Elements Compounds and Mixtures
Elements Compounds and Mixtures
Elements Compounds and Mixtures
www.megalecture.com
KEYWORDS ... atom ... chemical change ... chromatography ... compound ... covalency ...
distillation (simple/fractional) ... element ... equations - (word, picture, symbol, quizzes) ...
formula ... impure/pure ... ionic equations ... ionic valency ... magnet ... mixture ...
molecule ... physical change ... products ... reactants ... separating mixtures ... chemical
symbols - (elements, formula, in equations) ... state symbols ... valency ... working out
formulae ...
re
ATOM
An ATOM is the smallest particle of a substance which can have its
tu
characteristic properties. BUT remember atoms are built up of even more
fundamental sub-atomic particles - the electron, proton and neutron.
c
A MOLECULE is a larger particle formed by the chemical
Le
combination of two or more atoms. The molecule may be an element or a
compound eg hydrogen H2 or carbon dioxide CO2 and the atoms are held
together by covalent bonds.
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
CH4
Compounds have a fixed composition and therefore a fixed ratio
of atoms represented by a fixed formula, however the compound is
made or formed.
In a compound the elements are not easily separated by
physical means, and quite often not easily by chemical means either.
The compound has properties quite different from the
elements it is formed from.
o For example soft silvery reactive sodium + reactive green gas
chlorine ==> colourless, not very reactive crystals of sodium
re
chloride.
The formula of a compound summarises the 'whole number'
atomic ratio of what it is made up of eg methane CH4 is
composed of 1 carbon atom combined with 4 hydrogen atoms.
tu
Glucose has 6 carbon : 12 hydrogen : 6 oxygen atoms, sodium
chloride is 1 sodium : 1 chlorine atom.
When there is only one atom of the element, there is no
c
subscript number, the 1 is assumed eg Na in NaCl or C in CH4.
When there is more than 1 atom of the same element, a subscript
number is used eg the 4 in CH4 meaning 4 hydrogen atoms.
Le
Sometimes, a compound (usually ionic), is partly made up of two or
more identical groups of atoms. To show this more accurately ( ) are
used eg
o calcium hydroxide is Ca(OH)2 which makes more sense than
CaO2H2 because the OH group is called hydroxide and exists in
a
PURE PURE means that only one substance present in the material and can
be an element or compound.
A simple physical test for purity and helping identify a compound is to
measure the boiling point of a liquid. Every pure substance melts and
boils at a fixed temperature.
o If a liquid is pure it may boil at a constant temperature (boiling
point).
o An impure liquid could boil higher or lower than the expected
boiling point and over a range of temperature.
2
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
o If a solid is pure, it will quite sharply at the melting point.
o An impure solid melts below its expected melting point and
more slowly over a wider temperature range.
IMPURE IMPURE usually means a mixture of mainly one substance plus one
or more other substances physically mixed in.
The % purity of a compound is important, particularly in drug
manufacture. Any impurities present are less cost-effective to the
consumer and they may be harmful substances.
re
solid impurities which have a very high boiling point.
o Fractional distillation to separate liquids with a range of
different boiling points, especially if relatively close together.
o Crystallisation to get a pure solid out of a solvent solution of
tu
it.
o Chromatography can be used on a larger scale than spots'
to separate out pure samples from a mixture.
c
Le
Picture examples of Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
a
eg
M
3
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
re
c tu
Le
a
eg
M
4
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
re
Fractional Distillation
tu
Fractional distillation involves 2 main
stages and both are physical state changes.
It can only work with liquids with
different boiling points.
c (1) The liquid or solution mixture is boiled
to vaporise the most volatile component in
Le
the mixture (liquid ==> gas). The ant-
bumping granules give a smoother boiling
action.
(2) The vapour passes up through a
fractionating column, where the
separation takes place (theory at the end).
a
It is used on a large scale to separate the components of crude oil, because the different
hydrocarbons have different boiling and condensation points
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION THEORY:
o Imagine green liquid is a mixture of a blue liquid (but. 80oC) and a yellow liquid (bpt.
