monitor can't in most cases.
Dead Although a CRT can have display LCD monitors can encounter dead
pixels issues there is no such thing as a dead pixels, which causes small black or
pixel on a CRT monitor. Many issues other colored dots in the display.
can also be fixed by degaussing the
monitor.
Weight A CRT monitor can weigh 40 pounds LCD monitors can be pretty light,
or more depending on the size of the weighing as little as 8 to 10 pounds.
monitor.
Price Because of the popularity of LCD LCD monitors are a newer technology
monitors the price of most CRT and have more demand so will be
monitors is very cheap. You can also more expensive than a CRT.
usually pick up a used CRT for next to
nothing.
Viewable The frame around the glass screen of LCD monitors have a slightly bigger
area the monitor causes the viewable area viewable area than a CRT monitor. A
of the screen to be smaller than an 19" LCD monitor has a diagonal
LCD. screen size of 19" and a 19" CRT
monitor has a diagonal screens size of
about 18".
Picture Because of the older technology most Depending on the quality of the LCD
CRT monitors will not have as good as monitor, the picture quality can be
quality as picture as most LCD quite superb and amazing, almost like
displays. looking out a window.
Viewing Almost every CRT have a better Not all LCD monitors can be viewed
angle viewing angle than many LCD at every angle, which makes it
displays. difficult for anyone who is not in front
of the monitor to see the screen.
Glare Most monitors have a glass screen, An LCD monitor doesn't have a glass
which can cause much more glare than screen, virtually eliminating any
an LCD. glare.

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 Burn If the same image is left on a CRT for Unlike a CRT an LCD monitor does
days the image can burn into the is not affected by a burn in or
display causing a permanent ghost ghosting problem.
image to appear on the screen.
Flicker Some people can see the flicker in a On an LCD monitor, screen flicker is
CRT monitor, which is due in part to very minimal if noticeable at all
the refresh rate of the screen refreshing because of the higher refresh rate.
the image.
Response The response on early LCD monitors Any LCD made within the last 5 years
was not as good as most monitors at have no refresh rate issues. Making
the time, making games and movies the display just as enjoyable as CRT
not as enjoyable to play. monitors.
Power A 17" CRT monitor will use as much LCD monitors are very energy
as 80 watts, depending on the age. efficient. A 19" LCD monitor only
uses about 17 to 31 watts on average.

MONITOR SIZE

Apart from knowing the type of monitor, it is also important to know the size of the monitor
or screen. The size of a monitor is measured in inches (“). Therefore we could have 19”, 17”
and so on. It is normally measured diagonally and not horizontal or vertically.

However, there are some that are widescrren meaning the monitors are extra wide. These will
normally have W added to their specification e.g. 19” WVGA meaning it’s a 19inches
widescreen monitor.

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PERIPHERAL DEVICES

These are devices that further enhance the operation of the standard computer system
(keyboard, mouse, processor, storage and monitor). They are also called accessories and could
also be classified under input, processing, storage or output. It helps end users access and use
the functionalities of a computer. Peripheral devices connect with a computer through several
I/O interfaces, such as communications (COM), Universal Serial Bus (USB) and serial ports.
Examples include scanner, printer, speakers etc. each peripheral can have its own specification
categorisation.

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From the above explanations, the specification of a computer could be as follows;

PIV, 866MHz Core i5, 1.8GHz

512MB, 40GB 1GB, 1TB

USB Keyboard, optical mouse PS2 keyboard and mouse

19”WVGA 21” CRT

A computer with Pentium 4 A computer with core i5

processor and a speed of processor and a speed of
866MHz. it has RAM size of 1.8GHz. It has RAM size of 1GB
512MB and a hard disk size of and a hard disk size of 1TB. The
40GB. The keyboard is cable keyboard and mouse are cable
and has a USB connector. The and has a PS2 connector and
mouse is optical thus no ball the monitor is a widescreen of
and the monitor is a 19inches
widescreen of 19inches

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 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software is a set of instructions that govern and tell the computer hardware what to
do and how to do it. Some also explain it as the unseen or intangible part of a computer.
Software can be thought of as the variable part of a computer. Software is often divided
into application software (programs that do work users are directly interested in)
and system software (programs that work directly with the hardware). Software are sometimes
referred to as programs.

