Petroleum Deflation

The prices of oil are affected by factors such as supply and demand. Economic growth plays a role
in driving the demand for petroleum products including oil. As economies expand the need for energy rises
in sectors like transportation that heavily depend on gasoline and diesel fuel to transport goods from
producers to consumers. Moreover, many countries primarily rely on petroleum-based fuels for activities,
like heating, cooking and generating electricity.

OPEC, often known as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, influences oil prices
by defining output objectives for its member countries. The group is made up of nations that control some
of the world's oil reserves. OPEC works to control oil output among its members by instituting quotas or
particular objectives. However, due to the fact that individual nations maintain authority over their
production decisions, obtaining compliance with these restrictions across OPEC members is varied (U.S.
Energy Information Administration, 2023).

The price of oil is influenced by a range of ever-changing factors. These factors include the balance,
between supply and demand economic conditions, global events with implications and market speculation.
When the supply outpaces demand oil prices tend to decrease while they tend to rise when demand surpasses
supply. Additionally, economic conditions play a role; oil prices often climb during periods of economic
growth and decline during economic downturns. Geopolitical events can also impact oil prices as
speculative activities carried out by investors. OPEC’s production levels, global demand for oil, crude oil
inventories in the United States, fluctuations in the U.S. Dollar value geopolitical incidents on an
international scale, speculative trading practices, technical market indicators, seasonal influences on pricing
trends, expectations regarding future oil prices and sentiments among investors. In conclusion, considering
all these factors becomes essential when attempting to forecast developments in the price of oil (Bajpai,
2022).

According to White, the future of oil is uncertain. It is likely that prices will fluctuate in the run. In
the term we may see oil prices remaining, around $100 or even higher. In the long term they are expected
to decrease as demand levels off and eventually declines. However, there is a risk of surges in oil prices
reaching levels as high as $150-200 if the energy transition is not carefully managed. This is because oil
production operates on investment cycles making it challenging to adjust supply to match changes in
demand. To ensure an equilibrium between supply and demand it is crucial for consumers both individual
and industrial to take charge of leading the energy transition. Failing to do so could result in a future for
oil.

Local Study

Petroleum deflation, defined as a continuous fall in petroleum demand that causes the price to rise,
has important consequences for the Philippines, an archipelagic nation that relies largely on imported fossil
fuels for energy and transportation.

The Philippines has been powered for decades by fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
Producing about 80% of the country's energy demands. The country is abundant with indigenous energy
sources such as geothermal, biomass, hydro, and wind/solar. Although, they are not much used because of
the lack of financial investments. By choice, the energy mix is led especially by coal imported largely from
Indonesia. In 2021, coal provided 58% of the overall power generation mix, followed up by 23% of
renewable energy, 18% of natural gas, 4.9% of natural gas, and 3.9% of hydro. Meanwhile, the permanent
closure of one refinery plant in Bataan degenerates the capability for oil refining. The domestic supply of
natural gas is also facing depletion in 2024, forcing the country to import Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
The country is targeting to be energy self-sufficient by 2030 (Statista Research Department, 2023).

The recent increase in petroleum prices in the Philippines can be attributed to factors. These include
the price of oil, the decline in the value of the Philippine peso suppliers taking advantage of the situation,
limited fuel deliveries, dependence on imported oil sanctions imposed on Russia, and an overall net increase
in prices this year. One of the drivers behind gasoline prices is the price of crude oil. Typically, when crude
oil prices rise gas prices tend to follow suit. The weakening Philippine peso against currencies like the US
dollar has made it more costly for the country to purchase barrels of oil compared to years. Some suppliers
are using this crisis as an opportunity to raise prices and make it challenging to find alternatives
(MetroBank, 2022).

According to Chua, the sanctions made by Russia had an impact on nations, including the
Philippines. While the Philippines does not heavily rely on Russia for oil, it does import around 81.9% of
its oil from countries like China, Indonesia, Singapore, and South Korea. Due to these sanctions, there has
been a need to find sources for oil from producers since Europe is also transitioning away from Russian oil.
This shift in demand and reduced supply has contributed to an increase in oil prices.
The current percentage of biodiesel mixed in the current diesel.

• In 2022, the total volume of biodiesel production in the United States amounted to some 1.6 billion
gallons. Biodiesel is intended to be used in standard diesel engines as a standalone fuel or blended
with petroleum.

• Biodiesel is made from various feedstocks, including recycled cooking oil, soybean oil, and animal
fats. It is created through transesterification, where glycerin is separated from fat or oils, leaving
two products: glycerin and biodiesel. Glycerin can often be further used in soaps and other products.
Biodiesel production in the U.S. has skyrocketed since the early 2000s, rising from 9 million
gallons in 2001. The U.S. is the third largest producer of biodiesel in the world and U.S. biodiesel
exports reached around 7.15 million barrels in 2022.

• Biodiesel that meets technical fuel quality and engine performance specifications can be used in
current diesel engines, often with blends from about 5 to 20 percent biodiesel. The Environmental
Protection Agency has classified biodiesel as an Advanced Biofuel due to its potential to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants from petroleum diesel. However, the sustainability of
biodiesel consumption has been questioned. Enacting stricter standards could regulate the
production of the fuel and act as a preventative measure against harmful biodiesel production. In
2022, U.S. biodiesel consumption amounted to approximately 1.6 million gallons (Statista
Research Department, 2023).

• U.S. production of biodiesel was 159 million gallons in December 2020. Biodiesel production
during December 2020 was 8 million gallons higher than production in November 2020. Biodiesel
production from the Midwest region (Petroleum Administration for Defense District 2) accounted
for 72 percent of the United States total. Production came from 85 biodiesel plants with a capacity
of 2.5 billion gallons per year. Producer sales of biodiesel during December 2020 included 74
million gallons sold as pure B100 (100% biodiesel) and an additional 73 million gallons sold as
biodiesel blends (contains both pure biodiesel and petroleum diesel fuel) (The U.S. Energy
Information Administration, 2020).

• Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils, yellow grease, used cooking oils, or animal fats. The
fuel is produced by transesterification—a process that converts fats and oils into biodiesel and
glycerin (a coproduct). Approximately 100 pounds of oil or fat are reacted with 10 pounds of short-
chain alcohol (usually methanol) in the presence of a catalyst (usually sodium hydroxide [NaOH]
or potassium hydroxide [KOH]) to form 100 pounds of biodiesel and 10 pounds of glycerin (or
glycerol). Glycerin, a co-product, is a sugar commonly used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals
and cosmetics.

Schematic of Biodiesel Production Path Enlarge illustration

Raw or refined plant oil, or recycled greases that have not been processed into biodiesel, are not
biodiesel and should not be used as a vehicle fuel. Fats and oils (triglycerides) are much more
viscous than biodiesel, and low-level vegetable oil blends can cause long-term engine deposits, ring
sticking, lube-oil gelling, and other maintenance problems that can reduce engine life.
• A validation study is conducted to compare the results of an aquaculture setup in the Philippines
and a cultivation system by Khoo et al. (2011). The functional unit used is 1-ton algal biodiesel.
The results of the study revealed that the cultivation system found in the Philippines has performed
well as compared to Khoo et al. (2011), in terms of the impact assessment and energy consumption.
However, the study also found that the energy return on energy invested (EROEI) of the two models
was less than the benchmark value of one. Thus, the result of this study can be used to improve the
EROEI of the algal biodiesel life cycle in the Philippines.

• Biodiesel consumption in the Philippines is expected to expand by 31 percent in 2022, according

to a report filed with the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service’s Global Agricultural Information
Network. The increase is primarily attributed to a projected movement from B2 to B5 and increased
fuel use due to economic growth.

The country currently has 13 biodiesel plants with a combined 708 million liters of nameplate
capacity. Both the number of biorefineries and capacity has held steady since 2020. Capacity use
is expected to be at 35 percent this year, up from 28 percent in 2021 and 26.6 percent in 2020.

Production is expected to reach 248 million liters this year (Voegele, 2022)

• According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the country's biofuel
consumption is anticipated to continue to improve this year as a result of economic expansion and
rising ethanol and biodiesel demand. According to a report by its Foreign Agricultural Service
(FAS), the USDA expects this year's ethanol demand to increase by 13% to 660 million liters. “The
plan to have full in-person classes in schools in August 2022 will drive the fuel demand, despite
the current high prices," it stated. The demand for biodiesel is anticipated to increase by 31% to
250 million liters (Rivera, 2022).
The possibility of the increase in percentage of biodiesel mixed in the current diesel.

-Biodiesel can be blended and used in many different concentrations. The most common are B5
(up to 5% biodiesel) and B20 (6% to 20% biodiesel). B100 (pure biodiesel) is typically used as a blend
stock to produce lower percentage blends and is rarely used as a transportation fuel (Alternative Fuels Data
Center, n.d).

-B20 is a common blend because it represents a good balance of cost, emissions, cold-weather
performance, and compatibility with conventional engines. Most biodiesel users purchase B20 or lower
blends from their normal fuel distributors or from biodiesel marketers. Regulated fleets that use biodiesel
blends of 20% or higher qualify for biodiesel fuel use credits under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Engines operating on B20 have similar fuel consumption, horsepower, and torque to engines
running on petroleum diesel. B20 with 20% biodiesel content will have 1% to 2% less energy per gallon
than petroleum diesel, but many B20 users report no noticeable difference in performance or fuel economy.
Biodiesel also has some emissions benefits, especially for engines manufactured before 2010. For engines
equipped with selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems, the air quality benefits are the same whether
running on biodiesel or petroleum diesel. However, biodiesel still offers greater greenhouse gas emissions
benefits than conventional diesel fuel. The emissions benefit is roughly commensurate with the blend level;
that is, B20 would have 20% of the emissions reduction benefit of B100 (AFDC, n.d.).

-B100 and other high-level biodiesel blends are less commonly used directly as a transportation
fuel than B20 and lower blends due to a lack of regulatory incentives and pricing. Biodiesel-compatible
material for certain parts, such as hoses and gaskets, allow B100 to be used in some engines built since
1994. B100 has a solvent effect; it can clean a vehicle's fuel system and release deposits accumulated from
petroleum diesel use. The release of these deposits may initially clog filters and require frequent filter
replacement in the first few tanks of high-level blends.

When using high-level blends, several factors should be considered. Pure biodiesel contains less
energy on a volumetric basis than petroleum diesel. Therefore, the higher the percentage of biodiesel (above
20%), the lower the energy content per gallon. High-level biodiesel blends can also impact engine
warranties, gel in cold temperatures, and may present unique storage issues. B100 use could also increase
nitrogen oxide emissions, although it greatly reduces other toxic emissions (AFDC, n.d.).

-The Philippines is expected to consume 250 million liters (66.04 million gallons) of biodiesel this
year, up from 129 million liters in 2021 and 122 million liters in 2020. Biodiesel is expected to account for
3 percent of diesel fuel use this year, up from 2.6 percent in 2021 and 2.5 percent in 2020.

The Philippines is not expected to import or export any biodiesel in 2022.

To reach a target biodiesel blend of 5 percent, the report estimates that 683 million liters of the fuel
will be needed next year, increasing to 717 million liters in 2024, 745 million liters in 2025, and 777 million
liters in 2026 (Vougle, 2022).
 -Due to its similarity with pure diesel fuel, biodiesel can be used to make biodiesel-diesel blends at
any volumetric ratio. Biodiesel allows mixing more ethanol percentage with biodiesel-diesel blends
improves the blend endurance to water and keeps the blend in a steady state such that it can be stored for a
long time. The high cetane number of biodiesel compensates for the low cetane number of ethanol and
improves the engine combustion correspondingly.

