Discuss Periodic Motion

Periodic motion refers to any movement of an object that is repeated in a given length of

time. Whatever the motion may be, the period of time it takes to get back to where it

started is called the time period of the motion.

Frequency for the motion is measured in hertz, which is the number of complete cycles per

second.

Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the center or equilibrium position

Figure-1-Graph of periodic motion

Examples of Periodic Motion

There is a lot of examples of periodic motion in our everyday lives because so many

actions and movements are repetitive. The following are some of the examples

• a rocking chair

• a swing swinging

• a satellite orbiting the Earth

• the vibrations of a tuning fork or

• the swing of a pendulum.

1
 Figure-2-Vibration of tuning fork

Figure-3-Swining of a pendulum

The periodic time (T) is the time taken for one complete revolution which is equal to the

time taken for the oscillation or vibration.

2
 2πr
Periodic time, T = t p =
v
But since v = ωr

2πr 2π
Then T = tp = = seconds
ωr ω
Vibration is usually characterized or assessed by three parameters: amplitude, frequency

and phase.

Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the center or equilibrium position.

Frequency is the time for one complete cycle of vibration and is expressed in Hertz (cycles

per second).

Phase is a measure of the instant at which a vibration passes through the central or

equilibrium position.

Discuss Simple Harmonic Motion

Free Vibrations

Free vibration occurs when there is no external force causing the motion, and the vibration

of the system is caused by the initial displacement of the system from the equilibrium

position. A plucked guitar string is an example of free vibration. When a force is applied to

the string initially and then removed, the vibration that persists on the string is called free

vibration. The frequency with which the system vibrates is called natural frequency.

Machines with moving parts generate forces which cause other parts within the machines

to vibrate. This in itself if not checked may cause damage or malfunctioning and the

vibrations may be transmitted to the grounds and floors causing more general damage. Thus

a mechanical or elastic system will vibrate when its components parts undergo periodic

oscillations about a statically equal position or a configuration.

It can be shown that any system by virtue of its inherent mass and elasticity can be caused

to vibrate by forces applied externally. It is not possible to eliminate all vibrations but by

understanding their nature the worst effects particularly in cases of resonance can be

3
avoided, the lesser effects can be minimal. The duration and severity of the vibration

depends on the relation between the external forces and the mechanics of the system.

Vibration can sometimes be used to an advantage as:

• Mixing

• Cleaning machines.

• Compacting

• Separating

The presence of vibration is generally undesirable for three main reasons.

They are:

• Structural damage of a fatigue nature may be caused by the cyclical fluctuation of

loading.

• Noise which is vibration of air molecules may be generated by a mechanical vibration.

• Physical discomfort may be experienced by persons associated with the system.

(Passengers in a vehicle.)

Free or natural vibrations occur in an elastic system when a body is acted upon only by the

internal restoring forces of the system. Since these forces are proportional to the

displacement of the body from the equilibrium position, the acceleration of the body is also

proportional to the displacement and is always directed towards the equilibrium position so

that the body moves with simple harmonic motion.

Simple harmonic motion

A body moves with S.H.M, if its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from a fixed

point and is always directed towards that point.

4
 Figure - 4

Let the line OP, of length a, rotate about a fixed point O, with constant angular velocity ω
rad/s. Then if time is measured from the position OB, the angle turned through by OP in

time t, will be ψ = ωt

If Q is the projection of P on the diameter AB, the displacement Q from its mid-position
x = acosψ. x = acosωt

The maximum displacement, ‘a’ is termed the amplitude of the motion.

The velocity of Q is the component of the velocity of P parallel to AB.

dx
V = = - aωsinωt
dt

That is V = ωasinψ = ω√a2 – x2 (Check this formular from triangle POQ)

When x = 0

Vmax = ωa,

The acceleration which is represented as (f) of Q is the component of the acceleration of

P parallel to AB.

dv d 2 x
f= = = = - ω2acosωt
dt dt 2

That is f = -ω2acosψ =- ω2x,

Hence fmax = ω2a when x = a.

5
f = - ω2x,

Thus the acceleration of Q is proportional to its displacement from the fixed point O and

is always directed towards O, so that the motion of Q is simple harmonic, that is when f =

- ω2x, we can therefore say that the body moves with simple harmonic motion in that the

acceleration (f) is directly proportional to the displacement (x). The negative sign shows

that the body is moving back to its original equilibrium position.

The periodic time is the time taken for one complete revolution of P,

2π
ie. tp = sec
ω

f
but ω2 =
x

x
hence tp = 2π
f

1 f
and the frequency n=
2π x

Apply the concept of simple harmonic motion to solve problems

Linear motion of an elastic system

If a body of mass m controlled by an elastic system is given a displacement x, then the

restoring force = Sx, where S is the stiffness of the system. (i.e. the restoring force per

unit displacement). When released, the acceleration of the body is given by Force = mass x

6
acceleration. i.e. Sx = mf {since amplitude is represented by (a) we will represent

acceleration by (f) and (n) represents frequency}

x m
Hence =
f S

m δ
Therefore t p = 2π = t p = 2π
S g

where δ is the elastic deflection under the mass m.

The acceleration will be:

1 S 1
n= since tp =
2π m tp

1 g
n=
2π δ

1 g 1
n= = δ since g is approximately = 2π
2π δ 2

Now with aid of the information acquired solve the following problems.

QUESTION 1.

A spring of stiffness 200 N/m has a mass of 0.75 kg. A mass of 5 kg is attached to the

free end and set in motion.

Find the time of oscillation:

(a) neglecting the mass of the spring;

(b) allowing for the mass of the spring.

Solution

7
 Figure-5-Spring mass unit

The mass of the spring may therefore be allowed by adding 1/3 of its mass to that of the

concentrated mass.

m 5
a. Neglecting the mass of the spring -tp = 2π√M/S t p = 2π = 2π = 0.99 sec
S 200

ms 0.75
m+ 5+
2π�M+𝑚𝑚/3
b. Allowing for the mass of the spring – tp = t p = 2π 3 = t = 2π 3
p
√S S 200

= 1.018 sec

QUESTION 2.

A spring of stiffness 2 KN/m is suspended vertically and the two equal masses of 4 kg each
are attached to the lower end. One of these masses is suddenly removed and the system
oscillates.

Determine:

a. the amplitude and the frequency of the vibration

b. the velocity and acceleration of the mass when passing through the half
amplitude position

Solution:

a) Static deflection under load of 8 kg that is:

8
 Sδ= mg

hence δ = mg/S = 8 x 9.81/2x103 = 0.03924 m

Static deflection under a load of 4 kg = 4 x 9.81/2x103 = 0.01962 m

Therefore, when one mass is removed, the remaining mass will oscillate about the static

deflection position of that mass with an amplitude of 0.01962 m.

The frequency, n = 1/2√δ = 1/2√0.1962 = 3.57 Hz.

b) V = ω√a2 – x2 = 22.35√0.019622– 0.009812 = 0.38 m/s

f = ω2x = 22.352 x 0.00981 = 4.905 m/s2

Example 3
If the block shown in Figure 6 is given an initial velocity of 10 m/s at the equilibrium

position, determine:

a. the period

b. frequency in Hz,

c. the amplitude,

d. the magnitude of maximum acceleration of the resulting motion.

