ISSN 00978078, Water Resources, 2010, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 711–726. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2010.

Original Russian Text © A. P. Demin, 2010, published in Vodnye Resursy, 2010, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 617–632.

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT:

ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS

Water Management Complex of Russia:

Concept, State of the Art, and Problems
A. P. Demin
Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Gubkina 3, Moscow, 119333 Russia
Received June 29, 2009

Abstract—The structure of the water management complex of the Russian Federation is discussed. The main
features showing the degree of meeting the demands for water in different spheres of economic activities are
presented. The tendencies for variations in volumes of water use are revealed in housing facilities and public
utilities, manufacturing and extractive branches of industry, electric power engineering, and agriculture. The
article shows the present condition of fishery in inland water bodies, river craft and the infrastructure of inland
water and aquatic water transport, and recreation.

Keywords: water management complex, water use, water supply, wastewater, water quality.
DOI: 10.1134/S0097807810050118

the low efficiency of the State water management

The world economy restructuring, which is jeopar system as a result of frequent reorganizations of the
dized by the global water crisis, contributes to the for management structure, considerable reduction of
mation of extremely favorable conditions for countries financing of research and designing programs;
having sufficient water resources, because the growth poor technical condition of basic reserves of the
of demand and costs of waterconsuming production water management complex as a result of the invest
is inevitable. It is believed that water resources make ment activity decline, when reproduction of the fixed
up the main advantage of Russia in the socalled post capital on a simple scale cannot be ensured;
petroleum period; Russia ranks second in the world in imperfect legislation base, lack of the proper eco
its water resources [10]. In order to take this advan nomic mechanism of rational water use, adherence to
tage, radical updating and development of the water outdated standards of water consumption in branches
management complex of Russia are necessary. of the economy and in housing facilities and public
Currently, the main problems facing the water utilities.
management complex are the following: In the 1970s–1980s, there was a clear distinction
the unsatisfactory condition of domestic and between the notions of water management complex and
drinking water supply, which is caused by the low qual water management. By the water management com
ity of supplied water, the insufficient development of plex was meant a “group of enterprises of different
centralized water supply systems, and the poor state of branches of the national economy jointly using water
the existing water supply networks; resources of one water basin,” i.e., users of the water
management branch [1, 19]. A classification of water
wasteful water use at a high specific water con management complexes according to their territorial
sumption per unit of production and wasteful water subordination (interstate, state, zonal, basinwide, and
use to meet domestic and drinking water requirements part of basins), the types of structure, and the number
of urban population; of participants is given in [14].
poor water quality in water objects, which is caused By the term water management was meant a
by improper operation of water treatment facilities “branch of science and technology covering the
and considerable amount of pollutants entering the account, studies, use, and conservation of water
water objects with wastewater and surface runoff from resources as well as control of adverse effect of water,”
watersheds; or “a sphere of activities responsible for water
considerable material loss incurred by the adverse resources management with a view to meet the
effect of water as a result of poor technical condition of demands of population and national economy for
protection structures, insufficient maintenance and water, to ensure rational use of water resources and
preventive measures, spontaneous construction of their protection from pollution and depletion, to
buildings in floodhazardous areas, and unsatisfactory ensure operation of water management systems, as
quality of runoff prediction; well as to prevent and eliminate the adverse effect of

711
712 DEMIN

water” [1]. In this context, that was the branch of Federation are provided with 723 navigation hydraulic
economy aimed at meeting the demands of users for engineering structures, including 120 locks [4]. In the
water of proper quality [19, 37]. author’s opinion [35], the cost estimate of the fixed cap
Later on, these notions started linking up. Accord ital of the water management complex of Russia, which
ing to [26], the notion of water management complex is is equal to 2% of the total capital assets of all the types of
treated much wider: “the water management complex economic activities, is significantly underestimated.
of Russia is a combination of economic branches, nat Water consumption systems of the water manage
ural and manmade water objects represented by tens ment complex include water supply and water disposal
of thousands hydraulic engineering objects, water for population and branches of the national economy,
withdrawal and water discharge structures, liquid land reclamation and related hydraulic structures,
waste storage tanks with head hydraulic equipment. hydropower engineering, water transport, timber raft
The water management complex is based on the sys ing, fishery, public health, and aquatic recreation.
tems of flow regulation and territorial redistribution, Land reclamation and related hydraulic structures
sectoral water management systems, structures pro involve irrigation and drainage operations, the imple
tecting from adverse effect of water.” In its turn, the mentation of measures aimed at eliminating the
following definition is offered in [9]: “water manage adverse effect of water: flood control, water erosion
ment refers to infrastructural branches of economy; it control, mudflow control, landslide and bank erosion
ensures the fulfillment of some conditions necessary control, as well as land bogging and soil salinization
for production, work of other branches… This is the control [14, 38].
branch ‘output.’ As for the ‘input,’ the water manage The notion of water user established by the Water
ment refers to natureexploiting, resourceusing Code implies a natural or legal person, who is
branches, because all processes occurring in this entrusted with the right to use a water object. Water
branch are based on the use of water objects and the users may be arbitrarily divided into two groups: per
natural resource provided by them, i.e., water…” sons involved in irrevocable water consumption,
Thus, the water management complex can be rep which is connected with a specific technological pro
resented as a complex of branches and production cess; persons, who do not withdraw water from a water
facilities, which consists of water supply and water object but their activities need maintaining of definite
consumption systems. The water supply system water levels, discharges, and quality in a water object.
includes water reserves integrating all water objects Given below is conventional distribution of partici
and water management industry, including channel pants of the water management complex by groups
structures responsible for flow formation, regulation, (Table 1) [19].
and territorial redistribution, the recovery of water Water consumption includes not only water use by
resources as well as water intake structures and struc users but also evaporation and seepage water losses
tures meant for protection from adverse effect of water. from reservoirs and canals. From the standpoint of
The water consumption system includes structures water resource use and conservation, the production
meant for technological–biological and dailylife activity of water users is characterized by:
water use and its improvement as well as structures for
wastewater treatment and disposal. total water consumption, i.e., the sum of with
drawn fresh and recycled water; this volume of water
As follows from the Russian Register of Hydraulic
passes through technological shops of plants per unit
Engineering Structures, the water management com
time (year, day, hour);
plex of the Russian Federation includes more than
65000 hydraulic structures, the greater part of which is withdrawal of fresh water (or sea water), i.e., water
represented by water head structures of small and withdrawal from a water object;
mediumsized reservoirs and 37 large water manage withdrawal of recycled water, i.e., water withdrawal
ment systems, which are used for interbasin river flow from the recycling water system;
redistribution from waterabundant areas to water water disposal, i.e., water discharge into a water
deficient areas. The total length of water transfer object;
canals on the territory of Russia exceeds 3000 km, the
irrevocable water consumption, i.e., withdrawal of
volume of transferred flow approximates 17 km3. In
fresh water minus water disposal;
order to regulate the river flow in Russia there were
constructed more than 30000 reservoirs and ponds of the amounts of discharged pollutants, i.e., the
the total storage capacity exceeding 800 km3, includ amount of pollutant components controlled in dis
ing 2290 reservoirs each more than 1 million m3 in charged water minus the content of these substances in
storage capacity; among them 110 reservoirs are large, water withdrawn from a source;
the storage capacity of each exceeding 100 million m3. thermal pollution, i.e., the quantity of heat enter
Flood control dikes and funds more than 10000 km in ing a water object, which is determined by the flow rate
length were constructed to protect residential areas, of discharged water and by the temperature rise in dis
objects of the national economy, and agricultural land charged water as compared to the temperature of with
areas of the country. Inland waterways of the Russian drawn water.