Software

System Application

Operating Systems Commercial

Drivers
Customised
Utilities

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer’s hardware
and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the
system software is the interface between the hardware and user applications. The system
software is also explained as the software required for the computer to operate as a computer.
It is subdivided into

• Operating systems
• Drivers
• Utilities

Operating Systems

Operating systems are the software the acts as a common platform and basic link between all
hardware and other software. It’s a basic requirement for all computers and computing devices.
The OS manages all the other programs in a computer. Examples include Windows, Ubuntu,

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Android, IOS, MAC OS. These operating systems have their various options e.g Windows has
had XP, Windows 7, 8, 10. As the years evolve, older versions are phased out and newer
versions are introduced.

Drivers

A device driver controls a particular type of device that is attached to your computer, such as
a keyboard or a mouse. The driver program converts the more general input/output instructions
of the operating system to messages that the device type can understand. Without drivers
installed, the hardware might be connected but there will be no communication with the
operating system and the computers in general. It is because of this that all major hardware
components used to come along with cds attached. However in recent times, drivers are
incorporated into the operating system thus we have what we call plug and play. With this
system, every time a new hardware is connected to the computer, the operating system
identifies the hardware, searches within the drivers incorporated to find the required drivers,
installs and the hardware becomes operational.

Other examples of system software and what each does:

• The BIOS (basic input/output system) gets the computer system started after you turn
it on and manages the data flow between the operating system and attached devices
such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.

• The boot program loads the operating system into the computer's main memory or
random access memory (RAM).

• An assembler takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits
that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations.

• According to some definitions, system software also includes system utilities, such as
the disk defragmenter and System Restore, and development tools such
as compilers and debuggers.

Utility software

An additional and difficult-to-classify category of software is the utility, which is a small useful
program with limited capability. Some utilities come with operating systems. Like applications,
utilities tend to be separately installable and capable of being used independently from the rest
of the operating system. Utility software helps the user to control, manage, and maintain a

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computer's operating system, hardware and application software. These programs are designed
to perform specific functions like finding files, backing up data, playing multimedia files,
viewing images and so on. Unlike system software, utility software can be set up, controlled

or initiated by the user. Many utility software programs are built into a computer's operating
system.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software are computer programs that allow users to perform specific tasks. These
programs are commonly referred to as "apps". Application software is the front-end software
that users handle. Application software requires an operating system to be installed and booted
up before it can be used. Examples include Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop and Apple
iTunes, Google Chrome and Skype. Application software, such as antivirus programs, will
usually start when the PC is turned on and run in the background after the operating system has
loaded all of the necessary services and programs.
Application software could be grouped according to their generic functions;

• Web browsers, such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox.
These allow users to access the Internet.
• Productivity software such as Word processing, database, spreadsheet and
presentation software simplify the process of preparing documents for the
workplace or school.
• Gaming software - There are numerous application software for entertainment
seekers, including such as World of Warcraft for the avid gamer,
• Entertainment - iTunes for music lovers and YouTube for the video aficionado.
Application software can be classified into two; commercial and customised.

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Commercial

These are software that are produced and sold on the general market. Any person with the need
for it could simply go purchase it. No particular company or individual has sole use. These
software could belong to any generic purpose. It could be likened to the way textile companies
produce “material” (cloth) for general purchase in the market. You don’t have to belong to any
particular organisation to buy some of the material.

Customised/Proprietary

These are software that are designed with the need of a specific person or company. The
software will therefore belong solely to that person or group or company. The software cannot
be used or sold without prior approval of the owner company. This could be likened to an
organisation or group of people going to a textile company with their own design. Once
produced, it belongs to them and it cannot be sold on the market.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKING

Computers with their enormous uses could also be linked to other computers to be able to share
information and resources. This linkage of computers is what is simply referred to as a
computer network. Information shared includes letters, memos, messages, pictures, videos etc.
resources shared include printers, modems, scanners, cameras, speakers, hard disk drives etc.

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices
that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and
resource-sharing among users. Networks could have any number of users; from two users to
an unlimited number. Networks are commonly categorized based on their characteristics. For
computers to be networks there has to be a basic connection between them. This is what is
referred to as medium of communication. Each type of computer network will employ a certain
type of logical connection. This logical connection is what is referred to as the topology of the
network.