24 kN/m
50 kg

Figure-6-Sprig mass unit

Solution

S 24 × 10 3
ωn = = ω n = 21.91 rad/s
m 50

2π 2π
(a) tn = , tn = = 0.287 s
ωn 21.91
9
 ωn 21.91
(b) nn = , nn = = 3.49 Hz
2π 2π

 ν 
2
   10  2 
(c) A =   o  + χ o  =  
2
 + 02  = A = 0.456 m
  ω n     21.91  
 

(d) fmax = Aωn2 = 0.456 x 21.912 amax = 219.1 m/s2

Now with aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problems

on Simple Harmonic Motion

Question 1

1. A spring of stiffness 250 N/m has a mass of 1 kg. A mass of 8 kg is attached to the

free end and the system set vibrating.

a. Determine the natural frequency of free vibration.

(i) neglecting the mass of the spring

(ii) including the mass of the spring

b. Determine:

(i) the periodic time of the ensuing motion

(ii) the maximum value of velocity and acceleration

Question 2

An object is suspended from the end of a vertically suspended spring and oscillates is with

SHM. At equilibrium the static deflection of the spring is 0.10 m. What is the frequency of

the oscillation?

Let’s go through this exercise since some strings are connected in series and some in

parallel

10
Springs connected in parallel

Figure - 7 - Springs connected in parallel

The total restoring force is the sum of the forces acting on each

spring, i.e. F= Sx + Sx = 2Sx

mf = 2Sx

x m
Hence =
f 2S

x
But tp = 2π
f

m
Hence tp = 2π
2S

Springs connected in series

11
 Figure - 8 - Springs connected in series
The restoring force acting on the first spring will be the same as that acting on the

second spring. Thus for the extension x1 of the first spring with stiffness S1 the

extension x1 will be F/S1 and for the stiffness S2 the extension x2 will be F/S2. The total

extension x is:

F F
x = x1 + x2 = x = +
S1 S 2

S1 S 2
thus the restoring force F = x
S1 + S 2

S1 S 2
but F = mf and so mf = x
S1 + S 2

x (S1 + S 2 )m
Hence =
f S1 S 2

x
but tp = 2π
f

m( S1 + S 2)
Hence tp = 2π
S1S 2

Now with aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problems
12
Question 1
An object of mass 2.0kg is supported by two springs, one of stiffness 20kN/m and the
other 30kN/m. What will be the frequency of the oscillation when the springs are
connected:
a. in series
b. in parallel

Question 2

If a displacement of a moving point at any time be given an equation of the form

x = acosωt + bsin ωt

Show that the motion is a simple harmonic motion.

Determine:

a. the period

b. amplitude,

c. maximum velocity

d. maximum acceleration of the motion.

Solve problems on Torsional vibration

Torsional vibration

Torsional vibration is angular vibration that occurs about the axis of a shaft. It is different

than lateral vibration (which occurs in the radial direction) and axial vibration (which occurs

along the shaft length). Torsional vibration involves speed fluctuations of various

components and the twisting of shaft sections while the machinery is rotating.

Excessive torsional vibration can lead to failures of such items as shafts, couplings, fans,

gears, engine dampers, and compressor oil pumps. These failures typically occur at a 45-

degree angle to the shaft axis. Unfortunately, torsional vibration problems may not be

apparent until after a failure occurs.

13
 Figure-9-Torsional vibration

ANGULAR SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Similar equations apply in the case of angular simple harmonic motion. Thus if the amplitude

of the motion is Ø, the angular velocity of the body at any angular displacement, θ, is given

by Ω = ω√Ø2 – θ2 where ω is the angular speed of the line generating the S.H.M. and

Ωmax = ωØ but the angular acceleration is given by f = ω2θ. Also fmax = ω2Ø. The periodic

time, tp = 2π√θ/α and the frequency n = 1/2π√α/θ

ANGULAR MOTION OF AN ELASTIC SYSTEM

If a body of moment of inertia (I), controlled by an elastic system, is given an angular

displacement θ, then restoring torque = qθ, where q is the torsional stiffness of the system

(ie the restoring torque per unit angular displacement). When released the angular

acceleration of the body is given by

torque = moment of inertia X angular acceleration

i.e. qθ = Iα
14
 θ Ι
= = constant
α q
Ι
∴ tp = 2π s
q

1 q
or n= Hz
2π Ι

Question 1

A uniform bar AB, 2.5 m long and of mass 100 kg, is supported on a hinge at one end and on

a spring support at the other end B, so that it can vibrate in a vertical plane. The stiffness

of the spring is 20 kN/m deflection. The bar may be assumed to be flexurally rigid. The

end B of the bar is depressed and released. Calculate the frequency of the resulting

vibrations.

SOLUTION

2.5 m
A B

Figure-10-Uniform beam with support

Moment of inertia of the bar AB about the hinge A is given by

I = 1/3 m X 2.52 kg m2
Restoring torque T = Kθ X 2.52
But T = Iα
Hence 1/3m x 2.52 = -kθ x 2.52
i.e α + 3k/mθ = 0

15
 1 1
∴ frequency n= √3k/√m = 3 x 20 x10 2 / 100 = 3.9 Hz
2π 2π

Question 2

A uniform thin rod, AB shown in the fig below has a mass of 1 kg and carries a concentrated

mass of 2.5 kg at B. The rod is hinged at A and is maintained in the horizontal position by a

spring of stiffness 1.8 KN/m at C. find the frequency of oscillation, neglecting the effect

of the mass of the spring.

SOLUTION

0.6 2
Moment of inertia of system about A = I x + 2.5 x 0.62
3
IA = 1.02 kgm2

Let the rod be given a small angular displacement θ rad and then released.

Extension of spring = 0.3θ m.

∴ spring force = 0.3θ x 1.8 x 103 = 540θ

∴ restoring moment about A = 540θ x 0.3 = 162θ Nm

Hence 162θ = 1.02α

α 162
∴ = = 159
θ 1.02
1 1
n= √α/√θ = 159 = 2.01 Hz
2π 2π

NOTE: 1. Moment of inertia of a rectangular lamina = 1/3 ma2

2. Moment of inertia of a circular ring about an axis through its centers

perpendicular

to the plane of the ring = ma2

Determine practically the frequency, amplitude and period of free

16
vibration
In order to determine practically the frequency and time period of free vibration you will

be provided with following apparatus:

Apparatus

1. Stop watch,

2. Slotted masses,

3. Weight hanger,

4. Tape measure or rule,

5. Spring

With the aid of the given apparatus follow the following procedures:

Procedure

(Free vibration)

1. Measure the mass of the spring and weight hanger.

2. Hang the spring from the support end

3. Place a weight hanger on the hang spring

Taking reading

4. Place 5 N weight on the weight hanger.

5. Set the spring to oscillate by pressing the hanging weight downward and releasing

it.

6. With the timer, record the time (period ‘T’ for 20 oscillation) taken for the

apparatus to complete the oscillation.