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

 WATER MANAGEMENT COMPLEX OF RUSSIA 713

Table 1. Subdivision of participants of water management complex into water consumers and water users [19]

Water consumers Water users

Urban public utilities Hydropower engineering

Industry, Water transport
including thermal power engineering and nuclear power Timber rafting
engineering
Agriculture Fishery of inland water bodies
Water supply of rural residential areas and animal breed Aquatic recreation
ing farms
Land irrigation Aquatic and onshore ecosystems (environmental protection releases)
Water supply of pastures Public health (sanitary releases)
Moistening of drained lands Drained lands
Moisture retention Floodplain meadow culture
Pond fishery

Beginning in 2005, the elaboration of summary sta HOUSING FACILITIES AND PUBLIC
tistics of water use monitoring according to form UTILITIES
no. 2standart (water management) was started in the
context of the branch on the basis of the AllRussian Part of the housing facilities and public utilities,
which is related to water supply and disposal in popu
Classifier of Economic Activity Types, which substi lated areas, public utilities, and partially industrial
tuted the AllUnion Classifier of National Economy enterprises, refers to water supply and sewerage sys
Branches. The possibilities of correlation of summary tems. As of the end of 2007, 31% of all the populated
data, which are obtained on the basis of these classifi areas of Russia was provided with centralized water
ers, are limited; therefore, it makes the formation of supply systems and only 6% of these areas was pro
long statistical series in the sectoral context difficult. vided with centralized sewerage systems. The popu
The largest water users among the participants of lated areas provided with the systems mentioned above
the water management complex are branches related included 100 and 98% of towns, 96 and 81% of settle
to production and distribution of gas, electric power, ments, 30 and 5% of villages, respectively. The length
and water; in 2007, their share in water use was 66% of street water supply network in populated areas of
(Table 2) [4]. The share of water use by the following Russia is 331 700 km, including 145300 km in urban
branches is far below this value: agriculture, hunting, areas (44%). The capacity of water supply systems
reaches 89700000 m3/day, towns and villages con
and forestry (16%), manufacturing industry (10%), sume 73 million m3/day (81%) (Table 3).
fishery and fish farming (3%), and extraction of min
eral resources (2%). All other types of economic activ At present, the technical condition of water supply
ities account for 2–3%. Under the present conditions, and sewerage system is assessed as critical: the wear of
the largest water user is subdivided into two subtypes of main equipment varies from 50 to 70%, the degree of
economic activity: power engineering and gas supply wear annually increasing by 2–3%. In particular, the
(49.4% of total water use in Russia) and collection, wear of water supply networks exceeds 65%, the wear
treatment, and distribution of water (16.4%). The lat of sewerage networks is 62%, the wear of water supply
ter subtype of activity mainly characterizes the work of pumping stations is 65%, the wear of sewerage pump
public and large industrial water supply systems but it ing stations is 57%, the wear of water treatment struc
tures is 54%, and the wear of sewerage treatment struc
is noticeably exceeded in scale by the former branch of tures is 56%.
housing facilities and public utilities.
According to the data of the year 2005, 24.4% of
The important feature typical of participants of the housing facilities of Russia has no water pipelines and
water management complex is the difference in 28.5% of housing facilities has no centralized sewerage
requirements on the regime of a water source in time. lines. The number of new water supply systems put
Under the condition of insufficient water resources, into operation in recent years is very low and in com
limitations of the design water supply probability come parison with 1990, it has decreased five times. The
into force. share of water supply from groundwater sources (most

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

 Table 2. Main characteristics of water supply for sectors of economic activities in the Russian Federation, million m3 [4] (dash means no data available)
714

Water withdrawal Fresh water use

from natural sources Water used in
including for needs of
Transportation recycling and reuse
Type of production Year
including from total water losses (sequential) systems
total for all domestic and of water supply
groundwater production irrigation
needs drinking
sources
Total for Russia 2004 79361 – 63337 36344 12785 7673 8092 135014
2005 79472 – 61335 36544 12301 7735 7963 135463
2006 79273 – 62153 37349 11995 8158 8044 142597
2007 79985 – 62506 38015 11627 8369 7897 144386
Production and distribu 2005 41437 – 39048 29051 92701 20 2345 65144
tion of electric power, gas, 2006 43027 5219 40468 30380 9338 24 2472 80151
and water
2007 43287 5294 41114 31208 9166 27 2312 81636
Agriculture, hunting, and 2005 18525 – 9560 175 571.4 7510 4766 605
forestry 2006 18715 1030 9695 163 443.3 7888 4893 664
2007 18875 837 9759 168 390 8107 4869 573
Manufacturing industry 2005 6475 – 6038 5120 750 27 127 48340
2006 6316 883 6248 5421 683 19 105 50083
DEMIN

2007 6613 868 6118 5303 651 15 97 50151

Extraction of mineral re 2005 3078 – 1842 1147 115 0 21 11629
sources 2006 2569 1883 1406 675 113 1 21 10030
2007 2659 2007 1387 698 93 1 19 10348
Fishery and fish farming 2005 2709 – 2028 140 3 20 142 136
2006 2651 60 2013 154 3 49 150 145
2007 2619 67 1856 83 2 7 173 147
Civil engineering 2005 2227 – 45 20 20 3 260 91

WATER RESOURCES
2006 2195 140 41 15 21 3 174 10
2007 2287 149 43 16 21 3 205 16

Vol. 37
Transport and communi 2005 1979 – 311 144 152 0 19 278
cation 2006 1424 194 292 139 140 0 20 217
2007 1310 151 280 138 129 0 9 198

No. 5
Other public, social, and 2005 1388 – 610 127 456 5 126 49
personal services 2006 1260 179 584 123 441 5 131 38

2010
2007 1224 212 575 127 426 6 123 33
 WATER MANAGEMENT COMPLEX OF RUSSIA 715

Table 3. Water supply residential areas of Russia during 1995–2007 [23]