Computer networks could be classified according to the following;

• Privilege
• Medium of connection
• Coverage area

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Privilege

Privilege is the authority that a computer possesses as it communicates with other computers.
When computers form a network they could be classified using their privileges or roles. These
are

• Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-Peer networks are computer networks in which all the computers connected
reserve the right as to which resource or information to share. No one particular
computer directs operations on the network. This kind of network is sometimes
referred to as P2P network. It could be likened to students in a particular class; each
student reserves the right to communicate and share his resources with classmates.

• Server Client
Server-client networks are computer networks which have one particular computer on
the network dictating or controlling operations on the network and determine what is
shared and who gets to benefit from resources and information. This could be likened
to a classroom setting; the lecturer is connected to the students in the class. However
he directs the operation of the class. The computer that is responsible for directing
operations on the network is called the Server and the one that is controlled is referred
to as the Client.

Usually the server computer has a higher specification and is more powerful to be
able to direct operations. There could server client networks that utilises more than
one server to be able to satisfy the networks requirement for information and resource
sharing. Having multiple servers creates a server farm.

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Medium of Communication

The computers need to be connected before it can start sharing anything. The type of medium
of connection can also help to categorise a network. There are two major types;

• Cable connection
• Wireless Connection

Cable connected Networks

This is a kind of network that employs the use of a cable (wire) to physically connect the
computers to be connected. There are different kinds of cables for connecting computers on a
network; coaxial, twisted pair and fibre optic cables.

• Coaxial cable:- This is a type of cable that has one large copper wire within an
insulation. It is the similar kind of cable used for connecting our antennas at home to
our television sets or decoder to satellite. This employs the use of electricity for
transmission. . It is however been phased out due to the lower speeds for transmission
as well as the loss of signal during transmission

• Twisted Pair:- This is also a cable that employs the use of electricity for
transmission but however improves upon the signal loss disadvantage of the coaxial
cable. This type of cable has 8 core cables that have been paired. Each pair is twisted
around each to correct the signal loss in the coaxial cable. Thus there are 4 pairs of
cable within the insulation. This cable is further split into two; Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP) and Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP). STP is used for outdoor connections due to
its extra padded protection to protect the cable against weather and other hazards while
UTP is used for indoor connections due to the restricted hazards. There have been

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 various improvements on the twisted pair; CAT5, CAT 5E, CAT6 etc. the twisted pair
cable employs the use of the RJ45 connector.

• Fibre Optic Cable:- Due to the fact that light travels faster than electricity, a
cable that employs the use of light for transmission of signals was created. This is much
better than the two electrical cables. This cable has a glass core and has a coating behind
it to make it opaque thereby preventing loss of signal due to the transparent nature of
the glass. Each glass is called a core. Thus a fibre optic cable could have multiple cores
depending on volume of signal or data being transmitted. Due to the glassy nature of
the cable, special skill is required with its use. They are fundamentally more expensive
than the other cables. It has different kinds of connectors depending on the devices its
connecting.

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 Transmision technology cable

Core technology terminated cable

Connectors

Wireless Connected Networks

This a connection of computers and computing devices that does not require the use of
cables. It works using wireless technologies. This form of communication makes the use of
the network not location dependent or distance dependent as no cable will be dragged to
connect devices/nodes. These technologies include infra-red, Bluetooth, microwave and
satellite.

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• Infra Red:- This is the part of the invisible spectrum that is contiguous to the red
end of the visible spectrum and that comprises electromagnetic radiation of
wavelengths from 800 nm to 1 mm. Infrared is used in a variety of wireless
communications, monitoring, and control applications. A few of the applications
include home-entertainment remote-control boxes, wireless local area networks, links
between notebook computers and desktop computers, cordless modems, intrusion
detectors, motion detectors, and fire sensors. Another practical example is the link
between a TV remote and the TV. It however cannot carry much data.

• Bluetooth:- A Bluetooth device uses radio waves instead of wires or cables to

connect to a phone or computer. When two Bluetooth devices want to talk to each other,
they need to pair. Communication between Bluetooth devices happens over short-
range, ad hoc networks. When a network is established, one device takes the role of the
master while all the other devices act as slaves. Piconets (Bluetooth networks) are
established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth devices enter and leave radio
proximity. Bluetooth technology is capable of carrying more data than infrared. Its
capable of carrying short videos, picture music etc. Bluetooth signals are concentric
and as such have radius of operation.