In the literature, many researches have been conducted to investigate the effects of biodiesel and
ethanol on engine performance [11], [12], [13]. Hansen and Zhang [14], Rakopoulos et al. [15], Kannan et
al. [16], and Srihari et al. [17] reported that an increase in ethanol and biodiesel percentages in BED blend
caused to increase in thermal efficiency whereas Huang et al. [18] reported a reverse trend. Kannan and
Anand [19] and Parthasarathy et al. [20] concluded that the engine thermal efficiency of BED blends was
lower than that of pure diesel. The effect of biofuels on engine-specific fuel consumption was studied by
Shi et al. [5], Rakopoulos et al. [15], and Hoseini [21]. They reported that an increase in the levels of ethanol
and biodiesel in the diesel fuel blends caused to reduction in specific fuel consumption, while Hulwan and
Joshi [22], Kannan et al. [16], Saddam et al. [23] and Perumal [24] stated that specific fuel consumption
increased with increasing the ethanol percentage. Torkian Boldaji et al. [25] reported that the equivalence
ratio and engine temperature decreased with an increase in biodiesel and/or ethanol percentage in the diesel
blend, whereas the exhaust oxygen fraction increased. Barabas and Todorut [9], Al-Hassan et al. [26], Kass
et al. [27], Hoseini [21], and Saddam et al. [19] stated that ethanol and/or biodiesel in BED blend caused a
reduction in the engine torque and power. Ferreira et al. [28] studied the effects of ethanol on performance
indicators of a diesel engine and stated that ethanol-blended diesel fuel caused a reduction in fuel
consumption and engine efficiency. The different trends in some previous research can be attributed to the
differences in the biofuel sources, the percentages of ethanol and biodiesel, and also engine types
(Khoobbakht et al., 2018).

-Gokalp et al. [18] investigated the effects of diesel–biodiesel fuels with different mixing ratios
(5%, 20%, and 50% biodiesel by volume) on the combustion and performance characteristics of marine
diesel engines. The results indicated that the maximum reduction in soot emission reached 74% compared
with that of diesel. However, the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) increased due to the lower
calorific value of biodiesel. In addition, Karavalakis et al. [19] investigated the effects of diesel–biodiesel
fuels on the combustion and performance characteristics of a heavy-duty diesel engine. They found that
diesel–biodiesel fuels could greatly reduce PM, HC, and CO emissions. Mehmet et al. [20] investigated the
combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel–biodiesel fuels (5% and 20%
biodiesel by volume). The results showed that the brake thermal efficiency had no obvious change when
the engine was fueled with diesel–biodiesel fuel (20% soybean biodiesel by volume) and diesel. Therefore,
biodiesel can be considered as an alternative fuel in the diesel engine with changes only in the engine fuel
system (Zhang et al., 2021).

-In 2016, the Philippines was the 5th largest market for U.S. ethanol with sales reaching 218 ML
valued at $103 million. Overall ethanol imports, however, declined 20 percent to 260 ML from 311 ML in
2015 due to increased local production. Last year, there were 10 ethanol plants operating with a combined
capacity of 282 ML, up from eight in 2015. Based on preliminary data from the Philippine government
(GPH), the 10 percent blend will not be reached in 2016. By 2017, while three more plants are expected to
operate, and production is likely to again increase from the previous year, output share relative to
consumption will remain fairly flat. Reaching the 10 percent mandate using locally produced ethanol is not
expected in at least the medium term (3-5 years).

Local biodiesel output has consistently met the one percent blend set in 2007 and the 2-percent
blend (B2) requirements since 2009, but not the five percent blend set in 2015. In 2016, 11 refineries
produced 226 ML, which amounted to an estimated 2.8% blend level with carryover stocks. Capacity
utilization was only at 39 percent of total aggregate capacity of 575 ML in 2016. Since biodiesel imports
are prohibited and exports are uncompetitive due to high CNO prices, biodiesel consumption is met by local
production. Since 2009, however, demand has been increasing only as fast as on-road diesel use because
the blend rate has relatively been flat.

The planned 5-percent biodiesel blend (B5) was due in 2015. This did not happen, however, due to
high CNO prices and therefore the high cost of biodiesel compared to fossil fuel. The B5 blend is not
expected anytime soon due to an economic policy recommendation to postpone the higher blend rate as a
result of inadequate coconut/copra supply and the price gap between fossil diesel and biodiesel. The
USAID-funded study also recommends a review of the Biofuels Act in the medium to long term. Although
no official policy changes have been instituted, biodiesel production is expected to decline modestly
through 2018 due to flat consumption and stock drawdown. Demand and increasing CNO world prices are
expected to displace CNO demand for biodiesel production during the period (Corpuz, 2017).

Local

-Under the Philippine Republic Act (RA) No. 9637 or the Biofuels Act of 2006, the minimum
biodiesel blends are currently set at 10% for bioethanol (E10) and 2% for biodiesel (B2).

To date, there are 12 accredited bioethanol producers in the Philippines, with a total rated
production capacity of 380.5 million liters per year (MLPY) as of the end of 2020. This is about 50% of the
volume required for E10 under RA No. 9637.

Meanwhile, there are 13 accredited biodiesel producers, with a total rated production capacity of
707.9 MLPY, or almost 300% of the required B2 volume. This indicates that there is more than enough
capacity to meet the proposed increase in the biodiesel blend from B2 to B5, should it be pursued this year.
Additional capacities with a total of 277.65 ML will be on-stream between the years 2021 and 2022, further
pointing to a secured biodiesel supply for the B5 mandate (Department of Energy, 2021).