7. Record the reading in table 1

8. Repeat this three times and find the average of your total time (the period of the

oscillator is then the average time measured divided by 20).

9. Repeat cycle for 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30N and record the time.

10. With the knowledge acquired in the calculations of free vibration, plot the

17
 graph m against T² (this mass consisting of the hanging mass and 1/3 of the

mass of the spring).

11. Determine the slope of the best fit line which is the spring constant, K

12. With this constant K you will be able to determine the period, frequency and

amplitude of the free vibration

13. Take all necessary safety precautions.

Figure-11

Table 1 Observed table for free vibration

S/N W 𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒉 Time for 20 osc. Average Period T²

(N) (kg) (𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌) t (sec) time ‘T’/20
(sec²)
(𝑻𝑻𝑨𝑨 ) sec
𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻𝟑𝟑

1 5 0.5

18
 S/N W 𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒉 Period T² Mass(m)

(N) (kg) (kg) ‘T’/20 sec (sec²) 𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒉 +1/3𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔

1 5 0.5

Table 2 Derived table for free vibration

Checklist Table 3
No Yes No
1 Were you provided with all the apparatus
needed
2 Were you able to take all the readings
3 Could you plot the graph of m against T2
4 Were you able to determine the value of the
constant K

19
5 Were you able to determine the time period,
the frequency and amplitude of the free
vibration

20
After performing the experiment, the following procedure should be used to present the
work.

i. Title
ii. Objective
iii. Sketches and description of apparatus
iv. Theory
v. Procedure
vi. Observed tables for the experiment
vii. Sample calculation
viii. Derived tables for the experiment
ix. Graph of m, against T² for the experiment
x. Precautionary measures taken to successfully complete the experiment
xi. Recommendation
Conclusion; interpret the graphs and comment on the value of the frequency of the
experiment

21
Solve free vibration problems with two degrees of freedom
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF MOTION

Before you start solving problems on free vibration with two degrees of freedom you will be

taken through how to derive differential equations

There are types of differential equations:

d 2x
2 ± ω x = c, where ω and c are constants
2
dt
d 2x
This equation may be written as 2 ± ω2x = 0 + c and the solution consists of two parts
dt
d 2x
a) The value of x which satisfies the equation 2 ± ω x = 0 this being called
2
dt
COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.
d 2x
b) The value of x which satisfies the equation 2 ± ω2x = c this is being called the
dt
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.

COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION

Assuming a solution of the form x = cemt

d 2x
2 ± ω x = 0 becomes
2
dt
m2cemt ± ω2cemt = 0
d 2x 2
If -ωx=0
dt 2
cemt (m2 + ω2) = 0 , ∴ m= ±ω
X = c1 eωt + c2e -ωt = 0

X = c1(cosωt + sinωt) + c2(cosωt – sinωt)

X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt where A = c1 + c2 and B = c1 – c2

d 2x 2
Assuming + ω x = 0,
dt 2
22
Then m = ± iω
∴ X = c1e iωt + c2e -iωt = 0

X = c1 cosωt + isinωt) + c2(cosωt – isinωt)

X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt where A = c1 + c2 and B = i(c1 – c2)

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL

Assuming a solution of the form x = k the equation

d 2x
± ω2x = c becomes
dt 2
0 ± ω2k = c
c
∴ k=
±ω2

d 2x 2
Thus the complete solution of the equation 2 - ω x = c is
dt
c
X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt -
ω2
d 2x 2
and the complete solution of the equation 2 + ω x = c is
dt
c
X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt +
ω2
With this knowledge at hand lets go ahead and solve the following problems on two degrees

of freedom

Question 1

If a body of mass m is acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from an

d 2x
equilibrium position the equation of motion is m 2 =- Sx
dt
Show that this equation represent on oscillatory motion of the form x = acosωt.

The negative sign arises because the restoring force Sx is opposite in direction of the

displacement X.

Solution

23
 d 2x 2 S
+ωx=0 where ω2 =
dt 2 m
d
Let D represent then (D2 + ω2)X = 0
dt
Hence (D2 + ω2) = 0

so that D= ± iω
Hence X = c1e iωt + c2e -iωt = 0

X = c1(cosωt + isinωt) + c2(cosωt – isinωt)

X = Acos ωt + Bsinωt

where A = c1 + c2 and B = i(c1 – c2)

the equation represents an oscillatory motion of periodic time tp = 2π/ω.

the constants A and B are determined by the initial conditions of the motion.

Thus X = a when t = 0,

dx
= 0 , when t = 0
dt
Then A = a and B = 0,

so that x = acosωt.

We have now been able to prove that the equation is simple harmonic motion

Two degrees of freedom

The number of degrees of freedom of a system is the number of different modes of vibration

which the system may possess. A system possesses two degrees of freedom if two distinct

modes of vibration are possible. If each part of the system is given a displacement from its

equilibrium position, the restoring force or moment on each is a function not only of its own

displacement but also of the displacement of the other parts. This equations of motion

obtained must be solved as simultaneous differential equations, but it must always be found

that the motions of each are simple harmonic and of the same frequency. The equations of

motion may therefore be greatly simplified by assuming that X1 = a1cosωt and X = a2cosωt or

24
θ1 = Ø1cosωt and θ2 = Ø2cosωt in the case of angular motion, which leads to a quadratic equation

in ω2 from which the two natural frequencies of vibration may be obtained.

Figure-12-Two degrees of freedom

Question 1

A mass m1 3 kg is suspended from a spring of stiffness 600 N/m and to the underside of the

mass m1 another spring of stiffness 500 N/m is attached. This second spring carries a mass

m2 of 2 kg hanging vertically below m1.

Assuming that the movements of the two masses x1 and x2 are of the form

x1 = a1sinωt and x2 = a2sinωt respectively. Find the natural frequencies of the motion

25
 Figure-13-Two degrees of freedom

SOLUTION

(b) Equations of motions are:

d 2 x1
m1 = - S1x1 + S2( x2- x1) ------------------------- (1)
dt 2

d 2 x2
m2 2 = - S2 (x2- x1) -------------------------------- (2)
dt
Now if x1 = a1sinωt and x2 = a2 sinωt
.
d 2 x1 d 2 x2
= a1ωcosωt and = a2ωcosωt
dt 2 dt 2

d 2 x1 2
d 2 x2
= - a1ω sinωt and = -a2ω2sinωt
dt 2 dt 2
Substituting into equation (1)

m1(-a1ω2sinωt) = - S1a1sinωt + S2(a2sinωt – a1sinωt) ------(3)

Substituting into equation (2)

26
 m2(-a2ω2sinωt) = - S2(a2sinωt – a1sinωt) ---------------(4)
Rearranging equation (3)
-m1a1ω2sinωt = -S1a1sinωt + S2a2sinωt – S2a1sinωt -----------------(5)

Rearranging equation (4)

-m2a2ω2sinωt = -S2a2sinωt +S2 a1sinωt -----------------------------(6)
Dividing through by sinωt and rearranging equations (5) and (6)

-m1a1ω2 + S1a1 + S2a1 = S2a2 ------------------------------------------(7)

-m2a2ω2 + S2a2 = -S2a1------------------------------------------------(8)