Indices 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Individual length of street water pipeline network,
thou. km
including 305.8 324.1 334.4 335.3 332.8 334.3 331.7
in rural area 128.5 139.7 144.3 147.2 145.5 148.4 145.3
in rural area 177.3 184.4 190.1 188.1 187.3 185.9 186.4
Water pipeline capacity, million m3/day, including
including 90.3 89.0 88.3 87.9 88.9 88.9 89.7
in rural area 71.8 70.6 71.3 71.4 72.4 72.7 73.1
in rural area 18.5 18.4 17.0 16.5 16.5 16.2 16.6
Water passing through treatment facilities in total 52 55 58 59 59 59 59
volume of delivered water, %
including
in rural area 60 65 63 63 63 62 62
in rural area 12 17 14 14 23 21 20
Mean daily water amount delivered to one dweller, l 303 247 224 212 200 184 179
including
in rural area 332 288 268 257 244 225 218
in rural area 202 131 100 88 81 73 72

protected from pollution) is less than 40% of the total water objects (water bodies of category 1), which were
amount of water supplied to water mains, which is used as sources of drinking and domestic water supply
much lower than in the majority of European coun to population, did not meet public health require
tries. The worst situation among the Federal regions is ments as to sanitary chemical indices, and more than
observed in the Siberian region, where more than 30% 21% of samples did not meet these requirements as to
of housing facilities is not provided with water pipe microbiological indices.
lines and more than 36% of housing facilities has no
sewerage lines.
INDUSTRY
Water withdrawal from surface water sources is not
provided with the necessary complex of treatment Due to its specific consumer property, water is
facilities, which ensure complete disinfection and widely used in production processes of industry. Man
decontamination. About 60% of the total number of ufacturing industrial enterprises use water to meet dif
water withdrawal structures within centralized systems ferent needs but mainly for the following purposes:
of water supply is provided with primary treatment and from 70 to 90% of water is used as a cooling agent
water conditioning equipment. The mean value of meant to cool production in heat exchange appara
water losses in water supply networks of Russia tuses or to protect individual elements of machinery
exceeds 19% of the water volume delivered into the and devices from overheating; from 10 to 20% of water
networks. The specific domestic water consumption in is lost as a result of evaporation or enters into the com
countries of Western Europe approximating 150 l/day position of finished products; from 5 to 13% of water is
per capita, while in Russia it exceeds 200–500 l/day used for removing admixtures (steel passivation, tex
per capita. However, Finnish specialists have revealed tile cleaning, foodstuff cleaning, etc.) from products
that urban population of Russia does not consume as or raw materials; this water is also used as transporting
much water as this amount and the main portion of medium for transportation of moist pulp in suspension
water consumption results from water leakage, for in pulp and paper industry, hydraulic mining of coal
example, from tanks of water closet pans [17].Consid and ore mineral resources.
erable water losses are caused by failures. In 2006, 29 Over the last years, the output of manufacturing
failures a year occurred in water main sections 100 km branches of industry in Russia significantly increased
long, which 2–3 times exceeded the values in Euro (by 8–9%) but the volumes of water use changed insig
pean countries. nificantly. In 2006, the volume of freshwater use
The environmental condition of water bodies in increased (by 3.5%), the volume of water used in water
Russia is unsatisfactory. In 2007, more than 28% of recycling systems also increased (by 3.6%). In 2007,
samples taken to assess the sanitary conditions of the volume of freshwater use decreased to some extent

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

716 DEMIN

but the volume of recycled water use slightly increased. charged onto land surface or filtration beds and into
Water saving due to the systems of water recycling and impounding basins and underground horizons.
reuse in manufacturing branches of industry is 90.2–
90.4%. Over the period of two last years, the discharge
of polluted wastewater into water sources decreased by THERMAL POWER ENGINEERING
13% and the amount of wastewater treated according Electric power engineering is one of the main
to standards decreased by 17%. The largest water con branches of the country’s national economy. The basic
sumers in manufacturing branches of industry are the product of this branch is electric power; to generate it,
following: pulp and paper production, publishing and two types of power plants are used: thermal power
printing activity; production of coke, petroleum prod plants (condensation power plants, heat and electric
ucts, and nuclear materials; chemical industry; metal power plants, nuclear power plants) and hydraulic
lurgical industry. These four types of economic activi power plants (hydropower plants and hydraulic accu
ties (out of 13 types of manufacturing industry) mulation power plants). Electric power engineering
account for 69% of the volume of used water and for ranks first in the volumes of water withdrawal from
81% of the amount of discharged polluted water. natural water sources and its use. In 2007, the volume
The methods used in the extraction of mineral of water used by this branch exceeded 49% of the total
resources can be conventionally subdivided into two volume of water use for economic activities. Power
groups: methods of mining of coal and ore mineral plants have an adverse effect on water resources, it is
resources and methods of petroleum and gas produc caused by the following three processes: water with
tion. The most widespread method of mining of coal drawal for production and other needs; wastewater
and ore mineral resources is hydraulic mining, which discharge into surface water objects; pollution of sur
stipulates the attack of orebearing rocks by a water jet face water objects.
at high pressure. Orebearing rocks get crushed and There are three types of thermal power plants: con
mixed with water; the pulp thus formed is pumped out densation power plants, in which waste steam after
by special pumping stations and then filtrated. As for passing through a turbine is cooled, condensed and
the methods of petroleum and gas production, water is then it again enters a boiler; heat and electric power
pumped into the petroleumgasbearing stratum plants, in which waste power is used for heating;
through special boreholes in order to raise the pressure nuclear power plants which operate on the same prin
of petroleum and gas and to increase the yield of ciple as condensation power plants but differ in the
petroleum or gas well. As a rule, this method is used in types of fuel used (nuclear fuel instead of organic fuel).
case of secondary and succeeding petroleum and gas Water use is an important factor in operation of all
production in oil fields. thermal power plants. Water is used at the thermal
power plants for the following purposes: generation of
In 2005–2007, the index of product output of the steam in boilers, steam generators, boiling water
branch “Extraction of mineral resources” increased nuclear reactors, evaporators, and steam converters;
insignificantly (by 1.5–2.5%), while the main indices condensation of waste stream from turbines; cooling
of water use showed a considerable decrease. The total of different equipment and devices of thermal power
volume of fresh water used in 2007 decreased by 25% plants and nuclear power plants; production of heating
in comparison with the year 2005, the volume of water water. The major portion of water is used for cooling
used in the systems of water recycling and sequential turbine condensers. Two types of water supply are used
water reuse decreased by 11%, the index of freshwater at thermal power plants: oncethrough systems and
saving increased from 91.0 to 93.7%. The volume of sequential water reuse and recycling systems. In 2006,
wastewater and collecting drainage water discharges the designing of oncethrough water supply systems
decreased by 379 million m3 (20%) mainly due to the was prohibited by the Water Code of the Russian Fed
decrease of discharges of water treated to standard eration (Clause 60).
quality. Over the period of two years, the volume of
Wastewater can be discharged directly into natural
polluted water increased by 5.4%, while the volume of
sources or into manmade cooling basins, water cool
water of water treated to standard quality remained as
ing towers. The greater part of the volume of wastewa
before.
ter from power plants is represented with cooling
The main method of water treatment at enterprises water, which refers to the category of “standardqual
is still mechanical method, which does not provide the ity water”. The temperature of wastewater from ther
required water quality in conformity with the estab mal power plants is higher than in water objects. Warm
lished standards of maximum permissible discharges. water cannot be discharged directly into natural water
The low degree of detection and treatment of harmful sources, otherwise the socalled “thermal pollution of
substances, which is associated with extraction of water sources” is inevitable; it results in the growth of
mineral resources (36% against 75% in Russia, on the algae, a decrease in oxygen content of water, and death
average) depends on the fact that waste discharge of organisms inhabiting water bodies. Moreover, in the
sources of mining enterprises are generally disorga course of operation of thermal power plants, the fol
nized. Part of wastewater of these enterprises is dis lowing admixtures enter the water: chemicals, which