-The Biofuels Act of 2006 (RA 9367) was legislated to reduce the Philippines’ dependence on
imported fuels and to protect public health and the environment. Pursuant to this policy, all liquid fuels for
motors and engines sold in the Philippines shall contain locally sourced biofuel components. Moreover, the
law specifies incentives (zero specific tax, exemption from VAT, exemption from wastewater charges,
financial assistance to producers) to encourage investments in the production, distribution, and use of
locally produced biofuels at and above minimum mandated blends. This Act also enables government
agencies to implement programs that will encourage local production of biofuels such as feedstock, 1
jatropha propagation, and fuel bioethanol programs.

The Biofuels Act mandates that diesel engine fuels in the Philippines should contain a proportion
of biodiesel blend. Under the Act, the Department of Energy (DOE) is authorized to increase the proportion
of biodiesel blend upon the recommendation of the National Biofuels Board (NBB) and upon consideration
of the domestic supply and availability of the locally produced biodiesel component. As specified in the
Philippine Energy Plan (PEP) of 2013-2030, the biodiesel blend mandate was expected to increase
gradually throughout the period to 5% by 2015; 10% by 2020; and 20% by 2025. Beginning at 1% blend,
the mandate was raised to 2% in February 2009. In June 2013, the NBB recommended an increase in the
biodiesel blend to 5% (Alonzo, 2016).
Overproduction of waste cooking oil.

Cooking oil, a liquid fat derived from plant, animal, or synthetic sources, finds application in
various culinary processes such as baking and frying. It is commonly known as edible oil and serves
purposes beyond cooking, including flavoring and non-heated food preparations like salad dressings and
bread dips. Conversely, waste cooking oil (WCO) constitutes a residual product resulting from the frying
of food in cooking oil, typically derived from processed plant or animal fats. The predominant source of
WCO can be traced back to restaurants and food manufacturers that employ large quantities of oil in deep
fryers to create beloved delicacies. To maintain food hygiene and flavor, this oil necessitates regular
replacement, leaving businesses with substantial volumes of waste oil.

The overproduction of WCO can be attributed to various factors. First and foremost, a notable cause
is the shift in dietary preferences toward heightened consumption of fried and processed foods. As
urbanization progresses and incomes increase, the demand for convenient food options, particularly in
restaurants, that rely on cooking oil escalates (Ganguly et al., 2018). Furthermore, the food industry,
encompassing fast food chains and commercial kitchens, significantly contributes to the WCO dilemma
due to its extensive frying operations. Regrettably, these entities frequently dispose of WCO improperly,
exacerbating the problem (Gupta et al., 2019). Additionally, a lack of awareness concerning the
environmental repercussions of improper WCO disposal and limited knowledge about recycling options
and alternative uses of WCO play a pivotal role in its overproduction (Gupta et al., 2019).

Presently, global waste generation is escalating each year due to heightened consumerism and the
growing disposability of waste. In 2016, global waste generation reached a staggering 2.017 billion tons
per year, and projections for 2050 indicate a further increase of 70%, translating to 3.4 billion tons per year
(Ellis, 2018; Tiseo, 2020). This distressing trend shows no signs of abating, propelled by factors such as
population growth, economic expansion, and urbanization. For example, in the United States and Norway,
citizens produce an average of 2.5 kilograms of waste per day. In Italy, the urban area alone generates a
staggering 89,000 tons of waste (César et al., 2017).

Local

Research conducted by Pascual et al. sheds light on the disposal practices of restaurants and
eateries, particularly concerning used cooking oil and its remnants. Their findings reveal a concerning trend
where approximately 80% of these establishments choose to dispose of this waste directly into their kitchen
sinks. Furthermore, the study underscores the prevalence of this practice, with a substantial majority
(60.0%) disposing of less than 3 liters of used cooking oil daily. On a weekly basis, it is noteworthy that
the highest percentage (17.1%) of average volume disposal falls within the range of 1 to 3 gallons. Similarly,
for monthly disposal, the majority (54.3%) dispose of less than 5 gallons, emphasizing the significant
volume of waste generated within the restaurant industry (Abrajano et al.).

Within the Philippines, Jollibee, a globally recognized fast-food chain, operates numerous outlets,
each contributing to the generation of various types of hazardous waste. Of particular concern is used
cooking oil, with an astonishing quantity of 18,315.44 tons. In addition to used cooking oil, Jollibee outlets
produce other types of waste, including bulbs (10.53 kg) and grease wastes (13,774.72 tons). These figures
underscore the critical importance of implementing efficient waste management practices within the fast-
food industry.
 To address the challenges of waste management, especially pertaining to used cooking oil, the
Philippines has taken an innovative step. Specifically, Davao City has implemented a groundbreaking
government program focused on recycling used cooking oil into biodiesel. This program is noteworthy as
it represents the first of its kind in the country. On a monthly basis, the city collects over 10,000 liters of
used cooking oil, which is then processed at a facility established in 2017 with technical assistance from
Japan. Remarkably, this facility operates in a self-sustainable manner, utilizing the biodiesel it produces to
power a generator. What sets this initiative apart is its holistic approach; it efficiently utilizes the 10% waste
generated during the processing, primarily for soil conditioning, thereby achieving a commendable zero-
waste outcome in the conversion of used cooking oil to biodiesel. This program serves as an exemplary
model of sustainable waste management and resource utilization in the Philippines.
Effects of waste cooking oil.

-Waste management has become more challenging due to the amount of waste cooking oil (WCO)
in the world. The production of biodiesel is the primary goal of the large-scale organized collection of
WCO. Even while other uses are equally significant and demand attention, the majority of studies
concentrate exclusively on the production of biodiesel from WCO. This review paper's main goal is to raise
awareness of the potential environmental effects of spent cooking oil as well as the possibility of its reuse
in goods other than biodiesel. It can be converted into hydrogen, pyrolytic oil, biodiesel, direct-burn energy,
or hydrogen gas. WCO is especially useful in applications like combined heat and power generation (CHP).
Additionally, it can be chemically processed to make soaps, alkyd resins, greases, and lubricants. It can also
be processed to make biodegradable polyurethane sheets. After being thoroughly cleaned and sterilized,
WCO is a carbon source that may be utilized in fermentation processes to produce polyhydroxybutyrate
and rhamnolipid biosurfactants. Cooking oil waste can therefore be seen as a waste that can be turned into
energy or used as a catalyst for biological or chemical processes.

