𝑥(𝑚)

30
20

𝑠𝑛
10

0
Welcome to 1 2 3 4 5 6 𝑡(𝑠)

𝑚/𝑠 2

NOTES
𝑥
Motion in a straight line
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = tan 𝜃
𝑢
𝑎 𝑣 𝜃
𝑡
 Law of Cosines
C
𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are angles of a triangle
𝛾 a
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are sides of triangle. b

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos(𝛾) 𝛼 𝛽
A
c B

Applications :
• For computing the third side of a triangle
when two sides and their enclosed angle
are given.
60𝑜
• In computing the angles of a triangle if
all three sides are given.
6 𝑐𝑚
 Given Δ 𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝑎 = 6 𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 4 𝑐𝑚 & 𝛾 = 600 .
Find the length of remaining side c ?

Solution :

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑏 cos (𝛾)

𝑐 2 = 62 + 42 + 2 × 6 × 4 × cos 600

2 2 2
1
𝑐 = 6 +4 +2×6×4×
2
𝑐 2 = 76 ≈ 8.7 𝑐𝑚

𝑐 ≈ 8.7 𝑐𝑚
 Three forces 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , and 𝐹3 are acting on a body as shown in figure.
If 𝐹Ԧ1 = 10 N, 𝐹Ԧ2 = 10 3 𝑁, and 𝐹Ԧ3 = 20 𝑁. Find the external force required
to keep block at rest.

Given: 𝐹Ԧ1 = 10 N, 𝐹Ԧ2 = 10 3 𝑁, 𝐹Ԧ3 = 20 𝑁 𝑦

To find: The external force required to keep the block at rest.

𝐹Ԧ3 𝐹Ԧ2
Solution: 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹3 cos 60° = 0

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹3 sin 60° = 20 3 𝑁 120°

𝑥
External Force = −20 3 𝑁 along negative y direction 𝐹Ԧ1
 Cause and Effect

Cause Motion Effect

Dynamics Kinematics

Branch of mechanics which studies Branch of mechanics which

the motion along with the cause analyses the effects, i.e. parameters
producing it the force(s). and properties of motion.
 Frame of Reference

• There is nothing like absolute rest or absolute

Observer 2 −Ball is at rest
motion.
• Motion is a combined property of object and
observer.

• Motion is only defined with respect to an

observer.

When ? Time coordinate

Where ? Space coordinate
𝑡1 𝑡2 Who reported ? Observer

• Reference point : The point from where

measurements are taken.

• Frame of reference : Frame attached with the

observer.
 Classical Particle or Point Object Dimension

Anything can be a point object if the The dimension of a mathematical space is the
dimensions of that object are negligible minimum number of independent information
compared to range of motion involved. needed to specify any point within it.

1-D : Linear

2𝑚
1000 𝑚

2-D : Planar 3-D : Spatial

 Position of a point 𝑦 P 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1

• To specify position of a point in space we need a reference

point(origin) and a set of axes. Q 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2
𝑂(0,0,0)
• Motion is change in position of object with time.
𝑥

𝑧
Distance and Displacement

• Distance covered by a body is the total length of actual

path covered.

• Displacement is a vector from initial to final position along

a straight line.
 Position and Displacement Vector

• Position vector is the position of a

point in space with respect to a
𝑦 P 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 reference point.
𝑠Ԧ ෡
𝑟Ԧ1 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟏 𝒌
𝑟Ԧ1
Q 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ෡
𝑟Ԧ2 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟐 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒛𝟐 𝒌

𝑟Ԧ2
𝑂(0,0,0) • Displacement is the change in
position vector.
𝑥

෡
𝒔 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒋Ƹ + (𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 )𝒌
𝑧
 Average Speed and Velocity

Average Speed: It is the ratio of total length of path

travelled to the time interval.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Delhi
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Average Velocity: It is the ratio of net displacement

to the time interval.

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Lucknow
∆𝑠Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ𝑓 − 𝑟Ԧ𝑖
< 𝑣Ԧ > = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

Direction of Average Velocity is same as

< 𝑣Ԧ > ∥ ∆𝑠Ԧ direction of net displacement.
 A man walks from point ‘𝐴’ to point ‘𝐵’ i.e., 3 𝑚 to east, then 4 𝑚 north
in 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐. Find his Average speed and Average velocity.