From equation (7)
a1 (-m1ω2 + S1 + S2) = S2a2

a1 S1 + S 2 − m1ω 2
Hence = --------------------------------------------------(9)
a2 S2
--
From equation (8)
a2(-m2ω2 + S2) = -S2a1

a2 S2
Hence = --------------------------------------------------------(10)
a1 m2ω 2 − S2

Equating equations (9) and (10)

S1 + S 2 − m1ω 2 S2
=
S2 m2ω 2 − S2

Hence m1m2ω 4 – {m1S1+ m2 (S1 + S2 ) ω2 + S1 S2 } = 0 ----------------------------- (11)

But
m1 = 3 kg
m2 =2 kg
S1 = 60 N /m
S2 = 50 N/m

27
Substituting the values into equation (11)

6ω4- {3x60 + 2(110)} ω2 + 3000 = 0

6ω2 – 400 ω2 + 3000 = 0

ω4 – 66.7ω2 + 500 = 0
Let y = ω2
Hence y2 – 66.7y + 500 = 0

Y1 = 58 and y2 =8.6

ω21 = 58 and ω22 = 8.6

ω1 = 7.62 rad/s and ω2 = 2.93rad/s

Question 2

A mass m2 is suspended from a fixed point by means of a spring of fitness S2. Attached to the
mass m2 by means of a second spring of stiffness S1 is another mass m1. When the system is
set in free vibration, if the inertia of the springs be neglected, show that m1 m2 ω4 - {m2 S1 +
m1 (S1 + S2) ω2 + S1S2 = 0} where ω is the phase velocity.

If m1 and m2 are each 225 kg and S1 and S2 are 120 KN and 240 KN respectively, find the
frequencies of oscillation.

Equations of motions are:

m2d2x2/dt2 = - S2x2 +S1(x1- x2) ---------------------------------- (1)

m1d2x1/dt2= - S1 (x1- x2) ------------------------------------------ (2)

Now if x1 = a1cos ωt and x2 = a2cosωt

dx1/dt = - a1ωsinωt and dx2/dt = -a2ωsinωt

d2x1/dt2 = - a1ω2cosωt and d2x2/dt2 = -a2ω2cosωt

Substituting into equation (1)

m2(-a2ω2cosωt) = - S2a2cosωt + S1(a1cosωt – a2cosωt) --------- (3)

Substituting into equation (2)

m1(-a1ω2cosωt) = - S1(a1cosωt – a2cosωt) ---- (4) Rearranging equation (3)

28
-m2a2ω2cosωt = -S2a2cosωt + S1a1cosωt – S1a2cosωt ------------ (5)

Rearranging equation (4)

-m1a1ω2cosωt = -S1a1cosωt +S1 a2cosωt ------------------------- (6)

Dividing through by cosωt and rearranging equations (5) and (6)

-m2a2ω2 + S2a2 + S1a2 = S1a1 -------------------------------------- (7)

-m1a1ω2 + S1a1 = S1a2 ----------------------------------------------- (8)

From equation (7)

a2 (-m2ω2 + S2 + S1) = S1a1

Hence a2/a1 = S1 /-m2ω2 + S2+ S1 --------------------------------- (9)

From equation (8)

a1(-m1ω2 + S1) = S1a2

Hence a2/a1 =-m1ω2 + S1 / S1 ------------------------------------- (10)

Equating equations (9) and (10)

S1/ -m2ω2 + S2 + S1 = -m1ω2 + S1/S1

Hence m1m2ω4 – {m2S2 + m1 (S1 + S2) ω2 + S1 S2} = 0 ------------ (11)

m1 = m2 =225 kg, S1=120 KN S2 =240 KN

Substituting the values into equation (11)

2252ω4- {225x240000 + 225(120000+240000)} ω2 + 120000x240000 =0

50625ω2 – (54000000 + 225(360000) ω2 + 28800000000 = 0

50625ω2 – (54000000 + 81000000) ω2 + 28800000000 =

50625ω4 - 135000000ω2 + 28800000000 = 0

ω4 - 2667ω2 + 568888 = 0

Let y =ω2

Hence y2 – 2667y + 568888 = 0

y =2433 and y =234

29
 ω2 = 2433 and ω2 = 234

ω1 = 49.33 and ω2 = 15.30 but tp =2π/ω

tp1 = 2π/49.33 =0.127 and tp2 = 2π/15.30 = 0.410

n1 = 1/0.127 =7.86 Hz and n2 = 1/0.410 = 2.44 Hz

Question 3

Figure 14 shows a system consisting of two bodies and two springs that may be set
into free vertical vibrations. Determine the frequencies of this system.

S2 = 120 N/m

m2 = 60 kg
x1
S1 = 90 N/m

m1 = 10 kg

x2
Figure-14- Two degrees of freedom

Let the instantaneous displacement of m1 and m2 be x1 = acosωt and x2 = acosωt respectively.

Equations of motions are:

d 2 x1
m2 2 = - S2x2 +S1(x1- x2) ---------------------------------- (1)
dt
m1d2x1/dt2= - S1 (x1- x2) --------------------------------------(2)

Now if x1 = a1cos ωt and x2 = a2cosωt

dx1/dt = - a1ωsinωt and dx2/dt = -a2ωsinωt

d2x1/dt2 = - a1ω2cosωt and d2x2/dt2 = -a2ω2cosωt

30
Substituting into equation (1)

m2(-a2ω2cosωt) = - S2a2cosωt + S1(a1cosωt – a2cosωt) ---- (3)

Substituting into equation (2)

m1(-a1ω2cosωt) = - S1(a1cosωt – a2cosωt) ---- (4)

Rearranging equation (3)

-m2a2ω2cosωt = -S2a2cosωt + S1a1cosωt – S1a2cosωt ------(5)

Rearranging equation (4)

-m1a1ω2cosωt = -S1a1cosωt +S1 a2cosωt ---------------------(6)

Dividing through by cosωt and rearranging equations (5) and (6)

-m2a2ω2 + S2a2 + S1a2 = S1a1 ----------------------------------(7)

-m1a1ω2 + S1a1 = S1a2 -------------------------------------------(8)

From equation (7)

a2 (-m2ω2 + S2 + S1) = S1a1

Hence a2/a1 = S1 /-m2ω2 + S2+ S1 ------------------------------(9)

From equation (8)

a1(-m1ω2 + S1) = S1a2

Hence a2/a1 =-m1ω2 + S1 / S1 ---------------------------------- (10)

Equating equations (9) and (10)

S1/ -m2ω2 + S2 + S1 = -m1ω2 + S1/S1

Hence m1m2ω4 – {m2S2 + m1 (S1 + S2) ω2 + S1 S2} = 0 ---------(11)

But m1 = 10 kg, m2 =60 kg, S1=90 N/m S2 =120 N/m

Substituting the values into equation (11)

600ω4- {60 x 120 + 10(120+90)} ω2 + 120x90 =0

600ω4 – (7200 + 10(20) ω2 + 10800 = 0

600ω2 – (7200+ 2100) ω2 + 10800 = 0

600ω4 - 9300ω2 + 10800 = 0

ω4 – 15.5ω2 + 18 = 0,

Let y =ω2

31
 Hence y2 – 15.5y + 18 = 0

y1 =14.24 and y2 = 2.53

ω2 = 14.24 and ω2 = 2.53

ω1 = 3.77rad/sec and ω2 = 1.59rad/sec but tp=2π/ω

tp1 = 2π/3.77 =1.67sec and tp2 = 2π/1.59 = 3.94sec

n1 = 1/1.67 =0.59 Hz and n2 = 1/3.94 = 0.25 Hz

Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problem

Question 1

a) If a displacement of a moving point at any time be given an equation of the form

x = a cos ωt + b sin ωt. Show that this motion is simple harmonic motion
b) A mass m1 70 kg is suspended from a spring of stiffness 60 kN/m and to the

underside of the mass m1 another spring of stiffness 45 kN/m is attached. This

second spring carries a mass m2 of 140 kg hanging vertically below m1.