-Lack of awareness and knowledge of environmental protection, many people discard cooking oil
waste. Cooking oil waste can potentially be converted into more valuable items using specific techniques
that demand both energy and materials. A prime example is biodiesel. The production procedure results in
non-product output in addition to biodiesel. Therefore, efforts to recycle used cooking oil into more useful
items also harm the environment. This study attempts to assess the environmental impact of producing
biodiesel from used cooking oil and compare it to the impact of just disposing of it in a landfill. A life cycle
assessment is used to measure the effects on the environment. Measurement of the environmental impact
of biodiesel processing from cooking oil waste is based on a process carried out at a research institute.
According to the measurement results, the ecotoxicity category is negatively impacted by the disposal of
used cooking oil. While the production of biodiesel from used cooking oil provides benefits for the
environment, photochemical oxidants, fine dust, oil and gas depletion, and water pressure indicators. Waste
cooking oil is converted into biodiesel at a level of eco-efficiency that produces a number near to one, which
indicates that the production process is feasible but not yet sustainable.

-Biodiesel could be a crucial alternative given the ongoing worldwide depletion of energy resources
and serious concerns surrounding environmental damage caused by the usage of fossil fuels. Using
biodiesel in combination with diesel fuel reduces the environmental impact without sacrificing output or
consumption dependability. Diverse sources are used to make biodiesel. Biodiesel generation from waste
cooking oil (WCO) is effective for both the atmosphere and human health. WCO biodiesel has been
mentioned as a potential alternative fuel for internal combustion engines in a number of research
investigations. The objective of the current study is to highlight important implementing and promoting
factors for WCO utilization and WCO-based biodiesel production. In order to identify enablers, a
systematic evaluation of the literature has been conducted. Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) and
professional opinions were used to develop the contextual interaction between various enablers. The impact
of enablers is investigated using the ISM approach and the MICMAC methodology (cross-impact matrix
multiplication applied to categorization). The results showed that every established enabler has a significant
influence and is a key promoter of the development of biodiesel based on WCO. The results also point to
the importance of human health concerns, biodiesel processing facilities, biodiesel support vehicles, and
biodiesel production technologies in the production of biodiesel that is dependent on WCO. The
government's funding and policies, its support for environmental causes, and its financial support of
biodiesel producers are the three main forces driving the development of WCO biodiesel.
Local

-When used cooking oil is incorrectly disposed of, it can solidify and narrow drain pipes and
waterways. This issue in Marikina makes the municipality's floods worse. Therefore, the local government
set up a used oil collection system as early as 2008, when a mobile tricycle went from home to house each
month to fill a barrel with spent cooking oil that was later converted into fuel. The concept developed over
time into the use of oil and Styrofoam to create blocks for the city's public beautification initiatives.

-The most essential thing to keep in mind when thinking about used oil recycling and how to
dispose of cooking oil, in general, is that you should never put oil or any other kind of grease or fat from
cooking down the drain. If it cools and solidifies, it could cause obstructions and even leaks in your home.

It is crucial to remember that even a small amount of grease flushed down the drain each day could
eventually harm your home and the natural world.

-The study investigated the practices used by restaurants and eateries in Cabanatuan City,
Philippines, for getting rid of leftover grease and cooking oil. It is able to block canals. It was also assumed
that these establishments did not separate their liquid waste or utilize grease traps to handle it. Convenience
sampling, unstructured interviews, and observation were used to collect the data. Findings showed that
these restaurant owners were neither knowledgeable about or aware of the proper disposal of liquid
waste. They are also ignorant of the potential environmental consequences of their actions.
Machine converter cooking oil into biodiesel.

-The BioBot 20 tabletop diesel processor, designed by Brian Dodson, is a straightforward

chemical reactor that transforms waste vegetable oil into biodiesel. It operates at home and employs a
process called transesterification, where triglycerides found in vegetable oil, consisting of three fatty acid
esters connected to a glycerine molecule, are reacted with a mixture of methyl alcohol and sodium
hydroxide (or alternatively, potassium hydroxide). This results in the detachment of fatty acid esters from
the glycerine molecule and these esters are then combined with the methyl group from the methyl alcohol,
producing biodiesel fuel.

-According to Making, an institution specializing in biodiesel production, the process of

converting organic waste into biofuel begins with a sanitizing machine. This machine deacidifies the base
feedstock and removes wax content, preparing the biomaterial for transfer to the transesterification reactor
where it is transformed into crude biodiesel.

During this chemical process, glycerin is generated, which must then be separated from the fuel
using a centrifuge. The remaining liquid undergoes filtration, resulting in enhanced biodiesel at the end
of the process. This filtration stage consists of three parts: filtration, biodiesel loading, and biodiesel
separation. Each of these parts utilizes specific machines, such as horizontal and vertical pressure leaf
filters for filtration, advanced anaerobic digestion with external separation, and a glycerine manufacturing
plant for biodiesel separation.

-According to Lyle Estill, who is based in North Carolina and the founder of Piedmont Biofuels,
a community-scale biodiesel plant in Pittsboro, North Carolina, has also developed a specific machine.
When considering home biodiesel production, the essential equipment needed includes a stainless steel
reactor tank, a wash station for coproduct removal, and containers for fuel storage. You have cost-
effective options, such as adapting an electric water heater as a biodiesel reactor for less than $1,000 or
purchasing a similarly priced kit. Alternatively, if you prefer a fully automated system, it may cost
$10,000 or more.