100oC), As the vapour from the boiling mixture enters the fractionating column it
begins to cool and condense. The highest boiling or least volatile liquid tends to
condense more ie the yellow liquid (water). The lower boiling more volatile blue liquid
gets further up the column. Gradually up the column the blue and yellow separate from
each other so that yellow condenses back into the flask and pure blue distills over to be
collected. The 1st liquid, the lowest boiling point, is called the 1st fraction and each
liquid distills over when the top of the column reaches its particular boiling point to give
the 2nd, 3rd fraction etc.
o To increase the separation efficiency of the tall fractionating column, it is
usually packed with glass beads, short glass tubes or glass rings etc. which greatly
increase the surface area for evaporation and condensation.
o In the distillation of crude oil the different fractions are condensed out at different
5
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
points in a huge fractionating column. At the top are the very low boiling fuel gases like
butane and at the bottom are the high boiling big molecules of waxes and tar.
Paper Chromatography
This method of separation is used to see what coloured materials
make up eg a food dye analysis.
re
and 6), brown (3 and 6) and blue (4 and 6) match, showing these three are all in the food dye
(6).
It is possible to analyse colourless mixture if the components can be made coloured eg protein can be
tu
broken down into amino acids and coloured purple by a chemical reagent called ninhydrin and
many colourless organic molecules fluoresce when ultra-violet light is shone on them.
c
Le
FILTRATION EVAPORATION CRYSTALLISATION
Filtration use a filter paper or fine porous ceramic to
separate a solid from a liquid. It works because the
tiny dissolved particles are too small to be filtered BUT
any non-dissolved solid particles are too big to go
a
through!
Evaporation means a liquid changing to a gas or
eg
usually means what happens when the liquid from a solution has evaporated to a point beyond
the solubility limit. Then solid crystals will 'grow' out of the solution.
All three of these separation methods are involved in (1) separation of sand and salt mixtures
or (2) salt preparations eg from dissolving an insoluble base in an acid.
6
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
PHYSICAL CHANGES
These are changes which do not lead to new substances being
formed. Only the physical state of the material changes. The
substance retains exactly the same chemical composition. Examples
...
re
tu
CHEMICAL CHANGES - REACTIONS - reactants and products
c
Le
Heating iron and sulphur is classic chemistry experiment.
A mixture of silvery grey iron filings and yellow sulphur powder is made.
The iron can be plucked out with a magnet ie an easily achieved physical separation because
a
On heating the mixture, it eventually glows red on its own and a dark grey solid called iron
sulphide is formed. Both observations indicate a chemical change is happening ie a new
substance is being formed.
We no longer have iron or sulphur BUT a new compound with different physical properties
(eg colour) and chemical properties (unlike iron which forms hydrogen with acids, iron sulphide
M
7
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
re
Chemical Symbols and Formula
For any reaction, what you start with are called the reactants, and what you form are called the products.
o So any chemical equation shows in some way the overall chemical change of ...
tu
o REACTANTS ==> PRODUCTS, which can be written in words or symbols/formulae.
It is most important you read about formula in an earlier section of this page.
empirical formula and molecular formula are dealt with on another page.
c
In the equations outlined below several things have been deliberately simplified. This is to allow the 'starter' chemistry
student to concentrate on understanding formulae and balancing chemical equations. Some teachers may disagree with
Le
this approach BUT my simplifications are:
o the word 'molecule' is sometimes loosely used to mean a 'formula',
o the real 3D shape of the 'molecule' and the 'relative size' of the different element atoms is ignored
o if the compound is ionic, the ion structure and charge is ignored, its just treated as a formula
a
eg
A molecular formula gives the types and the count of atoms for each element in a compound. An example
M
of a molecular formula is ethane, C2H6. Here the formula indicates carbon and hydrogen are combined in
ethane. The subscripts tell us that there are 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms in a formula unit.