Assuming that the movements of the two masses x1 and x2 are of the form x1 = a1cosωt

and x2 = a2cosωt respectively. Find the natural frequencies of this system.

32
Differentiate between Viscous damping and Coulomb damping
Damped vibration

There are different mechanisms of damping by which energy is dissipated so that undesired

vibrations can be attenuated. Some types include viscous damping, coulomb damping.

There are some means by which vibration energy is reduced in all mechanical systems. Thus

without any external stimulus any system will eventually come to rest. All vibrations are

damped to some degree by friction. Damping forces are defined as those that will result in a

dissipation of energy from a vibrating system. They exit in many forms, for example dry

friction, or coulomb friction (damping) arising at the any rubbing surfaces. Fluid friction that

is when a rigid body moves in a fluid, air resistance, electromagnetic

forces, or by internal friction between the molecules of an elastic system. Damping may be

inherent in the system or may be added where essential to the functioning (as the vehicle shock

absorber, or instrument damping).

Figure-15-Damped vibration

33
Viscous Damping

Viscous damping is influenced by energy losses such as those that arise in liquid lubrication

among moving components or in a fluid that is pushed into a narrow piston opening, such as in

automotive shock absorbers. The viscous damping force is directly proportional to the relative

velocity between both two endpoints of the damping system.

Some of the typical examples of viscous damping are the following:

• The flow of the fluid through a hole

• The flow of the fluid within the bearing of the journal

• The flow of fluid around a piston in a cylinder (shock absorber)

• Fluid films between the surfaces

If a body moving in a straight line and acted upon by a force directed to a fixed point in the

line and proportional to its distance, the S.H.M is said to be damped. The simplest case is when

the resistance is proportional to the velocity of the body. This type of damping is viscous

damping.

34
Damped vibration

Figure-16a-Viscous damped vibration

Figure-16b-Shock Absorber

35
Viscous friction (as obtained with a dash-pot) in which the resistance is assumed to be

proportional to the velocity. That is, the faster the mass is moving, the more damping force is

resisting that motion. Fluids like air or water generate viscous drag forces.

Figure-17-damped vibration

The diagram in figure 16 shows the basic mechanism in a viscous damper. As the system (mass)

attached to the loop at the top vibrates up and down, the damper will resist motion in both

directions due to the piston passing through the fluid.

Figure-18-Viscous damper

36
Coulomb Damping

Coulomb damping is a form of continuous mechanical damping where energy is consumed by

sliding friction. The friction produced by the relative motion of the two surfaces, which are

pressed against each other, is a source of energy dissipation. Damping is the dissipation of

energy from a vibrating mechanism where the kinetic energy is transformed into heat by

friction. Coulomb damping is a rising damping system that usually occurs in machines

Figure-19-Coulomb damping

Coulomb friction (as obtained between two dry surfaces) in which the resistance is assumed to

be independent of the velocity.

-ve +ve

x
m

Figure -20 - Coulomb damping

37
Derive equations for Linear vibration with Viscous damping
Linear vibrations with viscous damping

If a body of mass m, is acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from the

equilibrium position and also by a damping force c per unit velocity, the equation of motion is

md 2 x dx
2
= − Sx − c
dt dt

d 2 x cdx S
= + + x=0
dt 2 mdt m
dx
The quantity c is called the damping coefficient and the force c is negative since its
dt
dx
direction is opposite to that of the velocity
dt
This equation may be written as

d 2 x 2 µdx
2
+ +ω2x = 0
dt dt
Where 2μ = c/m and ω2 = S/m

But (D2 + 2μD + ω2) x = 0 Where D represents d/dt

But D2 + 2μD + ω2 = 0

Solving for D

∴ D = -μ ±√ μ2 –ω2

1. If μ > ω x =C1e(-μ +√ μ2-ω2 ) t + C2e(-μ-√ μ2-ω2)t

The coefficient of t is negative in each term, so that X is the sum of two vanishing exponential

terms. the motion is non- oscillatory and the mass when disturbed from rest, will slowly return

to its equilibrium position. the damping is described as heavy and the motion is termed

aperiodic.

2. If μ = ω x =C1e-μ t + C2e-μt

∴ X = (C1 + C2)e-μt

38
The motion is again aperiodic but the damping coefficient has the least value which will produce

such motion. The damping in this case is said to be critical. The damping coefficient which

makes the damping critical is denoted by co and the ratio c/ co is called the damping ratio.

3. If μ < ω

X = C1e (-μ +√ μ2-ω2 )t + C2e(-μ-√ μ2-ω2)t

X = e-μt {C1e-i√( ω2-μ2)t + C2e- i√(ω2-μ2)t}

X = e-μt {C1[cos √(ω2-μ2)t + isin √(ω2- μ2)t] + C2 [cos√( ω2-μ2)t – isin√(ω2-μ2)t]}

X = e-μt{Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t} where

A = C1 + C2 B = i ( C1 – C2)

When μ < ω, the damping is described as light. This is the case which most commonly arises in

engineering problems and usually µ is so small in comparison with ω that the periodic time

approximates very closely to 2π/ω.

The equation X = e-μt{Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t} represents an oscillatory motion in which

the amplitude decreases exponentially as shown on the exponential curve that is figure 21.

39
 Figure-21-Exponential curve

2π
The periodic time for damped vibration is tp = and the frequency is given by the
(ω − µ 2 )
2

ω2 − µ2
term f =
2π

Determination of the logarithmic decrement

If a1 and ar are the first and the rth amplitudes on the same side of the equilibrium position,

then, measuring the time from the point a so that t = 0 when x = a1 and t = (r-1)tp when x = ar

a1 e o { A cos 0 + B sin 0}
= − µ ( r −1)t
ar e p
{ A cos ω 2 − µ 2 (r − 1)t p + B sin ω 2 − µ 2 (r − 1)t p

a1 − µ ( r −1) t p A − µ ( r −1) t p
=e =e
ar { A cos(r − 1)2π + B sin( r − 1)2π }

Thus the ratio of successive amplitudes is eµtp

a1 2πµ
or loge = = µt p =
a2 (ω 2 − µ 2 )

a1 2πµ
The term loge = = µt p = is referred to as the logarithmic decrement.
a2 (ω 2 − µ 2 )

40
Derive equations for Linear vibration with Coulomb damping

Linear vibrations with coulomb damping

Let a body of mass m rest on a horizontal plane, which exerts a constant friction force R upon

it and be connected by a spring of stiffness S to a fixed point A. then, if O is the point at

which there is no force in the spring, the restoring force Sx is opposite in direction to the

displacement x and the friction force R is opposite in the direction to the velocity dx/dt.