The biodiesel production process relies on two key chemical reactions. The first one, commonly
referred to as the "methoxide reaction," occurs when methanol is mixed with a catalyst, which can be
either potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. The methoxide reaction is "exothermic," generating
heat. When creating methoxide, it is imperative to steer clear of plastic containers due to their limited heat
resistance, which can result in explosions or dissolution. It is always advisable to use stainless steel
equipment for biodiesel production.

Local

-The typical oil refining process involves several key stages: degumming, centrifugation,
neutralization, oil bleaching, filtration, deaeration, and deodorization. Phospholipids are commonly
eliminated through acid degumming, employing concentrated phosphoric acid at a temperature below
100°C. This process causes phospholipids to form gums, which are subsequently separated via
centrifugation. The removal of free fatty acids (FFA) occurs during the neutralization phase, where an
alkaline solution, such as sodium hydroxide, reacts with FFA to produce soap stock, which is then
removed again through centrifugation ( Landoy et al., 2022).
 -The next step involves bleaching, utilizing adsorbents to further enhance the oil's quality by
eliminating additional impurities and contaminants, including residual soap, gums, chlorophyll, oxidation
byproducts, and trace metals. This process reduces impurity levels from 1.2% to 0.84% by mass. The
recommended loading of adsorbents used in the bleaching stage is 17 kg of bleaching earth and 5 kg of
activated carbon per metric ton of oil processed. These adsorbents are subsequently removed through
filtration, while the bleached oil undergoes deaeration and deodorization. These final two stages of the
refining process serve to remove moisture and further reduce FFA content, achieving the desired moisture
content of 0.15% by mass and a maximum FFA content of 0.025% by mass in the refined oil, making it
suitable for use in biodiesel production (Edel Alba, C., & Piranfar, H., 2019)

-Based on the data given after using the biodiesel. The initial phase involved processing waste
cooking oil into biodiesel to assess the feasibility of adopting this technology. The processed biodiesel
underwent testing in various blends, including B20, B50, and B100, using PhilRice-CES farm machinery.
Specifically, B20 and B50 biodiesel blends were tested in a Kubota M7530 four-wheel tractor, and B20,
B50, and B100 biodiesel blends were tested in a Kubota RK80 engine.

The key finding was that there were no discernible differences in engine performance between the
biodiesel blends and 100% petroleum diesel. However, a noteworthy distinction was that engines running
on biodiesel blends emitted colorless smoke instead of the typical black smoke seen with 100% petroleum
diesel (Fenangad, D & Abon, John Eric & Mabalot, Pristine & Orge, Ricardo, 2015).
Recommendations

-Rudolf Diesel's pioneering work in the late 19th century, exploring the use of vegetable oils as a
potential fuel source for his diesel engine, laid the foundation for the development of biodiesel. Biodiesel,
a mono alkyl ester of fatty acids produced through transesterification of vegetable oils or animal fats, has
emerged as a promising renewable fuel option, offering the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and dependence on fossil fuels in transportation and other sectors (Talebian-Kiakalaieh, 2013).

-The biodiesel industry encompasses a wide array of feedstock sources, including both edible and
non-edible oils, with a growing emphasis on utilizing non-edible and waste cooking oils to mitigate
potential food crisis concerns. To drive the industrialization and commercialization of biodiesel, researchers
are actively pursuing innovative processes aimed at significantly reducing production costs, particularly
through decreased reaction time, alcohol usage, catalyst requirements, and lower reaction temperatures
(Saidina, 2013).

-While biodiesel production is influenced by the oil content of feedstock, which directly impacts
yield and production costs, the use of edible oils like palm oil presents a dilemma as it competes with food
production. However, the utilization of waste cooking oil, with its high fatty acid content, offers a
sustainable solution to the feedstock challenge, aligning with the goal of reducing production costs and
minimizing competition with food resources in the biodiesel industry. (Moazeni, 2019).

-Cruz Esterification, a process developed by Dr. Rico Cruz, simplifies the production of biodiesel
by reacting triglycerides or vegetable oils with alcohol (typically methanol or ethanol) and catalysts at room
temperature. Unlike traditional methods, cruz esterification eliminates the need for heat application and fuel
washing, streamlining the biodiesel production process.

In the Philippines, the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA) has explored the use of coconut oil as
a biofuel source using cruzesterification. The PCA-Zamboanga Research Center established a pilot plant
capable of processing 130 liters of crude filtered coconut oil per batch. Between 1995 and 2000,
approximately 12,000 liters of coconut biodiesel were produced and tested in vehicles at blend ratios
ranging from 40% to 100%. Additionally, small quantities of this biodiesel were utilized in a generator,
hand tractor, and irrigation pump (Fenangad, D & Abon, John Eric & Mabalot, Pristine & Orge, Ricardo,
2015)

-Cruzesterification represents an innovative and more accessible approach to biodiesel production,

particularly in regions where coconut oil is abundant and can serve as a valuable biofuel source. Various
methods exist for converting oils or fats into biodiesel, including transesterification, esterification, blending,
cracking, microemulsion, and pyrolysis. Among these, transesterification stands out as the most commonly
used approach for biodiesel production. This process involves the reaction between oils or fats and a short-
chain alcohol.

Alternatively, biodiesel production can also be achieved through esterification when there is a high
concentration of free fatty acids present. More recently, the hydroesterification process has garnered
attention for its ability to produce high-quality biodiesel. This method combines the hydrolysis and
esterification reactions, which can occur concurrently with transesterification, depending on the levels of
free fatty acids or water in the mix. Unlike transesterification, hydro esterification doesn't require
pretreatment of oils, as it targets free fatty acids, resulting in highly pure glycerol (MDPI, 2022) .
 -Transesterification reactions can be catalyzed by acids, bases, or enzymes. Acid catalysis is less
common due to longer reaction times, corrosion issues, and the difficulty of separating the catalyst from
the main product.