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

 WATER MANAGEMENT COMPLEX OF RUSSIA 717

are used in treatment facilities, as well as petroleum and conservation of water resources. Chains of hydro
products, oils, components of ash, slag, and the like. power plants were constructed in the rivers of Volga,
After overcoming the crisis in this branch, power Kama, Yenisei, Angara, Kuban, Sulak, Neva, Kem,
generation grows from year to year. Over the period of Svir; and in other rivers. None of the chains of hydro
2005–2007, the most intense power generation was power plants was constructed to meet only electric
recorded at thermal power plants (11.0%), at nuclear power needs. As a rule, large hydropower projects cre
power plants (10.3%), and only 0.6% of total electric ated the basis for industrial development of areas in
power was generated by hydropower plants. In 2007, question and, in some cases, large regions of the coun
water withdrawal to meet the needs of the electric try.
power engineering was more than 30 km3 (the share of One of serious obstacles in the further development
gas is insignificant) and exceeded the value in the year of hydropower plant construction is the adverse effect
2005 by 5.6%, the volume of water used increased by of hydropower plants on the environment (inundation
6.8%. The growth of water use from the systems of of lands, climatic changes, damage to fishery and
water recycling and sequential water reuse resulted in tourism, a possible increase in seismic activity, etc.).
the growth of freshwater saving from 70.2 to 73.3%. As a result of reservoir construction in Russia, 4.6 mil
Unfortunately, a noticeable increase in the adverse lion ha of lands were inundated, including 1.7 million
effect on water objects is observed. The discharge of ha of agricultural lands and 2.2 million ha of land areas
polluted wastewater increased by 9.4%, while the dis under forests. Considerable expenditures are related to
charge of wastewater treated according to standards people resettlement and relocation of enterprises. The
decreased by 27.5%. total number of population resettled from inundation
zones amounted 840000, including 600000 persons
resettled from welldeveloped areas along the Volga
HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING and Kama rivers [2].
Russia is known for its great hydropower potential; At present, the total installed capacity of hydro
it ranks second in the world after China in this respect. power plants of Russia exceeds 46 million kW, their
The economic hydropower potential of the country annual power generation being 175–179 billion kWh.
exceeds 850 billion KWh. However, only 20% of this Currently, 102 hydropower plants more than 100 MW
potential is used, while the degree of development of in capacity are in operation on the territory of Russia.
this potential exceeds 90% in France and Switzerland, In addition to hydropower plants, hydraulic power
70% in Canada and Norway, and 50% in the United engineering structures include hydraulic accumula
States and Brazil. As to the installed capacity of hydro tion power plants. The main purpose of these plants is
power plants and power generation by these plants, the redistribution of electric power that is generated by
Russia ranks fifth in the world [28]. However, the share lowmaneuver nuclear power plants and largeblock
of power generated by hydropower plants does not thermal power plants within a day, the accumulation of
exceed 18% of the total electric power generated in electric power during night “gap” in power consump
Russia, while hydropower plants of 65 countries of the tion schedules, and power supply for the power system
world generate more than 50% of the consumed elec during hours of “peak” loads. With this aim in view,
tric power, including 24 countries, where this value hydraulic accumulation power plants are equipped
exceeds 90% [32]. The poor development of the with reversible hydroelectric units, which can work as
hydropower potential in Russia results from the fact turbines or as pumps. In case of hydropower plants, an
that power consumers are well off the main sources of increase in power capacity often results in inadmissi
hydropower, 90% of which is concentrated in rivers of ble expansion of inundated areas, whereas the areas
Siberia and Far East. The basins of the following four inundated for hydraulic accumulation power plants
rivers account for about 80% of electric power poten are small and the power capacity increase can be
tial: the rivers of Yenisei (288 billion kWh), Lena achieved due to pressure rise under favorable topo
(235 billion kWh), Ob (94 billion kWh), and Volga graphic conditions.
(56 billion kWh). The degree of development of the Currently, there are more than 300 hydraulic accu
economic hydropower potential differs essentially mulation power plants in the world, their total capac
from region to region of the country: from 2% in West ity approximating 100 million kW. The Kuban hydrau
ern Siberia to 74% in the Volga economic regions. The lic accumulation power plant 16 MW in capacity and
idea of multipurpose water resource use usually the Zagorsk hydraulic accumulation power plant
needed the development of the hydropower potential 1200 MW in capacity are operating in Russia. The
of large and medium rivers through the construction of operation of the Zagorsk hydraulic accumulation
chains of hydropower plants. The construction of power plant revealed its high efficiency and, therefore,
chains of hydropower waterworks permitted gradual the construction of the Zagorsk2 hydraulic accumu
and planbased development of river water resources lation power plant 840 MW in capacity was initiated in
with regard to the increasing need of these rivers in 2007.
flow regulation. The priority of construction was The possibilities of efficient use of operating hydro
defined on the basis of schemes of multipurpose use power plants in the near future are limited by the wear

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

718 DEMIN

of equipment, which was in operation for more than expenditures for maintaining irrigation and drainage
40 years and even more than 50 years at some hydro systems in operation were accompanied by the
power plants. At present, 420 hydraulic turbogenera destruction of the irrigation potential and conversion
tor units are in operation at 80 largest hydropower of irrigated lands into the category of rainfed lands.
plants of Russia; out of the mentioned number of The land area under regular irrigation steadily
units, 170 units of the total capacity of about 12 mil decreased and by the year 2007 it approximated
lion kW reached their 40year limit of operation 4.3 million ha.
(including 70 units of the total capacity more than The degree of wear of basic equipment in land rec
2 million kW are in operation for more than 50 years) lamation systems and hydraulic engineering structures
and need replacement. By the year 2015, more than reaches 60%. More than half of irrigation systems
70% of the available equipment of hydropower plants (2.34 million ha) and a quarter of drainage systems
will overcome the limits of its service life [2]. In addi (1.2 million ha) need reconstruction and updating.
tion to this, the condition of many dams is unsatisfac The greater part of main and distribution irrigation
tory, because they have been working for more than 30 systems is constructed in earth channels, where seep
years without repair and reconstruction. It is planned age water losses reach 40% of the volume of water
to construct 46 hydropower plants by the year 2030. It withdrawn. Only 30% of the canal length has seepage
is anticipated that the growth of electric power gener proof lining. Nearly 0.5 million ha (11%) of the total
ation at hydropower plants will mainly occur in Siberia area of irrigable land areas are not used in agricultural
and Far East. production cycle mainly because of their salinization
and bogging. In 2007, 0.67 million ha (14%) of drained
land areas were not used owing to failures in the drainage
AGRICULTURE system covering the area of 0.31 million ha.
Agriculture is one of the main water consumers The area of actually irrigated lands decreased more
among other branches of the economy with respect to rapidly than the area of available irrigable lands. Dur
general water withdrawal (16% of the total water use in ing the 1970s–1980s, a considerable part of lands not
2007) and, particularly, irrevocable water withdrawal. included into the category of irrigated lands (the so
During the 1980s, the amount of fresh water used by called lands of initiative irrigation) was irrigated; in the
the agriculture of Russia was more or less stable (25– 1990s, there was no means for irrigation of land areas
29 km3) in spite of the noticeable growth of product having stationary irrigation systems. The area of actu
output [11]. With the advent of market relations in the ally irrigated lands in Russia generally decreased from
economy of Russia, the volume of fresh water use 5 million ha at the end of the 1980s to 2.5 million ha in
steadily decreased from 13.6 km3 in 2000 to 11.6 km3 2005–2007. This is caused by troubles in onfarm irri
in 2007 (with regard to pond fish farming, which for gation systems, failures of irrigation equipment and
merly referred to agriculture). impossibility of its substitution, degradation of the
One of the main methods of yield increase in agri repair and maintenance base. In the mid1980s, 20–
cultural land areas is land reclamation. One sixth part 21 km3 of water was used for regular and basin irriga
of the world land areas is reclaimed and 40–50% of all tion; in 2007, this value dropped to 8.4 km3 (Table 4).
agricultural products is obtained from these lands. As This resulted from a dramatic decrease in irrigated
of January 1, 2008, the area of reclaimed lands in Rus areas and reduction of specific water consumption.
sia amounted 9.1 million ha (including 4.3 million ha Agricultural water supply systems are aimed at
of irrigated lands and 4 million ha of drained lands), or meeting drinking water needs of population, domestic
less than 6% of lands of agricultural organizations and animals, and workers of manufacturing and services
peasant farms. In the 1980s, the land reclamation sec sectors of the agroindustrial complex of the country.
tor produced more than 30% of agricultural products; From 1980 to 1990, the volume of water used for these
at present, this value is as low as 15% [21]. needs increased more than twice. In the years that fol
About 80% of agricultural lands of the country is lowed, this value considerably decreased in connec
located in the area of risky farming, which is charac tion with a dramatic reduction of livestock in the social
terized by insufficient and unsteady moistening, fre sector. In addition to this, public services area
quent droughts and dry winds resulting in a dramatic intensely developing in rural areas in recent years; as a
decrease of the yielding capacity and the total yield of consequence, conventional redistribution of water
agricultural products. Under these conditions, the used by rural population from the category of “rural
increase in productivity and sustainable development water supply” into the category of “domestic and
of agriculture are impossible without comprehensive drinking needs” occurred. Thus, the volume of water
land reclamation measures and the development of used for domestic and drinking needs in the branch
adaptive landscape systems of irrigation farming. Over “agriculture” increased in Russia generally from 80–
the period from 1970 to 1990, the area of irrigated 90 million m3 in the mid1990s to 400 –600 million m3
lands in all categories of farming increased from 2 to in 2005–2007.
6.2 million ha. In the 1990s, the drastic decrease of Agricultural water supply is mainly based on
financing of this branch and a sharp reduction of groundwater sources, their share in the total volume of