Solution :

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 3 + 4 𝑚 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 32 + 42

𝐵
=7𝑚 =5𝑚

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 32 + 42

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 4𝑚
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
7𝑚
= 5𝑚
10 𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
10 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴
= 0.7 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 3𝑚
 Instantaneous Speed and Velocity

Instantaneous Speed:
It is the ratio of distance covered with an infinitesimal interval of time.

Δs Δs 𝑑𝑠
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = lim = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = |𝒗|
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Instantaneous Velocity:
It is the ratio of displacement to an infinitesimally small-time interval

𝒅𝒔
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝒗 =
𝒅𝒕 𝑦
𝑅
𝑃
𝑣Ԧ ∥ dԦs
𝑄
Direction of instantaneous velocity at a point is 𝑥
tangential to the path at that point. 𝑂
 Position-time graph

Slope of 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph gives instantaneous velocity.

𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = =𝑣
𝑑𝑡
Position-time graph:

25
𝑥
20
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝑚)

15

10

5
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 𝜃
-5
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠) 𝑡
 Motion

Uniform motion Non-uniform motion

• Motion with constant velocity. • Motion with varying velocity.

• Position varies linearly with time, • Position varies non-linearly with time,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Area under 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑡ime curve

• Area under 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph gives

𝑣 displacement.

𝑡2
𝐴 = න 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = change in position
𝑡1
(or)

= Displacement
𝑨

𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡
 The velocity versus time graph of a linear motion is shown in
the figure.
For the particle find the net:
i. Distance covered.
ii. Displacement at the end of 8 sec.

Solution:
Distance travelled by the particle
𝑆 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑣
4
𝑆 = 12 + 6 𝑚
𝑆 = 18 𝑚
𝐴1

Displacement of the particle 5 7 8

0 1 3 4 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑥 = 12 − 6 𝑚 −2

𝑥 = 6𝑚
 Average Acceleration

● Average acceleration is defined as the

𝑣1 change in velocity in a particular interval.
𝑣2

∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
< 𝑎 >= 𝑎 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡

𝑁
● Direction of average acceleration is always
along the change in velocity vector.

𝑣𝑓 𝐸
Direction of < 𝑎 > is along
the direction of 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 .

< 𝑎 > || 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑖
 At a certain time, a particle has a velocity of 18 𝑚/𝑠 in the positive x direction,
2.4 𝑠 later its velocity is 30 𝑚/𝑠 in the opposite direction, what is the average
acceleration during 2.4 𝑠 interval?

• Solution : Average acceleration =

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
< 𝑎 >= 𝑎 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

−30 − 18
𝑎 =
2.4 − 0

𝑎 = −20

𝑎 = −20 𝑚/𝑠 2
 Instantaneous Acceleration

• Rate of change of velocity at a particular time. 𝑎 = lim

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
=
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• How can velocity change ?
o Speeding up
o Slowing down
o Change in direction

𝑣
• Instantaneous acceleration is the slope
of the tangent to the 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph at
any time t.

𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = tan 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑡

𝜃
𝑡
 Acceleration

Uniform Non-uniform
Acceleration Acceleration

𝑎 = Constant 𝑎 ≠ Constant
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= Constant ≠ Constant
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In equal time intervals, change in velocity will be equal. In equal time intervals, change
in velocity will not be equal.

𝑎 𝑣 𝑥
𝑣

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑡
 Acceleration Time Graph

• Area under 𝑎 − 𝑡 graph gives change in

𝑎 velocity of the particle for the time interval.

𝑡
‫ 𝑡׬‬2 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = ∆𝑣
1

𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡
 Key Points

Position - Time 𝑑𝑥
𝒙 − 𝒕 Graph • Slope = = Velocity
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
• Slope = = Acceleration
Velocity - Time 𝑑𝑡

𝒗 − 𝒕 Graph 𝑡2
• Area =න 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = Displacement
𝑡1

𝑑𝑎
• Slope = = Jerk
Acceleration - Time 𝑑𝑡
𝒂 − 𝒕 Graph 𝑡2
• Area = න 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = Change in Velocity
𝑡1
 Equations of Motion

The equations of motion are valid only when the particle is uniformly accelerated.

• 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

1
• 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

• 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
 A particle moving with 10 𝑚/𝑠 along a straight line is subjected to constant acceleration.
After some time, its velocity is observed to be 30 𝑚/𝑠 . Find out velocity of the particle at
the midpoint of its subsequent path.

𝑎
• Solution :
Let the total distance be 2𝑥
+𝑣𝑒
Distance up to midpoint = 𝑥 𝑂

Let the velocity at mid point be v and acceleration be ‘𝑎’.