Oil can be obtained from raw materials in two primary ways: mechanical extraction or
solvent/enzyme extraction. Mechanical extraction involves using a screw-type machine to press out the oil,
which is a simple process applicable to various nuts and oilseeds, but it often yields a relatively low amount
of oil. In contrast, solvent/enzyme extraction can yield significantly more oil while reducing the oil content
in the meal to less than 1% by weight. However, this method requires more energy and time. Another option
for oil extraction is enzymatic extraction, which is environmentally friendly but tends to be less cost-
effective and time-consuming than solvent extraction (Landoy R.J, 2022)
–----

-The aim of the study was to investigate the reason for the low recovery of WCO in those areas
suffering serious waste management problems such as the Campania region in Southern Italy.
Unfortunately, the change of management, together with serious problems in the collection of municipal
waste in the whole region, due to the continuous closures of the mechanical and biological plants, produced
a sharp decline in the collection from 7730 kg in 2015 to an average of 3800 kg for the period 2016–2019,
with a loss of more than 15,000 kg of WCO wrongly disposed with consequent environmental and economic
damage. Therefore, information and awareness campaigns are important but the form of entrusting the
collection service is equally important, especially in areas with long-standing waste management problems
(De Feo et al., 2020).

-The production of biodiesel depends on the availability of a particular raw material and the cost
of the desired raw material. Biodiesel is mainly produced by transesterification using suitable catalyst,
preferably heterogeneous catalyst, as it also has more advantages in terms of reuse, recovery, purity of
products and production costs. The latest trend in biodiesel synthesis is the application of machine learning
(ML) techniques to optimize process parameters. The use of mixtures of two or more oils as raw materials,
inedible or edible, is being promoted for biodiesel synthesis and is now becoming increasingly important.
It is recognized that the oil blend ratio is an important factor in biodiesel quality and conversion. The use
of blended oils will overcome the problems associated with raw material shortages and reduce overall costs
through improved biodiesel quality (Brahma et al., 2022).

-Household surveys in Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka were analyzed
using a two-stage Heckman model to examine the factors influencing the decision to use liquefied
petroleum gas (stage 1) and, among users, the quantity consumed per person (stage 2). In the first stage,
liquefied petroleum gas selection in all six countries increased with household expenditure and the highest
level of education attained by female and male household members. Electricity connection increased, and
engagement in agriculture and increasing household size decreased, liquefied petroleum gas selection in
five countries; urban residence increased selection in four countries; and rising firewood and kerosene
prices increased selection in three countries each. In the second stage, the quantity of liquefied petroleum
gas consumed increased with rising household expenditure and decreasing price of liquefied petroleum gas
in every country. Urban residence increased and engagement in agriculture decreased liquefied petroleum
gas consumption (Kojima et al., 2011).

-The present study describes the single-step transesterification method of biodiesel production from
high free fatty acid (FFA) waste cooking oil blended with algae oil using a homogeneous base catalyst.
Catalyst concentration (0–2 wt%), methanol concentration (v/v) (20–60%) and reaction time (60–180 min)
at a uniform reaction temperature of 50 °C. 5% (w/w), methanol/oil ratio of 21:1 and reaction time of 110
min at a constant reaction temperature of 50 °C. This analysis clearly shows that this study can resolve the
storage problem of high FFA oils from different feedstock and RSM can be successfully used to model the
reaction to maximize the biodiesel yield (Jain et al., 2023).

-Production from waste cooking oil (WCO) provides an alternative energy means of producing
liquid fuels from biomass for transport uses. Biodiesel production by recycling WCO and methanol in the
presence of kalium hydroxide (KOH), offers several benefits such as economic, environmental and waste
management. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the pre-treatment and the usage of WCO
for the production of biodiesel in Kosovo. In order to know as accurately as possible how the Kosovo
market is prepared for biodiesel production and what potential Kosovo has in this case, we researched on
our own the market by interviewing the workers from the gastronomy sector so we could calculate how
much oil is being yearly wasted, and within it the amount of energy too (Nushi et al., 2023).

-There is a large volume of waste cooking oil (WCO) in the world, which has made waste
management extremely difficult. The main purpose of the large-scale organized collection of WCO is the
synthesis of biodiesel. Although alternative applications are equally important and necessitate attention, the
majority of studies focus primarily on the synthesis of biodiesel from WCO. The major objective of this
review paper is to draw attention to the potential environmental implications of used cooking oil as well as
its potential for reuse in products other than biodiesel. Therefore, waste cooking oil can be viewed as a
waste that can be converted into energy or used as a catalyst for biological or chemical processes (Alade et
al., 2022).
–----

-Development of sustainable energy resources are the need of the present day in view of the
depleting energy resources and increase in the energy demand throughout the world. On the other hand,
fossil fuel combustion emits harmful pollutants like oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and particulate
matter, which causes atmospheric pollution. Biodiesel as an alternative fuel has various advantages over
fossil fuels such as its renewability, lesser emission of atmospheric pollutants, and flexibility to produce
from a variety of feedstock. Waste cooking oil can be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production.
Disposal of waste cooking oil itself is an environmental challenge due to its adverse environmental impact.
Transesterification is the key process for the synthesis of biodiesel production at low cost and under mild
reaction conditions. Intensive studies have been done on the optimization of transesterification for the
improvement of biodiesel yield and reduction of conversion cost. Heterogeneous catalysts can play a crucial
role in the improvement of biodiesel yield as well as the cost of biodiesel production due to their repetitive
application. The present manuscript is an attempt to provide a comprehensive review of the characteristics
of waste cooking oil, factors affecting the transesterification reaction, and the application of heterogeneous
catalysts in biodiesel production to achieve more sustainability in the process.