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 WATER MANAGEMENT COMPLEX OF RUSSIA 719

Table 4. Water used for irrigation and agricultural water supply, million m3 [4, 11]
Federal region 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007
Irrigation
Central 292 750 368 146 84 39.9 24.9 25.2
Northwestern 1.2 11.2 10.4 4.3 3.6 1.8 0.9 0.9
Southern 14623 14664 12790 9091 8303 7258 7691 7810
Region adjoining the Volga R. 2290 2992 1569 1188 356 194 182 260
Urals 179 301 217 53.8 19.8 9.3 6.4 6.3
Siberian 775 928 948 477 337 209 209 216
Far Eastern 368 685 492 182 78 23.3 44.4 50.3
Russian Federation 18528 20331 16394 11141 9181 7735 8158 8369
Agricultural water supply
Central 397 689 854 778 337 168 131 122
Northwestern 150 193 208 143 48.5 22.2 20.0 19.2
Southern 850 1234 1248 1014 373 234 200 184
Region adjoining the Volga R. 177 826 876 861 283 130 111 97
Urals 132 221 211 149 51 35.2 35.7 32.9
Siberian 222 531 624 510 247 114 108 101
Far Eastern 36 111 105 61.3 38.9 38.1 40.1 39.7
Russian Federation 1964 3805 4126 3517 1378 743 646 596

water use approximating 85%. In 2007, 30% of rural water supply systems; inventory of group water supply
settlements had centralized water supply, the area of systems owned by the Federation was drawn up.
rural dwellings with piped water reached 43%. The Polluted wastewater result from operation of public
majority of rural population takes drinking water from utilities, animal husbandry and agricultural produc
wells, individual boreholes, and springs [15]. The con tion facilities. At present, only 5% of rural settlements
dition of most of local water supply systems is far from has sewerage systems. Only 60–70% of wastewater of
satisfactory: 55% of them needs technological updat rural areas is treated at wastewater treatment structures
ing, more than 30% needs reconstruction. Group [23]. The bulk of wastewater is discharged onto filtra
water supply systems were constructed in water defi tion beds thus causing groundwater level rise and soil
cient regions, where water was mainly withdrawn from pollution. Wastewater of animal husbandry facilities,
surface water sources and then supplied over large dis which in fact do not undergo any treatment, cause
tances. At present, the wear of group water supply sys great damage to the natural water quality and environ
tems reaches 70% [27]. In 2007, the length of rural ment. The main part of return water of agroindustrial
water pipelines was 187000 km, or 4.9 m per one complexes is represented with drainage collector
dweller (as follows from the modern practice, it should waters from irrigated lands (3.2–3.5 km3/year), which
be 12–15 m). Some regions have no groundwater suit are referred to the category of waters treated to stan
able for drinking, and the population of these regions dard quality. In fact, the bulk of these waters is polluted
is supplied with drinking water imported from other with toxic chemicals, nitrogenous and phosphorus
regions. compounds, and mineral substances. At present, these
Local water pipelines are used by agricultural waters do not undergo any treatment.
enterprises, which are unable to maintain these sys A Federal goaloriented program was developed to
tems in satisfactory sanitary state. The operation of improve soil fertility and to ensure the comprehensive
group water supply systems is carried on at higher solution of problems related to rational use and regen
technological level, because they are maintained by eration of water resources [36]. The program stipu
specialized water management organizations. After lated the implementation of the following measures:
the year 1990, the volumes of work in construction and the conservation and restoration of water resources,
reconstruction of water supply systems and water the construction and reconstruction of land reclama
boreholes decreased 15–20 times. Only beginning in tion and water management projects, the provision of
1999, the construction of group water supply systems troublefree flood passing through hydraulic struc
significantly increased; modernization of equipment tures, and agricultural afforestation in agricultural
for natural water treatment was carried out in some land areas.