Step 1 : For the particle’s motion from midpoint to the end.

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 2 = 102 + 2𝑎𝑥 … (1)

Step 2 : For the particle’s motion from midpoint to the end.

302 = 𝑣 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 … (2)

Step 3 : Eliminating 𝑥 we get

𝑣 2 − 302 = 102 − 𝑣 2
𝑣 = 10 5 𝑚Τ𝑠
 A man is standing 40 𝑚 behind a bus when it starts moving away with 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 constant acceleration.
At the same instant, the man starts running behind with a constant speed of 9 𝑚/𝑠. Find the time
taken by the man to catch the bus.

Solution :
𝑎𝑡 2
Step 1 : Recollect the equation of motion. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 +
2

Step 2 : Distance travelled by the bus during the time (t)

man takes to catch the bus and the man himself. 9 𝑚/𝑠
1 𝑚/𝑠 2
For Bus, For Man, 40 𝑚

1 × 𝑡2 𝑥 = 9𝑡 … (2)
𝑥 − 40 = 0 × 𝑡 + … (1)
2

Step 3 : Eliminating 𝑥 𝑡2
40 + = 9𝑡
2

The time taken by the man to catch the bus is 8 seconds. At 10s the bus will overtake the man.

𝑡 =8𝑠
 Displacement in 𝑛𝑡ℎ Second

𝑡 =𝑛−1𝑠 𝑡=𝑛𝑠

𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝑠1 = Displacement in 1 second

𝑠2 = Displacement in 2 seconds

𝑠𝑛 = Displacement in 𝑛 seconds

𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝑠𝑛 − 𝑠𝑛−1 𝑎
𝑠𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝑢 + 2𝑛 − 1
2
 The displacement of a body in the 3𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 of the motion is thrice the
displacement in its 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. If the acceleration of the body is 4 𝑚/𝑠 2 , what
is the initial velocity?

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Solution : 𝑠1 = 𝑢 + 2×1−1 =𝑢+ 𝑠=𝑢 + 2𝑛 − 1
2 2 2
𝑎 5𝑎
𝑠3 = 𝑢 + 2 × 3 − 1 = 𝑢 +
2 2
5𝑎 𝑎
𝑢+ =3 𝑢+
2 2
5𝑎 3𝑎
3𝑢 − 𝑢 = −
2 2
2𝑎
𝑢=
4

𝑢 = 2 𝑚/𝑠
 Motion under Gravity

𝑡1
In our study of motion under gravity –

• Air resistance is considered negligible.

• The motion takes place near the

surface of the Earth. ℎ
ℎ
• Gravitational acceleration
𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 = 32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 acts downward.

𝑡2
 A particle is thrown up with a velocity 30 𝑚/𝑠. Find
(i) Time of flight
(ii) Maximum height reached by particle
(iii) Landing speed of particle (assume acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Method : 𝑂 +
Step 1 : Choose origin and the +𝑣𝑒 direction
−
Step 2 : Tabulate the given data
30 𝑚/𝑠
Step 3 : Use an appropriate equation
𝑎 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2

+
𝑎 = −10 𝑚/𝑠 2
30 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢 = 30 𝑚/𝑠

𝑠 =0𝑚 𝑣𝑓
−
(i) Time of Flight : (ii) Maximum height : (iii) Landing speed
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑇 + 𝑎𝑇 2 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
2 By considering the whole
motion of the particle,
1 0 = 302 − 2 × 10 × 𝑠
0 = 30𝑇 − 10 × 𝑇 2
2 𝑣 =𝑢+𝑎×𝑇
302 = 2 × 10 × 𝑠
60𝑇 = 10 × 𝑇2 , (𝑇 ≠ 0)
𝑣𝑓 = 30 − 10 × 6
60 900
𝑇= =6𝑠 𝑠= = 45 𝑚
10 60 𝑣𝑓 = −30 𝑚/𝑠

𝑇 =6𝑠 𝑠 = 45 𝑚 𝑣𝑓 = 30 𝑚/𝑠
A ball is thrown upwards from the top of a tower of height 60 𝑚 with a velocity of
20 𝑚/𝑠. Find the landing speed on ground.