The structural formula shows the atoms in a formula unit and the bonds between atoms as lines. Single
bonds are one line, Double bonds are two lines. Triple bonds are three lines. The Lewis dot structure shows
8
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
Electron pairs that are shared are physically between the symbols for the
atoms. Electron pairs that are unshared are called lone pairs. Lone pairs are
not between atom symbols.
1a
re
A single symbol means an uncombined single atom of the element, or Fe 1 atom of iron, or S 1
atom of sulphur (2Fe would mean two atoms, 5S would mean five atoms etc.)
tu
or the formula FeS means one atom of iron is chemically combined with 1 atom of sulphur to form the
compound called iron sulphide
2a c
Le
or the formula NaOH means 1 atom of sodium is combined with 1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of
hydrogen to form the compound called sodium hydroxide
or the formula HCl means 1 atom of hydrogen is combined with 1 atom of chlorine to form 1 molecule of
the compound called hydrochloric acid
a
or the formula NaCl means 1 atom of sodium are combined with 1 atom chlorine to form the
eg
or the formula H2O means 2 atoms of hydrogen are chemically combined with 1 atom of oxygen to
form the compound called water.
M
3a
or the symbol Mg means 1 atom of the element called magnesium
or 2HCl means two separate molecules of the compound called hydrochloric acid
(see example 2)
or the formula MgCl2 means 1 formula of the compound called magnesium chloride, made of
one atom of magnesium and two atoms of chlorine.
or the formula H2 means 1 molecule of the element called hydrogen made up of two joined hydrogen
atoms
9
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
4a
or the formula CuCO3 means one formula of the compound called copper carbonate, made up
of one atom of copper is combined with one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen to form the compound
copper carbonate
or the formula H2SO4 means one formula of the compound called sulphuric acid, which is
made up of two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen
re
or the formula CuSO4 means one formula of the compound called copper sulphate which is
made up of one atom of copper, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen
H2O (example 2)
tu
or the formula CO2 means one molecule of the compound called carbon dioxide which is a
chemical combination of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
5a c
Le
or the formula CH4 means one molecule of the compound called methane which is made of one
atom of carbon combined with four atoms of hydrogen
or 2O2 means two separate molecules of the element called oxygen, and each oxygen
a
or 2H2O means two separate molecules of the compound called water (see
also example 2)
6a
M
or the formula Mg(OH)2 is the compound magnesium hydroxide made up of one magnesium, two
oxygen and two hydrogen atoms BUT the OH is a particular combination called hydroxide within a compound, so it
is best to think of this compound as a combination of an Mg and two OH's, hence the use of the ( ).
or 2HNO3 means two separate molecules of the compound nitric acid, each
molecule is made up of one hydrogen atom, one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms.
or 2H2O meaning two molecules of the compound water (see also examples
2 and 5)
7a
or the formula Al2O3 means one formula of the compound called aluminium oxide, made up
of two atoms of aluminium Al and three atoms of oxygen O
re
or the formula Al2(SO4)3 means one formula of the compound called
aluminium sulphate, it consists of two aluminium, three sulphur and twelve oxygen atoms BUT the SO 4 is a
tu
particular grouping called sulphate, so it is best to think of the compound as a combination of two Al's and three
SO4's
clarity in example 4, some names are split in two parts using two lines, one under the other, this 'style' helps
understanding when it comes to revision!