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720 DEMIN

Human activities related to water resources man 22.5 million ha under lakes, 4.3 million ha under res
agement under dry farming conditions sometimes lead ervoirs, about 1 million ha under agricultural water
to a considerable decrease in river water runoff; there bodies of multipurpose use, 142900 ha under ponds,
fore, dry farming is included into the group of water and 523000 km of river length are owned by the Fed
consumers. Intense agricultural practices, the organi eration. The main resources of inland water bodies are
zation of field protective forest strips, special agro concentrated in the Siberian, Ural, Northwestern, and
technical method meant to detain moisture in soil Far Eastern Federal regions. At the same time, no
(deep fall plowing, high stubble left after harvesting, more than 5–6% of these water bodies is now used for
snow detention, and contour plowing) result in an aquaculture development.
increase in soil moisture, moisture capacity, and crop The rivers of fishery importance include rivers
yields and, hence, in a decrease in surface flow dis meant for fishing and rivers meant for reproduction of
charge into water receivers. According to the assess fish resources. The lower reaches of the rivers of Volga
ments of N.I. Koronkevich, under the impact of agro and Don, the rivers of Siberia (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and
technical methods and agricultural afforestation “the Yana), East and Northwestern part of Russia, the river
river water runoff decrease in the entire Russian Plain basins of Northern Dvina and Pechora are most
was less than 5 km3/year, including the Volga River important for fishing and reproduction of fish
water runoff decrease equaling 2 km3/year” [16]. resources. The total length of rivers used for fishing is
about 200000 km [32]. Fishery areas of many reser
voirs offer some advantages due to their location in the
FISHERY vicinity of populated settlements having developed
Fishery in the Russian Federation is a complex infrastructure and agriculture. The share of large res
economic sector, which covers a wide spectrum of ervoirs in the recorded water bodies of fishery impor
activities from the prediction of the source of raw tance is 3.2 million ha, or 75% of the total area of all
materials to the organization of fish product trade. these water bodies.
From the early 1990s, the fishery complex of the coun During 2006–2007, a noticeable decrease in fish
try faced a crisis situation. From 1990 to 2007, the yield occurred in the Ob–Irtysh river basin and in
yield of aquatic biological resources in Russia decreased Lake Baikal. Of all the reservoirs, the most fish yield
more than twice (from 7.88 to 3.42 million t) [29]. Over ing is the Tsimlyansk Reservoir, where the fish yield
the last 20 years, the share of inland water bodies exceeds the total fish yield of the rest four largest res
accounted for 7–8% in the total yield of aquatic bio ervoirs (Table 5).
logical resources. From 2000 to 2007, fish catch in A considerable damage to the fishery is caused by
inland water bodies decreased from 292000 to 250000 t, uncontrolled fishing and poaching. The most severe
i.e., by 14%. damage was caused by poaching to the sturgeon popu
Inland seas are water bodies of the greatest fishery lation of the basins of the Sea of Azov, the Black and
importance. The fish productivity of these water bod Caspian seas. During the economic crisis, poaching all
ies is closely related to river water flow, whose value over the water area of sturgeon habitat (except Iran)
and distribution within a year have a perceptible effect became the governing factor in the sturgeon popula
on the hydrological regime in river spawning pools, the tion decline; it happened in Russia and in contiguous
area of desalinized zones of seas, biogenic runoff, and states of Ukraine, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan,
food supply. The most valuable fishery water body is and Turkmenistan. According to [18], “the scope of
the Caspian Sea. The considerable reserves of stur illegal sturgeon fishing exceeds many times the actual
geon, the yield of which accounts for about 90% of the fish catch; the experts’ appraisal reveals that fish catch
world yields of this fish, made the water body unique. by poachers exceeds the legal fish catch nearly
However, the yields of sturgeon in Russia only 10 times.”
decreased from 18000–20000 t in the early 1980s to The pond reserves, which include feeding and
470 t in 2000. From 2005, the commercial yield of nursery areas, constitute material and technological
sturgeon has been completely terminated. At present, basis for pond fish culture. The main part of the pond
the catch of this valuable fish for reproduction and reserves is located in the Southern Federal Region,
research purposes does not exceed 100 t. The main which is climatically most favorable for pond fish cul
reasons that have caused the dramatic decrease in fish ture. Over the period of 1990–1995, more than 4 km3
yield are the following: the disregard of applications of of water were used to meet the needs of pond fishery;
fishery agencies for the volume and regime of water after the year 2000, the volume of water use for these
releases from the Volgograd Reservoir; the loss of needs dropped to 1.8–2.0 km3, including 1.4 km3 in
spawning areas in the Volga–Akhtuba floodplain; the Southern Region [11].
overgrowing and silting of fishpass canals, which are Under the condition of adverse effect of different
not regularly cleaned; poor food supply; large amount economic activities on the environment, the artificial
of pollutants carried by the Volga River into the sea. reproduction is an effective and often the main source
Russia ranks first in the world in the number of of replenishment of aquatic bioresources. The work on
water bodies of fishery importance. The total of artificial reproduction of fish resources is carried out

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 WATER MANAGEMENT COMPLEX OF RUSSIA 721

Table 5. Fish yields in largest freshwater bodies of Russia during 1995–2007, thou. t [5–7]
Water body 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
ObIrtysh basin 15.0 16.4 16.2 16.1 20.6 16.8 19.2 14.0 14.1
Yenisei R. basin 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.57 1.15 1.45 1.35
Lakes
Ladoga 3.1 2.9 3.0 3.4 3.0 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.9
Onega 1.0 0.7 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.88 2.1 2.2 2.3
ChudskoyePskov 2.7 3.9 2.7 5.6 4.8 3.6 4.0 4.5 4.3
Il’men’ 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.38 1.5 1.56
Baikal 3.2 2.6 2.8 2.8 3.2 2.5 2.5 2.0 1.95
Reservoirs
Rybinsk 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.0 1.3 1.04 1 1.1
Kuibyshev 3.2 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.0 1.94 2.11 2.62 2.7
Saratov 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.67 0.6 0.69 0.7
Volgograd 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.69 1.72 2.17 2.05
Tsimlyansk 7.4 7.4 8.8 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.9 6.85 6.9

by 72 fish hash hatcheries under the jurisdiction of the dimensions) of waterways meet the minimum require
Federal Fishery Agency; these hatcheries are respon ments. Inland waterways of the Russian Federation
sible for raising the fry of valuable fish species. The offer transport service to 26 autonomous republics,
number of fry introduced into natural water bodies territories, nationality districts, and 42 regions of the
and reservoirs of the Russian Federation increased Russian Federation; in addition to this, they ensure
from 5 216 million in 1996 to 6 646 million in 2000 and foreign trade transportation. The present waterway
to 7 654 million in 2007 [7, 29]. condition is characterized by the low share of water
ways with guaranteed dimensions.
In 1995, the length of inland waterways totaled
WATER TRANSPORT AND TIMBER RAFTING 83700 km and the share of waterways with guaranteed
The inland water transport includes the river craft dimensions was 41%. By the end of 2007, the length of
and the infrastructure necessary for its maintenance. inland waterways reached 101600 km (increase by
As to the water use, the water transport places mini 21%); however, the share of waterways with guaran
mum demands on the quality of water resources. teed dimensions increased insignificantly, i.e., up to
However, the water transport is one of the sources of 43%. The length of waterways provided with naviga
water pollution, primarily, with petroleum products tion marks decreases from year to year (by 17% over
and suspended matter. Moreover, the water transport the period of 12 years). About 100000 floating and
operation is related to the use of appropriate hydraulic coastal marks indicating the navigation conditions are
structures, which also have an adverse effect on water used in inland waterways along with 723 navigation
resources. hydraulic structures, of which locks account for 17%,
The river craft is used for freight traffic and passen canals for 18%, dikes for 16%, dams for 13%, all other
ger transportation by inland waterways. Its main structures account for 36%.
advantage is the possibility of freight delivery and pas
senger transportation into areas not easily accessible.
Table 6. Characteristics of river craft operation in Russia dur
The river craft technical condition depends on the age ing 1995–2007 [22]
and wear of river ships. The infrastructure of inland
water transport includes the following main elements: Characteristics 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007
river and lake ports and piers; locks to pass ships
between water basins and through hydraulic engineer Number of passengers trans 26.8 27.7 20.7 19.6 21.5
ing structures; interbasin channels and canals; coastal ported, millions
and floating marks; pumping stations to maintain Passenger capacity, billion 1.1 0.95 0.88 0.90 0.96
water supply to waterways [13]. passengerkm
The possibility of traffic of main types of river and Freight transported, million 144.9 116.8 134.2 139.2 153.4
marine ships is governed by the depth and width of ton
waterways. The operation of the inland water transport Freight turnover, billion ton 90.9 71.0 87.2 86.7 86.0
will be steady, provided the depth and width (navigable km