Method :
Step 1 : Choose origin and the +𝑣𝑒 direction
20 𝑚/𝑠
Step 2 : Tabulate the given data
Step 3 : Use an appropriate equation

Solution :
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠 +
𝑎 = −10 𝑚/𝑠 2
60 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 202 + 2 × (−10) × (−60)
𝑢 = 20 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣2 = 1600
𝑠 = − 60 𝑚
𝑣 = ±40 𝑚/𝑠 −

𝑣 = 40 𝑚/𝑠 (Speed can never be negative)

 A stone is dropped from the top of 20𝑡ℎ storey of a multi-storeyed building and
reaches the ground in 5𝑠. By the third second, it passes through how many
storeys of the building?

Solution: Suppose ℎ be the height of each storey.

1
We know that, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

1
20ℎ = 0 + × 10 × 25
2
ℎ = 6.25 𝑚
𝑡 = 3 𝑠, the ball passes through 𝑛 storeys.
1
𝑛 × 6.25 = × 10 × 9
2
𝑛 = 7.2

𝑛=7
 A stone is dropped from a balloon going up with a uniform velocity 5 𝑚/𝑠. If the
balloon was at 60 𝑚 height when the stone was dropped, find the time after
which the stone hits the ground. (Take, 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 ).

Solution:
Applying Second Equation of Motion
𝑎 −10 𝑚/𝑠 2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑢 5 𝑚/𝑠
2 𝑢
𝑠 −60 𝑚
1
5 𝑚/𝑠 −60 = 5 𝑡 + −10 𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑡 = 4 𝑠
2 𝑂

When a body detaches itself from a

system, it retains its velocity by virtue 𝑠 𝑔
of inertia of motion. +

60 𝑚 −
𝑡 =4𝑠
 Two particles 𝑃 and 𝑄 and separated by 75 𝑚, both are moving towards each
other in a straight line as shown in figure with 𝑎𝑃 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑢𝑃 = 15 𝑚/𝑠, and
𝑎𝑄 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑢𝑄 = 25 𝑚/𝑠, calculate the time when they meet.

Solution: Choosing the origin at 𝑃 and right

as positive. 𝑎𝑄 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑎𝑃 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑢𝑃 = 15 𝑚/𝑠 𝑢𝑄 = 25 𝑚/𝑠
Final position of point P and 𝑄 are
same at the time of convergence.

1 2 1 2
𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 75 𝑚
2 𝑃
2 𝑄

1 1
15𝑡 + × 2 × 𝑡 2 = 75 + −25 𝑡 + −4 𝑡 2
2 2

3t 2 + 40t − 75 = 0

5
𝑡= s
3
 Two particle 𝑃 and 𝑄 and separated by 75 𝑚, both are moving away from each
other in a straight line as shown in figure with 𝑎𝑃 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑢𝑃 = 15 𝑚/𝑠, and
𝑎𝑄 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑢𝑄 = 25 𝑚/𝑠, calculate the time when they meet.

Solution: Choosing the origin at 𝑃 and right

as positive. 𝑎𝑄 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑎𝑃 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑢𝑃 = 15 𝑚/𝑠 𝑢𝑄 = 25 𝑚/𝑠
Final position of point P and 𝑄 are
same at the time of convergence.

1 1
𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 75 𝑚
2 𝑃
2 𝑄

1 1
−15𝑡 + 2 × 2 × 𝑡 2 = 75 + 25𝑡 + 2 −4 𝑡 2

3t 2 − 40t − 75 = 0

𝑡 = 15 𝑠
 Special Case: Average Speed

A particle travels half of total distance with speed 𝒗𝟏 and next half with speed 𝒗𝟐 along a straight
line. Find out the average speed of the particle.

Let total distance travelled by the particle be 2𝑆.

𝑆
Time taken to travel first half, 𝑡1 = 𝑣 2𝑆
1
𝑣2
𝑆
Time taken to travel next half, 𝑡2 = 𝑣 𝑣1
2

Total distance travelled

Average speed =
Total time taken
𝑆
2𝑆
<𝑣 >=
𝑆 𝑆
+
𝑣1 𝑣2

2𝑣1 𝑣2
<𝑣 >=
𝑣1 + 𝑣2
 Special Case: Average Velocity

A person travelling on a straight line moves with uniform velocity 𝒗𝟏 for some time and with
uniform velocity 𝒗𝟐 for the next equal time. Find the average velocity of the person.