• Microwaves :- Microwave signals propagate in straight lines and are affected

very little by the troposphere. They are not refracted or reflected by ionized regions in
the upper atmosphere. Microwave beams do not readily diffract around barriers such as
hills, mountains, and large human-made structures. Some attenuation occurs when
microwave energy passes through trees and frame houses.
The microwave band is well suited for wireless transmission of signals having large
bandwidth. This portion of the RF electromagnetic radiation spectrum encompasses
many thousands of megahertz. In communications, a large allowable bandwidth
translates into high data speed. The short wavelengths allow the use of dish antennas
having manageable diameters. These antennas produce high power gain in transmitting
applications, and have excellent sensitivity and directional characteristics for reception
of signals. Companies use this for their point to point communication. Ranges on
microwaves are farther than Bluetooth range.

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• Satellite:- In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and
receiver is done with the help of satellite. In this process, the signal which is basically
a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite
amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s
surface. So, all the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this type of
communication is also known as space communication. In satellite communication, the
signal is sent outside of the earth and received on the other side of the earth. This allows
for greater distances and a higher volume of data for transmission.

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Network Classification - Coverage Space

Networks could also be grouped according to the geographical space covered by the network
or how widespread the network is. These groupings include; LAN, CAN, MAN, WAN.

• LAN:- LAN is the acronym for Local Area Network. This is a kind of network that
covers a small geographical space as in a room or within a single building. This is
mostly the kind of network created for a home of office. Most LANs are server-client
networks. If the LAN is using the wireless technology then it is referred to as WLAN –
Wireless LAN. There are other forms of LAN such as when a user creates a wireless
network using a phone or personal device. These could be referred to as PAN – Personal
Area Network but they however still fall under LAN. Very few network devices are
required to setup a LAN.

• CAN:- CAN is the acronym for Campus Area Network. This is a kind of network
similar to LAN but with its coverage area more than that of the LAN. CAN covers
multiple buildings but they should be within a defined area like a school’s campus.
Networks that are setup for Colleges, Universities etc. are examples of CAN. It could
also be for a factory, hotels and neighbourhoods where there are multiple buildings but
not too far apart. More network devices will be required for this kind of network as
compared to LAN.

• MAN:- MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. This is a kind of
network that covers an area greater than that of the CAN. This spans across space like
a city or multiple neighbourhoods. The area covered is be classified as a metropolis.
Networks setup to span a city (Kumasi, Accra, Sunyani, Takoradi) is classified as a
WAN e.g. Cloud. WANs require more network devices that would enable the signal to
cover the distance. Most MANs employ wireless technology for transmission.

• WAN:- WAN is the acronym for Wide Area Network. This is the kind of network
that has no limitation to its span or coverage area. It could be inter-regional, inter-
country, inter-continent. A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area,
such as an entire country or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller
networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example of a public
WAN. WANs require a lot of network devices to achieve effective communication.

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Computer Network Topology

The physical and logical network topologies of a network do not necessarily have to be
physically identical to the topology. However, both physical and network topologies can be
categorized into five basic models:

• Bus Topology: All the devices/nodes are connected sequentially to the same
backbone or transmission line. This is a simple, low-cost topology, but its single point
of failure presents a risk.

• Ring Topology: All network devices are connected sequentially to a backbone as in

bus topology except that the backbone ends at the starting node, forming a ring. Ring
topology shares many of bus topology's disadvantages so its use is limited to networks
that demand high throughput.

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• Star Topology: All the nodes in the network are connected to a central device like a
hub or switch via cables. Failure of individual nodes or cables does not necessarily
create downtime in the network but the failure of a central device can. This topology is
the most preferred and popular model.

• Mesh Topology: The topology in each node is directly connected to some or all the
other nodes present in the network. This redundancy makes the network highly fault
tolerant but the escalated costs may limit this topology to highly critical networks.

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Network Devices

For computer networks to be effective, it employs the use of certain devices to allow/enable
the connection. Some of these network devices are switches, routers faceplates, cabinets,
servers, wireless access points.

• Switches:- In a computer network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data

from any of multiple input ports to the specific output port that will take the data toward
its intended destination. On an Ethernet local area network (LAN), a switch determines
from the physical device (Media Access Control or MAC) address in each incoming
message frame which output port to forward it to and out of. In a wide area packet-
switched network such as the Internet, a switch determines from the IP address in each
packet which output port to use for the next part of its trip to the intended destination.
Some switches are named after the number of ports or inputs that it has or accepts. Thus
there could be a 5-port switch, 8 port switch, 16 port switch, 24 port switch etc. A five
port switch accepts 5 inputs or can connect five computers and computing devices.
Switches could also be managed or unmanaged.