-Biodiesel is a renewable, clean-burning, and biodegradable fuel that can be synthesized from
readily available domestic and natural sources, such as edible, non-edible, and waste cooking oils, which
may serve as a substitute for petroleum-diesel. It is produced by catalytic transesterification of fats and oils.
A number of researches have been devoted to discovering a benign catalyst, especially a heterogeneous
acid catalyst that could convert non-edible and waste cooking oils with high-free fatty acid into biodiesel,
in an attempt to reduce the cost of production. The cost of production of biodiesel is still far higher than
that of conventional petro-diesel, owing to the cost of edible oil currently being used, the processes
involved, and the cost of conventional heterogeneous catalysts employed. This study assessed the role of
various catalysts; homogeneous, heterogenous, and enzyme-catalyzed transesterification reactions, in terms
of their advantages and disadvantages in biodiesel production in order to establish very promising catalysts.
Some methods of heterogeneous acid catalysts were also highlighted. Amongst the common heterogeneous
catalysts, carbon-based solid acid catalysts were recommended as very promising solid acid catalysts that
can utilize non-edible oils in biodiesel production. The advantages of carbon-based solid acid catalysts
include cheap readily available raw materials for their synthesis, easier production processes, relative
stability, high reusability, and potential for utilizing waste and non-edible oils for biodiesel production.

The continuous fluctuation in the price of crude oil in the international market during the COVID-
19 situation forced the nation to work for self-sustainability in the energy sector. This pandemic condition
also teaches all to utilize available sources effectively. So, to deal with dual problems the optimized
conversion of waste into an energy source is the most effective solution. In the present work waste cooking
oil is converted into biodiesel and the production process is optimized using the response surface
methodology technique. The central composite design approach of RSM is selected for optimization in the
present work which provides better results in limited experiments. The yield of waste cooking oil biodiesel
is optimized through four parameters i.e., catalyst concentration, temp, time, and alcohol to oil molar ratio.
The effect of all these parameters is analyzed exhaustively with the help of design expert software. The
physicochemical properties of optimized WCOB are measured and the results are compared with Petro
diesel fuel and normally prepared WCOB. It is found that the yield of WCOB is increased by more than
4% while prepared with optimized parameter values. The physicochemical properties of optimized WCOB
were also found better as compared to normally prepared WCOB and comparable to Petro diesel. Hence it
can be concluded that the optimization of biodiesel production not only improves the yield but also
improves the quality of the biodiesel.
 -Waste cooking oils (WCO), which contain large amounts of free fatty acids produced in
restaurants, are collected by the environmental protection agency in the main cities of China and should be
disposed of in a suitable way. In this research, a two-step catalyzed process was adopted to prepare biodiesel
from waste cooking oil whose acid value was 75.92 ± 0.036 mgKOH/g. The free fatty acids of WCO were
esterified with methanol catalyzed by ferric sulfate in the first step, and the triglycerides (TGs) in WCO
were transesterified with methanol catalyzed by potassium hydroxide in the second step. The results showed
that ferric sulfate had high activity to catalyze the esterification of free fatty acids (FFA) with methanol,
The conversion rate of FFA reached 97.22% when 2 wt% of ferric sulfate was added to the reaction system
containing methanol to TG in10:1 (mole ratio) composition and reacted at 95 °C for 4 h. The methanol was
vacuum evaporated, and transesterification of the remaining triglycerides was performed at 65 °C for 1 h
in a reaction system containing 1 wt% of potassium hydroxide and 6:1 mole ratio of methanol to TG. The
final product with 97.02% of biodiesel, obtained after the two-step catalyzed process, was analyzed by gas
chromatography. This new process has many advantages compared with the old processes, such as no acidic
wastewater, high efficiency, low equipment cost, and easy recovery of the catalyst.

-Transesterified vegetable oil (biodiesel) has recently attracted enormous attention all over the
world as an alternative fuel for diesel engines because of its renewability. Biodiesel can be produced from
renewable sources such as vegetable oil, animal fat, and used cooking oil. Currently, the cost of biodiesel
is high as compared to conventional diesel oil because most of the biodiesel is produced from pure vegetable
oil. However, the cost of biodiesel can be reduced by using low-cost feedstock such as animal fat and used
cooking oil. This paper reviews the work that has already been done in technologies for biodiesel production
from used cooking oil. The fuel properties of biodiesel from used cooking oil were also reviewed and
compared with conventional diesel oil.

Used cooking oils can be a workable feedstock for biodiesel production as they are easily available.
This paper reviews the research work that has already been done in the area of used cooking oil as a
feedstock for biodiesel production. Considerable quantities of used cooking oil are available all over the
world. These are generated locally wherever food is cooked or fried in oil. Supervision of used cooking oil
creates a significant challenge because of their dumping problems and possible pollution of the water and
land resources.

-The ever-increasing global energy demand, consumption of depletable fossil fuels, exhaust
emissions, and global warming, all led to a search for alternative fuels. Biodiesel was produced from waste
cooking oil by the transesterification process. Blends of waste cooking oil biodiesel and diesel oil were
prepared in volume percentages of 10, 20, and 30% as B10, B20, and B30. Biodiesel blends have ASTM
standards of physical and chemical characterization near to diesel fuel. Diesel engine performance and
exhaust emissions were studied experimentally for burning waste cooking oil blended with diesel fuel. This
experiment was applied to a diesel engine at different engine loads from zero to full load. Thermal
efficiencies for waste cooking-oil biodiesel blends were lower than diesel oil. Specific fuel consumption of
biodiesel blends was higher than diesel fuel. Higher exhaust gas temperatures were recorded for biodiesel
blends compared to diesel oil. CO2 emissions for waste cooking-oil biodiesel blends were higher than diesel
oil. CO, smoke opacity and HC emissions for biodiesel blends were lower than for diesel fuel. NOx
emissions for biodiesel blends were higher than diesel fuel.