First part 𝑆1 is travelled in time 𝑡

𝑡 𝑡
Second part 𝑆2 is travelled in time 𝑡
𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑆1 𝑆2
Velocity is given by, 𝑣1 = and 𝑣2 =
𝑡 𝑡

Total displacement
Average Velocity = 𝑆1 𝑆2
Total time taken

𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑣2 𝑡
<𝑣 >=
2𝑡

𝑣1 + 𝑣2
<𝑣 >=
2
 A skate-boarder moving along a straight-line travels one-third of the total
distance with a speed of 𝟑 𝒎/𝒔 and the remaining is covered with a speed of 𝟒
𝒎/𝒔 for half the time and 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 for the other half of the time. Find the average
speed during his motion.

Solution:
𝑠
Let 𝑡1 be the time taken for first distance
3
𝑠
𝑡1 = 𝑠
9
2𝑠 Total distance travelled
Let 𝑡2 be the time taken for remaining distance Average speed =
3 Total time taken
𝑡2
Travelled 𝐶𝐸 with a speed of 4 𝑚/𝑠 in first and
2
𝑡
𝑆
then EB with a speed of 5 𝑚/𝑠 in the next 22 <𝑣 >=
𝑡1 + 𝑡2

2𝑆 𝑡2 𝑡2 9𝑡2 𝑆
=4× +5× =
3 2 2 2 <𝑣 >=
7𝑆
4𝑆 27
𝑡2 = 𝑠
27 < 𝒗 >= 3.85 𝑚/𝑠
 A police inspector in a car is chasing a pick pocketer on a straight road. The car is
going at its maximum speed 𝑣 (assumed uniform). The pick pocketer starts to ride
on a motorcycle of a waiting friend when the car us at a distance 𝑑 away. The
motorcycle starts with constant acceleration 𝑎. Show that the pickpocket will be
caught if 𝑣 ≥ 2𝑎𝑑.

Solution: 1 2
Distance travelled by the motorcycle during the interval 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑡 … (1)
2

During this interval, car travels a distance 𝑠 = 𝑑 + 𝑣𝑡 … (2)

For the pickpocket to be caught

1 2 1
𝑎𝑡 + 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡 ⇒ 𝑎𝑡 2 − 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑑 = 0
2 2
𝑣 ± 𝑣 2 − 2𝑎𝑑
𝑡=
𝑎
For 𝑡 to be real, discriminant should be positive.

𝒗 ≥ 2𝑎𝑑
 A car accelerates from rest at a constant rate 𝛼 for some time after which it
decelerates at a constant rate 𝛽 to come to rest. If the total time elapsed is 𝑡, find
the maximum velocity acquired by the car?

Solution:

𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Slope of 𝑂𝐴 curve = tan 𝜃 = 𝛼 =
𝑡1

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Slope of 𝐴𝐵 curve = 𝛽 = 𝑣(𝑚/𝑠)
𝑡2

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = +
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝛼 𝛽

𝛼𝛽 𝑂
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡 𝐵
𝛼+𝛽 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡(sec )
An elevator is descending with uniform acceleration. A person in
the elevator drops a coin from the height of 6 𝑓𝑡 above the floor of
the elevator. The coin strikes the floor in 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. What is the
acceleration of the elevator?(Take 𝑔 = 32 𝑓𝑡𝑠 −2 )
6 𝑓𝑡
Solution:
1 2 1 2
𝑔
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 + 𝑔 1 =
2 2 2
1 2 1 𝑎 𝑂
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 + 𝑎 1 2 =
2 2 2
6 𝑓𝑡
Total distance covered by the coin is,

𝑎 𝑔 +𝑣𝑒
6+ = 𝑆𝑐
2 2
𝑆𝑒
𝑎 32
6+ =
2 2

𝑎 = 20 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
 Graphical Proof of EOMs

First equation of motion Second equation of motion Third equation of motion

Velocity Velocity Velocity

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑣−𝑢
𝑢 𝜃 𝑢 𝑢
𝑡
𝑂 𝑡 Time 𝑂 𝑂
𝑡 Time 𝑡 Time

Acceleration = Slope of 𝑣−𝑡 curve Displacement = Area under 𝑣−𝑡 curve Displacement = Area under 𝑣−𝑡 curve
1 1
𝑎 = tan 𝜃 𝑆 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐵𝐷 × 𝑂𝐷 𝑆 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐵𝐷 × 𝑂𝐷
2 2
𝑣−𝑢 1 1
𝑎= 𝑆= 𝑢+𝑣 × 𝑡 𝑆 = 𝑢+𝑣 × 𝑡
𝑡 2 2

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 1 2 𝑣−𝑢
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 (Put , 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠 Put, 𝑡 =
2 𝑎
 Relations b/w Motion Parameters