11
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
re
1c
tu
on average one atom of iron chemically combines with one atom of iron forming one molecule of iron
sulphide
c
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: 1 Fe + 1 S = (1 Fe + 1S)
two elements chemically combining to form a new compound
Le
2c
the reactants are one molecule of sodium hydroxide and one molecule of hydrochloric acid
a
the products are one molecule of sodium chloride and one molecule of water
all chemicals involved are compounds
eg
3c
M
4c
the reactants are one formula of copper carbonate and one molecule of sulphuric acid
the products are one formula of copper sulphate, one molecule of water and one molecule of carbon
dioxide
all molecules are compounds in this reaction
12
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (1 Cu + 1 C + 3 O's) + (2 H's + 1 S + 4 O's) = (1 Cu + 1 S + 4
O's) + (2 H's + 1 O) + (1 C + 2 O's)
5c
6c
re
one formula of magnesium hydroxide reacts with two molecules of nitric acid to form one formula of
tu
magnesium nitrate and two molecules of water (all compounds)
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (1 Mg + 2O's + 2 H's) + (1 H + 1 N + 3O's) + (1 H + 1 N +
3O's) = (1 Mg + 2 N's + 6 O's) + (2 H's + 1 O) + (2 H's + 1 O)
7c
c
Le
one formula of aluminium oxide reacts with three molecules of sulphuric acid
to form one formula of aluminium sulphate and three molecules of water
a
note the first use of numbers (3) for the sulphuric acid and water!
so picture three of them in your head, otherwise the picture gets a bit big!
eg
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (2 Al's + 3 O's) + 3 x (2 H's + 1 S + 4 O's) = (2 Al's + 3 S's + 12
O's) + 3 x (2 H's + 1 O)
2d
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
atom balancing, sum left = right: (1 Na + 1 O + 1 H) + (1 H +1 Cl) = (1 Na + 1 Cl) + (2 H's + 1 O)
13
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
re
NOTE 1: means a reversible reaction, it can be made to go the 'other way' if the conditions are
changed. Example:
o nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
tu
o N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
o balancing: 2 nitrogen's and 6 hydrogen's on both sides of equation
c
Note 2 on the state symbols X(?) of reactants or products in equations
Le
(g) means gas, (l) means liquid, (s) means solid
and (aq) means aqueous solution or dissolved in water
eg carbon dioxide gas CO2(g), liquid water H2O(l), solid sodium chloride 'salt' NaCl(s)
and copper sulphate solution CuSO4(aq)
a
(2nd draft) The valency of an atom or group of atoms is its numerical combining power with other atoms or groups
of atoms.
The theory behind this, is all about stable electron structures!
o The combining power or valency is related to the number of outer electrons.
o You need to consult the page on "Bonding" to get the electronic background.
M
A group of atoms, which is part of a formula, with a definite composition, is sometimes referred to as a radical.
In the case of ions, the charge on the ion is its valency or combining power (list below).
To work out a formula by combining 'A' with 'B' the rule is:
o number of 'A' x valency of 'A' = number of 'B' x valency of 'B',
However it is easier perhaps? to grasp with ionic compound formulae.
o In the electrically balanced stable formula, the total positive ionic charge must equal the total negative ionic
charge. Example:
o Aluminium oxide consists of aluminium ions Al3+ and oxide ions O2-
o number of Al3+ x charge on Al3+ = number of O2- x charge on O2-
o the simplest numbers are 2 of Al3+ x 3 = 3 of O2- x 2 (total 6+ balances total 6-)
o so the simplest whole number formula for aluminum oxide is Al 2O3
14
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123
For Live Classes, Recorded Lectures, Notes & Past Papers visit:
www.megalecture.com
Examples of ionic combining power of ions (left, valency = numerical
charge value)
Hydrogen H (1)
Chlorine Cl and other halogens (1)
Oxygen O and sulphur S (2)
Boron B and aluminium Al (3)
Nitrogen (3, 4, 5)
Carbon C and silicon Si (4)
Phosphorus (P 3,5)
re
'A' (valency) 'B' (valency) deduced formula
1 of carbon C (4) balances 4 of hydrogen H (1) 1 x 4 = 4 x 1 = CH4
1 of nitrogen (3) balances 3 of chlorine Cl (1) 1 x 3 = 3 x 1 = NCl3
tu
1 of carbon C (4) balances 2 of oxygen O (2) 1 x 4 = 2 x 2 = CO2
methane CH4
15
youtube.com/c/MegaLecture/
+92 336 7801123