-ve +ve

x
m

O R

Figure-22-Coulomb damping

dx d 2x
When x is +ve and is +ve, m 2 = − S (+ x) − R
dt dt

dx d 2x
When x is +ve and is –ve, m 2 = − S (+ x) + R
dt dt

dx d 2x
When x is -ve and is –ve, m 2 = + S (− x) + R
dt dt

dx d 2x
When x is -ve and is –ve, m 2 = + S (− x) + R
dt dt

It will be observed that, the four equations are identical and may be written as:

41
d 2x R
2
+ω2x = −
dt m

d 2x R
Also, 2
+ω2x = +
dt m

s
where ω 2 =
m

R
The solution is: x = A cos wt + B sin wt −
S

respectively, the constant A and B being difference for the two cases.

Thus there are different equations of motion for each half-period. One for motion to the right

2π
and another for motion to the left. The period time, tp = as in undamped vibration.
ω

let successive amplitudes of the motion at each half-period be ao, a1, a2…………ar

π R
then, for 0 ≤ t ≤ , x = A cos wt + B sin wt +
ω S

dx
when t = 0, x = ao and =0
dt

R
Therefore, B = 0 and ao = A +
S

 R R
so that A = ao –R/S, x =  ao −  cos wt +
 S S

When, t = π/ω, X = -a1

42
  R R
− a1 =  ao −  cos π +
 S S
2R
∴ a1 = a1 −
S
π 2π
For ≤ t ≤
ω ω
R
x = A cos wt + B sin wt −
S
π
t=
ω
∴B = 0
X= -a1 and dx/dt = 0 R
− a1 = − A −
S
R R
A = a1 − = ao −
S S
so that,
 3R  R
∴ x =  a1 −  cos wt −
 S  S
2π
when t = ,X = a2
ω

 3R  R
∴ a2 =  ao −  cos 2π −
 S  S

4R
a 2 = ao − Thus the amplitudes of successive half-periods are decreasing at the uniform
S
R R
rate of 2 so that a r = ao − r × 2
S S

43
ao 4R/S

a2 R/S

a1

tp

Figure–23-Variation of displacement with time

R
Motion ceases when a r ≤ since the restoring force exerted by the spring is then equal to or
S

less than R. The number of half- periods which elapse before motion cease is therefore given

R
ao −
R R S
by a − r × 2 ≤ , ie. r ≥
S S R
2
S

Motion ceases at the first extreme position when the amplitude of the body becomes less than

R
S

44
Solving problems related to Viscous Damping
Question 1

A body of mass 6 kg is hung on a spring of stiffness 1 kN/m. It is pulled down 50 mm below

its static equilibrium position and released. There is a frictional resistance which is

proportional to the velocity, and which is 36 N when the velocity is 1 m/s.

Write down the differential equation of the motion, and its solution evaluating the constants.

Calculate the distance which the body moves when t =2secs.

Solution

m =6 kg, S = 1 KN/m, c =36 NS/m ,

Let the differential equation of motion be

md 2 x dx
2
= − Sx − c
dt dt

d 2 x cdx S
= + + x=0
dt 2 mdt m

d2x/dt2 + 2μdx/dt + ω2x =0

Where 2μ = c/m and ω2 = S/m

ω2 = S/m = 1000/6 = 166.7 (rad/s)

Also μ = c/2m = 36/12 = 3 rad/s

d 2x dx
= 6 2 + 36 + 1000 x = 0
dt dt

45
 d 2x dx
2
+ 6 + 166.7 x = 0
dt dt

The solution to the differential equation is

X = e-μt {Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t}

X = e-3t (Acos12.56t +Bsin12.56t)

dx/dt =-3e-3t(Acos12.56t + Bsin12.56t) + 12.56e-3t (-Asin12.56t+Bcos12.56t)

when t = 0, x = 25 mm

0.05 =e0 (Acos0 +Bsin0) hence A = 0.05

when t = 0 dx/dt = 0 ∴ -3A +12.56B = 0 but A = 0.05

∴ B = 0.01195

The solution of the equation is X = e-3t (0.05cos12.56t + 0.01195sin12.56t)

(ii) When t = 1 sec. X = e-3(0.05cos12.56 +0.01195sin12.56)

X = 0.05(0.0488 + 0.0026)

X = 0.00257 mm

(iii) f = ω/2π f = 12.911/6.28 =2.056 Hz

46
Question 2

a) Obtain an equation of motion and its solution for the vibration of a body of mass m when

acted on by a restoring force of s per unit displacement from the position static

equilibrium and subjected to a damping force of c per unit velocity.

b) A machine of 20 kg mass is mounted on springs. The total stiffness of the springs is 17

KN/m and the

total damping force is 300 N S/m if the system is initially at rest.

Write down the differential equation of the motion and its solutions evaluating the

constants at x (0) = 25 mm

Determine:

i. The displacement at t = 1 sec.

ii. The frequency of the vibration.

Solution

a)

Let the equation of motion be

md 2 x dx
2
= − Sx − c
dt dt

d 2 x cdx S
= + + x=0
dt 2 mdt m

dx
The quantity c is called the damping coefficient and the force c is negative since its
dt
dx
direction is opposite to that of the velocity
dt

47
This equation may be written as

d 2 x 2 µdx
+ +ω2x = 0
dt 2 dt

Where 2μ = c/m and ω2 = S/m

But (D2 + 2μD + ω2) x = 0 Where D represents d/dt

But D2 + 2μD + ω2 = 0

Solving for D

∴ D = -μ ±√ μ2 –ω2

. If μ < ω

X = C1e (-μ +√ μ2-ω2 )t + C2e(-μ-√ μ2-ω2)t

X = e-μt {C1e-i√( ω2-μ2)t + C2e- i√(ω2-μ2)t}

X = e-μt {C1[cos √(ω2-μ2)t + isin √(ω2- μ2)t] + C2 [cos√( ω2-μ2)t – isin√(ω2-μ2)t]}

X = e-μt{Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t} where

A = C1 + C2 B = i ( C1 – C2)

b)

m =20 kg , S = 17 KN/m, c =300 NS/m ,

ω2 = S/m = 1700/20 =850 (rad/s)

Also μ = c/2m = 300/400 =7.5

But x = e-μt {Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t}

48
 X = e-7.5t (Acos28.2t +Bsin28.2t)

dx/dt =-7.5e-7.5t(Acos28.2t + Bsin28.2t) + 28.2e-7.5t (-Asin28.2t+Bcos28.2t)

From equation (2) when t=0 x=25 mm

25 = e0 (Acos0 + Bsin0) hence A = 25

From equation (3) when t = 0 dx/dt = 0

-7.5A +28.2B = 0 but A = 25 then B = 6.7

The solution of the equation is

x = e-7.5t (25cos28.2t + 6.7sin28.2t)

i. When t = 1 sec.

x = e-7.5 (25cos28.2 +6.7sin28.2)

x =5.53(220.25 + 31.69)

x = 0.1394 mm

Question 3

A mass of 5 kg hangs from a spring and makes damped oscillations. The time of 50 complete

oscillations is found to be 20 s, and the ratio of the first downward displacement to the sixth

is found to be 2.25. Find the stiffness of the spring and the damping force.