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑2𝑥
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑎(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
Acceleration can be represented in two ways 𝑎
𝑑𝑣
𝑣
𝑑𝑥

𝑎
𝑎

𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑥2
𝑡2 Δ 𝑣2 𝑣22 − 𝑣12
Area = ‫𝑡𝑑𝑎 𝑡׬‬ = Δ𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 . Area = න 𝑎𝑑𝑥 = =
1
𝑥1 2 2
 A particle located at 𝑥 = 0 at time 𝑡 = 0 starts moving
along the positive 𝑥 direction with a velocity 𝑣 that varies as 𝑣 = 𝛼 𝑥.
i) How does acceleration of the particle vary with time.
ii)What is average velocity of the particle after the 𝑆 meter of its path.

Solution:
1 2
𝑣=𝛼 𝑥 𝑣=𝛼 𝑥 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 1 2 𝑆
= [𝛼 𝑥] 𝑆 = 𝑎𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑡 =
𝑣 2 = 𝛼 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝛼
𝑑𝑣 𝛼 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
2𝑣 = 𝛼2 𝑆
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 < 𝑣 >=
𝑎=𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑆 𝛼 𝑆
𝑑𝑣 = =
2𝑎 = 𝛼 2 𝑎=𝑣 𝛼
𝑑𝑥 𝑎=𝛼 𝑥× 2 𝑆 2
2 𝑥 𝛼

𝛼2 𝛼2 𝛼 𝑆
𝑎= = Constant 𝑎= = Constant <𝑣 >=
2 2 2
 Calculus proof of EOMs

𝑡 𝑣
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= න 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡 0 𝑢

𝑥𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 1 2
𝑣= න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑥𝑖 0 2

𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑥𝑓
𝑎=𝑣 න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑎𝑑𝑥 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎∆𝑥 = 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 𝑥𝑖

Time variation of Position

If the position - time graph of a particle is a −sin curve as shown,
draw its velocity - time and acceleration - time graphs.

Solution:
Two particles A and B move with constant velocities 10 𝑚/𝑠 and
5 𝑚/𝑠 along the paths shown in the figure. Find the time after
which the particles are closest?

Solution :
10 𝑚/𝑠 50 − 10𝑡
At time 𝑡,

20 − 5𝑡
10𝑡
𝑆= 50 − 10𝑡 2 + 20 − 5𝑡 2 𝑆

5t
𝑑𝑆

5 𝑚/𝑠
=0
𝑑𝑡

1
× [2 × 50 − 10𝑡 (−10) + 2 × 20 − 5𝑡 (−5)] = 0
2 50 − 10𝑡 2 + 20 − 5𝑡 2

−20 × 50 − 10𝑡 − 10 × 20 − 5𝑡 = 0

𝑡 = 4.8 𝑠
 Acceleration vs time graph of a particle moving in a straight line
from rest is as shown in the figure. What is the corresponding
T velocity time graph.

Solution:
𝑎 Equation of line, 𝑎 = −𝑚𝑣 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑘 − 𝑒 −𝑚𝑡
𝑎= = −𝑚𝑣 + 𝐶 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚′
𝑣
𝑑𝑣
න = න 𝑑𝑡
−𝑚𝑣 + 𝐶

ln(−𝑚𝑣 + 𝐶) 𝑣
=𝑡+𝑐
−𝑚

𝐶 − 𝑒 −𝑚(𝑡+𝑐)
𝑣= 𝑡
𝑚
The acceleration of a particle travelling along a straight line is shown
in the figure. Draw 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph and then find maximum speed of the
particle.
 If position of a particle moving in a straight line is given by
𝑥 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 − 3𝑡. Find the displacement and distance travelled
in (0 − 4 𝑠) ?

Solution:

Displacement = 𝑥4 − 𝑥0 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 4
0 = −12𝑚

For distance travelled in 0 − 4 𝑠

check if the velocity becomes zero in that interval
𝑑𝑥
⇒ =0
𝑑𝑡

⇒ 3𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 − 3 = 0

⇒𝑡 =3𝑠 (At 3 𝑠 velocity becomes zero)

Distance = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 3
0 + 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 4
3 = 18 + 6 = 24 𝑚
 At 𝑡 = 0, a particle is at rest at origin. It is now moving in a straight
line with an acceleration of 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 for first 2 𝑠 and −2 𝑚/𝑠 2 for next
4 𝑠 as shown in 𝑎 − 𝑡 graph.
Plot graphs for
a) Speed 𝑣𝑠 time
b) Distance 𝑣𝑠 time

2 Solution:

𝑎 𝑚/𝑠 2

Distance
2 6 𝑡 (𝑠)

Speed
−2
𝑡

𝑡
 From point A located on highway as shown in figure, one must get by car as
soon as possible to point B located in the field at a distance 𝑙 from the highway.
It is known that the car moves in the field n times slower than the highway. At
what distance from point D one must turn off the highway?