• Routers:- A router is hardware device designed to receive, analyse and move incoming
packets to another network. It may also be used to convert the packets to another
network interface, drop them, and perform other actions relating to a network. The
picture shows the Linksys BEFSR11 wireless router and is what many home routers
resemble. A router has a lot more capabilities than other network devices, such as a hub
or a switch that are only able to perform basic network functions. For example, a hub
is often used to transfer data between computers or network devices, but does not

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 analyse or do anything with the data it is transferring. By contrast, routers can analyse
the data being sent over a network, change how it is packaged, and send it to another
network or over a different network. For example, routers are commonly used in home
networks to share a single Internet connection between multiple computers.
•

• Servers:- A server is a computer program / device that provides services to other

computer programs (and their users) in the same or other computers. The computer that
a server program runs in is also frequently referred to as a server. That machine may be
a dedicated server or used for other purposes as well. Servers can be single or multiple
on a network depending on the networks requirement. Servers can be grouped
according to their purpose for example,

o An application server provides the business logic for an application program.

o A mail server is receives incoming e-mail from local users (people within the
same domain) and remote senders and forwards outgoing e-mail for delivery.
o A file server is a computer responsible for the central storage and management
of data files so that other computers on the same network can access them.
o A policy server is a security component of a policy-based network that provides
authorization services and facilitates tracking and control of files.

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36
 THE INTERNET

From the name inter-net, the internet is a network of several networks around the world. The
Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks - a
network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get
information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers).
It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government
in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet. The original aim was to create a network that
would allow users of a research computer at one university to "talk to" research computers at
other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be
routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if
parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

Currently, the Internet is a public, cooperative and self-sustaining facility accessible to

hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Using the Web, you have access to unlimited pages
of information. Web browsing is done with a Web browser, examples of which are Chrome,
Firefox and Internet Explorer.

Anybody can find anything or information once they are connected to the internet. The
browsers normally have search engines which enable you to look for virtually anything. All
users have to do is to type in a keyword and click on search. The search engines go through all
networks connected to the internet to find information on whatever the user was looking for.

Terminologies Associated With Internet

• Domain:- simply put, a domain is space gotten on the internet to be able to render
a service; provide information, provide commercial and non commercial services, link
people etc.

• Domain name:- this refers to the name assigned to the space acquired on the
internet for services. For example, one could buy a domain and name it cnn.com,
KTUniversity.edu etc. Domain names have extensions that help to identify the purpose
of the domain. Some of these are

o .com commercial services

o .edu educational services
o .org organisational services

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 o .gov governmental agencies

• Website:- This is basically a collection of several pages of information regarding

the service being rendered at a domain. These pages are usually saved in a computer of
the domain owner. The link to the website where these informational pages could be
found on the computer is what is referred to as website address. It usually begins with
www. Thus if a user want to go to CNNs spot on the internet, they will type into their
browser www.cnn.com or if a user wants to come to Kumasi Technical University on
the internet, they could simply type www.ktuniversity.edu. Website addresses are
mostly not case sensitive.

• Hosting:- This refers to the saving on a computer securely data, information about
a service or otherwise for the internet. This information should be available all the time
since you cannot tell when someone will visit your website to read about you and your
services. Hosting involves a lot of things which make it expensive to do. Some people
have therefore commercialised it and as such host your website for you so you pay them
a token for their service rendered. However companies and individuals who have the
resources, could host their own websites.

• Email:- Some individuals and organisations decide to render a mailing service aross
the internet using their domains purchased. Thiscould be private or commercial. This
mailing service is what is termed electronic mail (Email). This service is much faster
than the traditional mailing or courier system when it comes to document and picture
messaging. Commercial organisations who render such for free include yahoo, google
etc. Thus if a user subscribes to their mailing service, the user has to create an email
address (user account) to enable him utilise this service.

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• Email address:- User accounts created for electronic mailing is what is termed an
email address. The unique feature of an email address is the @ symbol. Every time an
address has the @ symbol, it depicts that, that particular address is an email address.
Website addresses don’t use @ symbol. The email address usually has the user-chosen
name followed by the @symbol and then the domain name of the company rendering
the service. Examples include [email protected], [email protected] etc. To access a
user email account, the user requires the username and password. The password is case
sensitive.

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