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722 DEMIN

In spite of the increase in the length of inland in the content of dissolved oxygen, in a change in the
waterways with guaranteed navigable dimensions, the color index, and in intensification of oxidizability.
freight turnover of the river craft of Russia decreased in The transformation of rivers into chains of reser
2007 as compared to 2005 (Table 6). Nevertheless, the voirs and river flow regulation contributed to deepen
density of freight traffic gradually increased over the ing and widening of the ship fairway; this permits tow
last decade and in 2007 it exceeded the value of 2000 ing of rafts with deeper draught by highcapacity ships;
by 31%. After 2000, the density of passenger transpor it also makes timber transportation in ships more eco
tation steadily decreased; however, a certain growth nomical [3]. In recent years, an increase in the output
became evident in 2007. From 2000, a growth in tour of products of wood processing plants resulted in
ist activity in the field of water transport is observed. regeneration and development of timber rafting.
The inland water transport is particularly impor
tant in case of freight traffic into the Far North regions
and related areas, where inland waterways are the only RECREATIONAL USE OF WATER RESOURCES
transport communication. In recent years, fluid Recreation is closely related to the recovery of
freight (petroleum and petroleum products) amounts health and ability to work through outdoor rest along
to 7–16% and dry freight amounts to 84–93% within with nature or during tourist trips, including places of
the structure of freight traffic by inland water transport sightseeing, national parks, and natural monuments.
of common use in Russia. Construction materials Water objects are favorite places for recreation, sports,
(58–68%), timber (6–7%), ferrous metals (2–3%), and improvement of health. In recent years, the scope
and bituminous coal (2–3%) dominate among dry of recreation activities at water objects steadily
freight. increases due to the growth of urban population num
A steady decrease in the number of river and lake ber and improvement of transport communications.
ships of the river craft was recorded during the eco About 60% of all the sanatoriums, more than 80% of
nomic crisis. Over the period from 1995 to 2000, more holiday homes, 60% of tourist centers, and 90% of
than 5500 ships were written off as being obsolete. In suburban recreation facilities most popular in the
the 2000s, the number of ships decreased insignifi country are located on the coasts of water bodies of the
cantly but, during 2007, it decreased by 1800 ships (by Russian Federation. Recreation at water objects, as an
5.5% as compared to 2006). The fleet of towboats and important part of this industry, includes swimming,
auxiliary ships showed a dramatic decrease. The ship rowing, boating, and taking sunbath in the open air.
fleet demonstrated noticeable aging. In 1995, the All water objects suitable for recreation, sporting,
number of ships being in operation less than 15 years and tourism can be referred to aquatic recreation
accounted for 36.6% of the total number of ships, the resources. Water objects and other natural objects
number of ships being in operation from 15 to 20 years adjacent to them often form an integrated recreation
accounted for 27.1%, and the number of ships being in space with favorable conditions for all types of recre
operation more than 25 years accounted for 36.2%. In ation. The suitability of water and coastal objects for
2005, the numbers of ships were 13.8, 33.7, and 52.4%, different types of recreation depends on the following
respectively. characteristics: water quality and cleanliness of coastal
Timber rafting, as a technological process, is incor areas; the configuration, depth, and area of a water
porated in timber logging operations and represents body, water temperature; the richness of water fauna,
their final stage aimed at delivering the timber into the type of coastal vegetation; the safety of a water
points of use or reloading onto other type of transport. body for swimming (lack of turbulent current reaches,
There are three types of rafting: loose floating, rafting, whirlpools, algae, different dangerous objects on the
and bag boom towing. Loose floating accounted for bottom); types of coasts (beaches, rocks, downfalls,
about one half of the total volume of timber rafting in grasslands, and boggy lands); types of landscapes;
the USSR. In the early 1990s, loose floating was prac availability of natural and historical monuments; pro
ticed in 275 rivers of Russia. According to the Water vision with transport access roads; the conditions of
Code of the Russian Federation of 1995, timber rafting rafting, which are of primary importance for sport
without towboats in water bodies used for navigation and tourism (river length, its slope, current velocity; the
loose floating of timber in water bodies are prohibited. availability of rapids, waterfalls, dams, log blocking,
This regulation is confirmed in the RF Water Code, 2006. etc.). It is important to have information on shallow
Timber rafting affects the natural condition of water areas, as the most comfortable zones for swim
channels, leads to pollution of watercourses and water ming, and on the type of bottom sediments.
bodies with sunk timber, destruction of spawning The areas of swimming and fishing should differ
areas, formation of blockings, which prevent fish from from other areas by high water quality; therefore, the
migration and cause silting of channels and spawning discharge of wastewater in the vicinity of recreation
areas. The sunken timber imparts toxic properties to zones cannot be tolerated and coastal belts and bot
water and changes its hydrochemical composition. toms of water bodies should be regularly cleaned.
The input and ensuing disintegration of readily oxidiz Water quality is not of crucial importance in such
able organic compounds in water results in a decrease sports as rowing, sailing, and water skis; however,