Solution:
Let the speed on highway = 𝑣 𝑥
𝑣
Let the speed on field =
𝑛

AC = 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦

Time to reach B,

𝑡 = 𝑡𝐴𝐶 + 𝑡𝐶𝐵
𝑥−𝑦 𝑙2 + 𝑦 2
𝑡= + 𝑣
𝑣
𝑛
𝑥, 𝑙, 𝑛, 𝑣 are constants here
𝑑 𝑥
For minimum time,
𝑑𝑡
=0 ( 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ) =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑛𝑦 𝑙
=− + =0 𝑦=
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑣 𝑙2 + 𝑦 2 𝑛2 − 1
 Relative Position

Position of 𝐴 with respect to 𝑂: 𝑥Ԧ𝐴 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝑂

𝑥-axis 𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝐴
Position of 𝐵 with respect to 𝑂: 𝑥Ԧ𝐵 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝑂
𝑂 𝐴 𝐵
𝑥𝐴
Position of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴- 𝑥𝐵

𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐵 − 𝑥Ԧ𝐴 or 𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝑂 − 𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝑂

Position of 𝐴 with respect to 𝐵 -

𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐴 − 𝑥Ԧ𝐵 or 𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝑂 − 𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝑂

 Relative Position

Position of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 is

𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐵𝑂 − 𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝑂 = 𝑥Ԧ𝐵 − 𝑥Ԧ𝐴 𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵
𝑥-axis

𝑂 𝐴 𝐵
Velocity of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 is 𝑎𝐴 𝑎𝐵
𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝑂 − 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝑂 = 𝑣Ԧ𝐵 − 𝑣Ԧ𝐴

𝑥-axis 𝑣𝐵𝐴
Acceleration of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 is
𝑂/𝐴 𝐵
𝑎Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑎Ԧ𝐵𝑂 − 𝑎Ԧ𝐴𝑂 = 𝑎Ԧ𝐵 − 𝑎Ԧ𝐴 𝑎𝐵𝐴

• With the change in frame, the origin of every parameter is recalibrated. Now, the reference
frame in consideration is the new rest

• 𝑥Ԧ𝐴𝐴 = 0, 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐴 = 0, 𝑎Ԧ𝐴𝐴 = 0

 Physical Significance

𝑃 : A random observer

𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐵 𝐺 : A stationary observer on the ground

𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = −𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐴
𝐵 𝑃 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝑃 𝐴 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐺 − 𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐺
𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝑃 + 𝑣Ԧ𝑃𝐵

• Motion is a combined property of the object under study as well as the observer.

• Motion is always defined with respect to an observer or reference frame.

• Motion is always relative. There is no such thing as absolute motion or absolute rest.
 Two particles 𝑃 and 𝑄 initially separated by 75 𝑚, are moving towards
each other along a straight line as shown in figure with 𝑎𝑃 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 ,
𝑢𝑃 = 15 𝑚/𝑠, and 𝑎𝑄 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑢𝑄 = 25 𝑚/𝑠 Calculate the time when they
meet.

+𝑥

𝑎𝑃 = 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑎𝑄 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑢𝑄 = 25 𝑚/𝑠 Solution:
𝑢𝑃 = 15 𝑚/𝑠
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑃 𝑄 2
1 2
75 𝑚 𝑠𝑄𝑃 = 𝑠𝑄𝑃 + 𝑢 𝑄𝑃 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑄𝑃 𝑡
0 2
1
𝑎𝑄𝑃 = 6 𝑚/𝑠 2 0 = 75 − 40𝑡 + −6 𝑡 2
Observer on P at rest 2
𝑢𝑄𝑃 = 40 𝑚/𝑠
𝑃 𝑄 +𝑥 5
𝑡= 𝑠
3

75 𝑚
 Consider two stones 𝐴 & 𝐵 which are being projected as shown with
speeds 20 𝑚/𝑠 and 40 𝑚/𝑠 respectively as seen by a stationary observer
on ground. Find the time when they meet.