Solution

20
tp = = 0.4 s
50

a1
= e5µt
a6
49
Hence 2.25 = e5µ x 0.4

µ = 0.4055 rad/s

2π
But tp =
(ω − µ 2 )
2

2π
Hence 0.4 =
(ω 2 − 0.4055 2 )

S
∴ ω2 = 249.96
m

Hence S = 246.96 x 5 = 1235 N/m

c
But µ =
2m

Hence c = 2 x 5 x 0.4055 = 4.055 Ns/m

Question 4

Given that m = 25 kg and S = 15 KN/m, and that the amplitude of the vibration diminishes to
one-fifth of its original value in 2 complete vibrations, find the frequency of vibration and the
value of the damping force C.

SOLUTION

a1/ar = 5= e2µtp

Hence 5 = e2µ x tp

Taking loge of both sides

2µtp = loge5

∴ tp = loge5/2µ

But tp = 2л/√ (ω2 - µ2)

50
 Hence ω2 = S/m = 15000/25= 600 (rad/s)2

∴ tp = loge5/2µ = 2л/√ (600 - µ2)

0.699/2µ = 6.28//√ (600 - µ2)

(0.699/2µ)2 = 6.282/600 - µ2

157.75µ2 = 293.16 – 0.699µ2

158.449µ2 = 293.16

µ2 = 1.85 ∴ µ = 1.36

But µ = c/2m

Hence damping force c = 2x25x1.36 = 68 Ns/m

ω2 − µ2 600 − 1.85 24.46

And frequency n = = = = 3.89 Hz
2π 6.28 6.28

Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problems.

Question 1

A machine of 20 kg mass is mounted on springs and dampers. The total stiffness of the

springs is 8 KN/m and the total damping force is 130N S/m. If the system is initially at

rest and a velocity of 10 cm/s is imparted to the mass.

i. Write down the differential equation of the motion and its solutions evaluating the

constants.

ii. Determine the displacement at t =2 sec

Question 2

a) A mass of 100 kg is suspended from a vertical coil spring of stiffness 20 kN/m. Find
The frequency of free vibration.
b) The system is now damped. The mass is pulled downwards a definite distance, and when
released, the vibration amplitude is reduced to 0.10 of the original 0f the original in
four complete oscillations.
Determine the frequency of the damped oscillation and the value of
the damping force.

51
Solving problems related to Coulomb Damping
Question 1.

A vertical spring of stiffness 8.5 kN/m supports a mass of 32 kg. There is a friction force of
45N which always resists the vertical motion whether upwards or downwards. The mass is
released from a position which the total extension of the spring is 125 mm

Determine;

(a) the time which elapses before the mass comes finally to rest,
(b) the final extension of the spring

SOLUTION

Static deflection of spring due to mass

δxS=mxg

δ = mg/S = 32 x 9.81/8.5 x 102 = 0.0369 m

∴ = 0.125 – 0.0369 = 0.0881 m

R
ao −
. r≥ S
R
2
S

45
0.0881 −
r≥ 8.5 × 10 3 ≥ 7.81
45
2×
8.5 × 10 3

Hence motion ceases after 8 half cycles.

m 32
tp = 2π = 2π = 0.385s
S 8.5 × 10 3

Time taken = 4 x 0.385 = 1.54s

2 × 45
After 8 half-cycles, a = 0.0881 – 8 x = 0.0034m
8.5 × 10 3

Hence final extension of spring = 0.0369 + 0.0034 = 0.0403 m

52
Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problem.

Question 1.

A spring of stiffness 10 kN/m supports a mass of 30 kg. There is a friction force of 50 N

which always resists the vertical motion whether upwards or downwards. The mass is
released from a position which the total extension of the spring is 150 mm

Determine;

(a) the time which elapses before the mass comes finally to rest,

(b) the final extension of the spring

Determine practically the natural frequency of damped vibration

system
In order to determine practically the natural frequency of damped vibration you will be

provided with following apparatus:

Apparatus

1. Stop watch,

2. Slotted masses,

3. Weight hanger,

4. Tape measure or rule,

5. Spring

6. Bucket of water

With the aid of the given apparatus follow the following procedures:

Procedure

Dumped vibration

1. Place 5 N weight on the weight hanger and slowly lower it into the water in the rubber
bucket.
2. Set the spring to oscillate by pulling the hanging weight down and releasing it in the
water.
53
3. With the timer, record the time (period ‘T’ for 20 oscillation) taken for the apparatus
to complete the oscillation in Table 3
4. Repeat this three times and find the average of your total time. The period of the
oscillator is then the average time measured divided by 20 (i.e the amount of time for
one oscillation)
5. Repeat cycle with increment of 5N weight until 30N weight is reached.
6. Plot the graph m Vs T² (this mass consisting of the hanging mass plus 1/3 of the mass
of the spring.
7. Determine the slope of the best fit line which is the spring constant, K
Observed table for dumped vibration
8. With this constant K you will be able to determine the natural frequency of the

damped vibration

9. Take all necessary safety precautions.

Figure-24-Damp vibration

54
Damped vibration

Figure-24c- Damp vibration

55
Table 3 Observed table for damped vibration

S/N W (N) 𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒉 Time for 20 osc. Average Period T²

(kg) (𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌) t (sec) time ‘T’/20
(sec²)
(𝑻𝑻𝑨𝑨 ) sec
𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻𝟑𝟑

1 5 0.5

56
Table 4 Derived table for damped vibration

S/N W 𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒉 Period T² Mass(m)

(N) (kg) (kg) ‘T’/20 sec (sec²) 𝒎𝒎𝒉𝒉 +1/3𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔

1 5 0.5

Checklist Table 5
No Yes No
1 Were you provided with all the apparatus needed
2 Were you able to take all the readings
3 Could you plot the graph of m against T2
4 Were you able to determine the value of the
constant K
5 Were you able to determine the natural frequency
of the damped vibration

57
After performing the experiment, the following procedure should be used to present the
work.
i. Title
ii. Objective
iii. Sketches and description of apparatus
iv. Theory
v. Procedure
vi. Observed tables for the experiment
vii. Sample calculation
viii. Derived tables for the experiment
ix. Graph of m, against T² for the experiment
x. Precautionary measures taken to successfully complete the experiment
xi. Recommendation
Conclusion; interpret the graphs and comment on the value of the frequency of the
experiment

58
Discuss forced vibration of a mechanical system

Forced vibration

Forced vibrations also occur when a system is elastically connected to a support which has an

alternating motion.

There are many engineering situations in which a system is forced to vibrate through contact

with an adjacent system which is vibrating. As long as the disturbing force is present, the

forced vibrations induced in the original system do not die out.