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

 WATER MANAGEMENT COMPLEX OF RUSSIA 723

viewing the fact that these activities are closely con releases are meant to provide the water quality in a
nected with swimming, stringent requirements upon water body, which could meet the sanitary regulations
the water quality are imposed in these cases. The use of and standards. The following criterions are recom
motor boats in some places, particularly in small riv mended as environmental criterions, which should be
ers, is limited with a view to protect water bodies and taken into account and used in developing the stan
watercourses from pollution with combustibles and dards of environmental releases: the conditions of nat
lubricants and from bank undermining by waves. ural reproduction of ichthyofauna and floodplain veg
From the year 2000, a growth of tourist activity is etation; the level of biological productivity of ecosys
observed in inland water transport, the demand for tems; structure of fish community, including valuable
services of excursion motor vessels has rapidly fish species and fish species of small value, the rates of
increased. Tourist and excursionpleasure routes their growth; the efficiency of industrial fish reproduc
account for one quarter of all passengers using this tion, industrial restoration, and industrial reserves of
type of transport (in 2000, it was 11%) and for nearly aquatic fauna; the species diversity of organisms, suc
70% of its passenger capacity (51%). In 2007, 940000 cession of animal and plant communities; the condi
persons were transported by tourist routes, i.e., 2.4 tion of river channels and floodplains, the processes of
times more than in 2000. In the same year, more than delta formation, etc.
4.2 million persons, i.e., 1.7 times more than in 2000, In elaborating the rates of environmental releases,
traveled by excursionpleasure routes [25]. At present, the following parameters are used as the main hydro
tourists travel by more than 150 different routes. More logical parameters: water discharge, flow, and water
than twothirds of river tourist routes pass through the levels as well as their distribution within a year during
European part of Russia. years of different occurrences; the date and duration of
spring floods and high water; floodplain and delta sub
merged area; water level regime, water salinity, and
AQUATIC AND ONSHORE ECOSYSTEMS other data for terminal water objects; the characteris
Water resources are associated with the indispens tics of water regime in the channel and floodplain
able factor responsible for the environment formation; spawning pools; species composition, population
in turn, the conditions of other natural environment number and biomass of planktonic and benthic organ
components and, hence, the natural living conditions isms, the dynamics of fish population number, fish
of a man depend on the state of this factor. Water with reserves and yields. A hydrograph of monthly dis
drawal from sources in the amount exceeding certain charges of a mean lowwater year of 75% probability is
limits and meeting the demands at the sacrifice of recommended to be used as the regime of discharges in
water from the environmentally necessary flow rivers inhabited by most valuable fish species. Special
(release) of surface water may result in a considerable requirements for the minimum permissible water dis
environmental hazard of irreversible decrease in the charge may be proposed for some water objects of
natural resource potential and in disturbance of envi environmental, research, historical or cultural impor
ronmentally safe conditions of water objects. Uncoor tance [20].
dinated water use leads to an increase in loads on the Environmental releases should maintain the neces
environment and gives rise to water conflicts among sary conditions of life and reproduction of fish stock as
the subjects of the Russian Federation, which partici well as functioning of established aquatic and on
pate in economic activities. shore ecosystems, thus contributing to the increase of
By the environmental release is meant the flow of a their biological productivity. The environmental
regulated river, which ensures the reproduction and releases include operationduty releases, which pro
functioning of aquatic and onshore ecosystems in the vide the evacuation of salts carried by drainage water
lower pool of waterworks. In estimating the environ (in river areas having developed agriculture), prevent
mental release, the following hydrological periods are the channel rise as a result of sedimentation (in rivers
taken into account: spring flood and highwater peri with high water turbidity and considerable water with
ods, when the ecosystem reproduction is observed; drawal), provide mean longterm water inflow to the
lowwater periods, when waterdeficient years pose mouth cross section, which maintains the given water
great difficulties to the ecosystem functioning. The and salt regime, or prevents the intrusion of salt sea
determination of environmental releases is based on water into water bearing horizons.
the analysis of relationships between the hydrological
regime features (water discharges and flow volume,
water levels, current velocities, and others) and biolog CONCLUSIONS
ical, homeostatic (productivity and species composi Currently, the main problems facing the water
tion of aquatic fauna, floodplain vegetation, etc.) or management complex of Russia are caused by the
substituting indirect indices, which characterize the unsatisfactory condition of domestic and drinking
condition of ecosystems. In most cases, the condition water supply; wasteful water use and high specific unit
of ichthyofauna is an integral indicator of the condi water consumption; unsatisfactory water quality in
tion of aquatic and onshore ecosystems [12]. Sanitary water objects; considerable material damage caused by

WATER RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2010

724 DEMIN

the adverse effect of water; low efficiency of the system existing hydropower plants are limited in the near
of state water management, considerable decrease in future by the worn out equipment and dams.
financing research and designing work; poor technical The degree of wear of main facilities in many land
condition of main facilities of the water management reclamation systems and hydraulic structures reaches
complex; imperfect legislative basis and lack of reliable 60%. The major part of irrigation systems has earth
economic mechanism of rational water use. channels, where seepage water losses reach 40% of the
The largest water user among the participants of the volume of water withdrawal. Nearly 500000 ha of irri
water management complex is the sector of produc gated land areas are not used in agricultural produc
tion and distribution of gas, electric power, and water; tion. The area of actually irrigated lands decreased
this sector accounted for 66% of water consumption in from 5 million ha in the late 1980s to 2.5 million ha in
2007. Less water is used in agriculture, hunting, and 2005–2007. The agricultural water supply is mainly
forestry (16%), manufacturing industry (10%), fishery based on groundwater use, its share being 85%. In
and fish culture (3%). 2007, the area of rural houses equipped with water
Centralized water supply systems are available in mains was 43%. About 55% of local water supply sys
31% of all residential areas of Russia and only 6% of tems needs technical improvement, of which more
these areas is provided with centralized sewerage sys than 30% needs reconstruction. Only 5% of rural set
tems, including, respectively, 100% and 98% of towns, tlements are provided with sewerage systems; only 60–
96% and 81% of settlements, 30% and 5% of villages. 70% of wastewater is treated at wastewater treatment
The wear of main facilities of the water supply and facilities.
sewerage systems varies from 50 to 70%. Water with Over the last 20 years, 7–8% of the total yield of
drawal from groundwater sources does not exceed 40% aquatic biological resources is accounted for inland
of the total amount of water delivered to the water water bodies. Over the period from 2000 to 2007, the
pipeline system, which is less than in most European fish catch in inland water bodies decreased by 14%.
countries. The high rate of water demand in towns of The total of 22.5 million ha under lakes, 4.3 million ha
Russia results from large water losses caused by leak under reservoirs, about 1 million ha under agricultural
age. Considerable water losses are caused by failures in water bodies of multipurpose use, 143000 ha under
water pipelines. ponds, and 523 000 km of rivers are owned by the Fed
eration. Considerable damage is caused to the fishery
Humaninduced sources of pollution have a seri by uncontrolled fishing and poaching. The number of
ous adverse effect on water objects. In recent years, out fry introduced into natural water bodies and reservoirs
of the total amount of wastewater to be treated, only of the Russian Federation increase from 5.2 billion in
11–12% is treated up to the standard quality. About 1996 to 6.6 billion in 2000, and to 7.7 billion in 2007.
11 million t of pollutants annually enter the surface
water objects together with polluted wastewater. The The main advantage of the river craft is the possibil
main polluters are housing facilities and public utili ity of freight delivery and passenger transportation into
ties, industry, and agriculture. Every other water user areas not easily accessible. The present condition of
in Russia has to drink water, the quality of which does waterways is characterized by the low number of
not meet some hygienic requirements; nearly one waterways with guaranteed dimensions. In 2007, the
third of the country’s population uses water sources freight turnover of the river transport of Russia
without appropriate water treatment. decreased as compared to the level in 2005 and, partic
ularly, in 1995. After 2000, the density of passenger
In recent years, the volumes of product output by traffic steadily decreased but, in 2007, its growth
manufacturing branches of industry in Russia have became evident. Distinct aging of the ship fleet is
noticeably increased (by 8–9%), while the volume of recorded.
water use have changed insignificantly. Water saving Over the last years, the scope of recreation activities
due to the water recycling and reuse systems in manu at water objects has grown steadily. About 60% of all
facturing branches of industry exceeds 90%. After the the sanatoriums, more than 80% of holiday homes,
year 2000, electric power generation grows from year 60% of tourist centers, and more than 90% of subur
to year. In 2007, water withdrawal for electric power ban recreation facilities, most popular in the country,
needs exceeded 30 km3 and was 5.6% larger than in are located on the coasts of water bodies of the Russian
2005. The distinct increase in the adverse effect of Federation. In 2007, 940000 persons were transported
power engineering on water objects is observed. by tourist routes, i.e., 2.4 times more than in 2000. In
The share of electric power generated by hydro the same year, more than 4.2 million persons, i.e., 1.7
power plants does not exceed 18% of the total electric times more than in 2000, traveled by excursionplea
power generated in Russia. The main reason for poor sure routs.
development of the hydropower potential is its
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