𝐵
40 𝑚/𝑠

60 𝑚

20 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴
 Solution: Normal Method

Solution:
𝐵
At meeting point,
+𝑦 40 𝑚/𝑠
Position of 𝐴 = Position of 𝐵

1 1
20𝑡 − 2 10 𝑡 2 = 60 − 40𝑡 + 2 10 𝑡 2 60 𝑚

40𝑡 + 5𝑡 2 + 20𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 = 60
20 𝑚/𝑠

60𝑡 = 60 𝐴

𝑡 =1𝑠
 Solution: Relative Method

Observer in A frame: Observer in B frame:

𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐴 = 0 𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐵 = 0

𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐺 − 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐺 = −60𝑗Ƹ 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣Ԧ𝐴𝐺 − 𝑣Ԧ𝐵𝐺 = 60𝑗Ƹ

𝑎Ԧ𝐴𝐴 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝐵𝐵 = 0

𝑎Ԧ𝐵𝐴 = 𝑎Ԧ𝐵𝐺 − 𝑎Ԧ𝐴𝐺 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎Ԧ𝐴𝐺 − 𝑎Ԧ𝐵𝐺 = 0

Formulae:
Formulae: Displacement = Velocity × Time
Displacement = Velocity × Time
Solution: Solution:
0 − 60 = −60 × 𝑡 0 − −60 = 60 × 𝑡
𝑡 =1𝑠 𝑡 =1𝑠
 Consider an open lift as shown below. If a boy throws a coin upwards
with initial velocity 20 𝑚/𝑠 in a lift which is moving upwards with initial
speed 2 𝑚/𝑠 and acceleration 1 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Then find the time taken by the
coin to fall back to his hands. (Take 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Observer in lift frame:

Rest
𝑣Ԧ𝐶𝐿 = 20𝑗Ƹ 𝑚/𝑠 𝑎Ԧ𝐶𝐿 = 𝑎Ԧ𝐶𝐺 − 𝑎Ԧ𝐿𝐺 = −11 𝑗Ƹ 𝑚/𝑠 2

20 𝑚/𝑠 Formulae:
1
𝑠𝐶𝐿 = 𝑢𝐶𝐿 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐶𝐿 𝑡 2
𝑦 2
Solution:
1
0 = 20𝑡 + −11 × 𝑡 2
𝑥 2
40
𝑡 = 0𝑠, 𝑠
11
Observer in lift frame
40
𝑡= 𝑠
11
 Solution: Relative Method

Observer on ground:
𝑢𝑐 = 22 𝑚Τ𝑠 , 𝑢𝐸 = 2 𝑚Τ𝑠

Formulae:
Displacement of Coin = Displacement of Elevator

1 1
𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 𝐶
2
𝐸
22 𝑚/𝑠
−10 𝑚/𝑠 2 2 𝑚Τ𝑠 Solution:
1 𝑚/𝑠 2 1 1
0 + 22𝑡 + −10 𝑡 = 0 + 2𝑡 + 1 𝑡 2
2
2 2
40
𝑡 = 0, 𝑠
Observer on ground 11

40
𝑡= 𝑠
11
A truck is initially 14 𝑚 ahead of the car when it starts moving with
constant acceleration of 2 𝑚/𝑠 2 . At the same instant, the car starts
moving with constant speed of 9 𝑚/𝑠. Find the time taken by the car to
catch the truck.

9 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑚/𝑠 2

14 𝑚
 Solution: Normal Method

Taking car as origin

2 𝑚/𝑠 2 Ground frame
9 𝑚/𝑠

14 𝑚

+𝑥
Solution:

1 2 1 2
𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2 𝐶
2
𝑇
1
0 + 9𝑡 + 0 = 14 + 0 + 2 𝑡2
2
𝑡 2 − 9𝑡 + 14 = 0
𝑡 = 7 𝑠, 2 𝑠
 Solution: Relative Method

Observer in Car frame 9 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑚/𝑠 2

14 𝑚

+𝑥

Solution:
1
𝑢 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑢 𝑇 − 𝑢𝐶 𝑠𝑇𝐶 = 𝑠𝑇𝐶 0 + 𝑢 𝑇𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑇𝐶 𝑡 2
2
= −9 𝑚/𝑠 1
0 = 14 + −9 𝑡 + 2 × 𝑡2
𝑎 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑎 𝑇 − 𝑎𝐶 2
𝑡 2 − 18𝑡 + 80 = 0
= 2 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 = 7𝑠, 2 𝑠