The most important vibrations from the point of view of engineering applications are the forced

vibration of a system.

Familiar examples of forced vibrations are vibrations caused in the seat, panels and windows

of an automobile due to the vibrating engine, particularly at idling speed, gear level rattle in a

motor car, vibrations of suspension bridge due to the rumble of traffic over it. Other examples

are rotating or reciprocating machinery which cause forced vibration upon neighboring

structures and plant.

Figure-25-Forced vibration

59
Derive the equation of motion of forced vibration of a mechanical

system
Forced Linear Vibration

If a body of mass m, is acted upon by a restoring force S per unit displacement from
the equilibrium position and also by an external harmonic force Pcospt, the equation
of motion is

Pcospt

Figure-26

d 2x
m 2 = − Sx + P cos pt ------------------- (1)
dt

d 2x P
2
+ ω 2 x + cos pt -----------------------(2)
dt m

S
where ω2 =
m

The complementary function that is the solution of this equation

d 2x
dt 2

X= Acosωt + Bsinωt

To obtain the particular integral equation (2) becomes

(D2 +ω2)X = P/mcospt, where D represents d/dt

60
 1 P P cos pt
∴X = cos pt = X =
(D + ω ) m
2 2
m(ω 2 − p 2 )

Since f(D2)cospt = f(-p2)cospt

The complete solution is therefore

P cos pt
X = Acosωt + Bsinωt +
m(ω 2 − p 2 )
The first two terms represent the free vibration of the body, which dies out due to
damping effects, leaving

P cos pt
X =
m(ω 2 − p 2 )

to represent the steady- state vibration.

This is a harmonic motion of frequency p/2π Hz and amplitude

P p
a= and f = Hz
m(ω − p )
2
2
2π

In cases where p > ω, x becomes negative, showing that the body is 1800 out of phase
with the disturbing force. The actual amplitude is, in all cases, the numerical value
P P
only of regardless of sign, i.e.
m(ω − p )
2 2
m(ω − p 2 )
2

When p = ω, the amplitude becomes infinite and resonance occurs.

Solve problems relating to forced vibration of mechanical system

Question 1

A mass of 35 kg is supported by a spring of stiffness 25 k N/m and acted on by a disturbing

force of amplitude 40 N and frequency 5 Hz.

Find the amplitude of the forced vibration if there is no damping. Work from first principles

and establish the formulae required.

61
Solution

Pcospt

Figure-27

d 2x
m = − Sx + P cos pt ------------------- (1)
dt 2

d 2x P
2
+ ω 2 x + cos pt -----------------------(2)
dt m

S
where ω2 =
m

The complementary function that is the solution of this equation

d 2x
dt 2

X= Acosωt + Bsinωt

To obtain the particular integral equation (2) becomes

(D2 +ω2)X = P/mcospt, where D represents d/dt

1 P P cos pt
∴X = cos pt = X =
(D + ω ) m
2 2
m(ω 2 − p 2 )

Since f(D2)cospt = f(-p2)cospt

The complete solution is therefore

62
 P cos pt
X = Acosωt + Bsinωt +
m(ω 2 − p 2 )
P
a=
m(ω − p 2 )
2

Data

m = 35 kg

S = 25 kN/m = 25000 N/m

P = 40 N

f = 5 Hz

p
But n =
2π

Hence p = 2лf = 2 x 3.14 x 5 = 31.42

S
Also ω2 =
m

25000
ω2 = = 714.29 (rad)2
35

40
Hence a = │ │
35(714,29 − 987.22)

a = 4.20 x 103 m

Question 2

A mass is supported by a vertical spring, with no damping, and acted on by a sinusoidal force of

constant amplitude but variable frequency. At 10 Hz the amplitude of the oscillation of the

mass is found to be 20 mm and this continuously decreases to 2.0 mm as the frequency is

increased to 20 Hz. Determine the resonant frequent of the system.

63
Solution:

P
a=
m(ω − p 2 )
2

when n = 10 Hz, ω = 62.8 rad/s

P
20 =
m(62.8 2 − p 2 )
when n = 20 Hz, ω = 125.6 rad/s

P
2=
m(125 2 − p 2 )

2 P m(62.8 2 − p 2 )
Therefore = ×
20 m(125 2 − p 2 ) P

from which p = 51.49 rad/sec.

p 51.496
Therefore, the resonant frequency n = =
2π 2π
nres = 8.2 Hz

Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problem

Question 1

A mass of 10 kg is suspended from a spring of stiffness 4.5 KN/m and acted on by a disturbing

force of amplitude 40 N and frequency 4 Hz.

(i) Determine the steady state amplitude of the forced vibration?

(ii) The maximum force on the support.

Question 2

A mass of 50 kg is supported by a spring of stiffness 40 kN/m and acted on by a disturbing

force of amplitude 40 N and frequency 4 Hz.

Find the amplitude of the forced vibration if there is no damping. Work from first principles

and establish the formulae required.

64
Discuss periodic movement of the support
Periodic movement of the support

Periodic movement of the support is when the body may be subjected to a disturbing force due

to the movement of the spring support rather than by a force applied directly to the body.

Also it may be due to the vibration of the foundation and it is assumed that the base movement

is not affected by the subsequent motion of the mass.

This type of vibration occurs in many situations ranging from the vibration of a spring support,

an instrument on a moving vehicle to the motion of a building during an earthquake.

In many cases, the excitation is not due to a directly applied force, instead it can be caused by

disturbance of the base (causing the spring length to change). Examples of this are earthquakes

that shake a structure, structure borne vibration from adjacent equipment shaking a machine

sitting on a pedestal or vehicle suspensions hitting a speed bump.

Fiqure-28-Periodic movement of the support

65
Derive an equation for the periodic movement of the support
Suppose that the support for the system shown in the figure 29 below is vibrating such that

y = hcospt.

Then change in spring length = x-y

So that restoring force = S(x-y)

Fiqure-29-Periodic movement of the support

The equation of motion of m then becomes

d 2 x1
m1 = - S(x-y)
dt 2
d 2 x1
2
+ ω 2 x = ω 2 h cos pt
dt
d 2 x1
The equation of motion is 2
+ ω 2 x = ω 2 h cos pt
dt
S
where ω2 =
m
d 2x
dt 2

66
To obtain the particular integral equation (2) becomes

(D2 +ω2)X = ω h cos pt where D represents d/dt

2

ω 2 h cos pt
X =
(D 2 − ω 2 )

ω 2 h cos pt
But X =
(ω 2 − p 2 )

Since f(D2)cospt = f(-p2)cospt

ω 2 h sin pt
The solution is therefore becomes X = A cos ωt + B sin ωt +
ω2 − p2

ω 2h
The amplitude of the motion is a=
ω 2 − p2

Solve problems involving periodic movement of the support

Question 1

An instrument is rigidly attached to a platform which is supported by four springs, each having

a stiffness 800 N/m. The floor to which the springs are attached is subjected to a periodic

displacement of amplitude 10mm and angular frequency 8 rad/s. The total mass of the

instrument plus platform is 29 kg and the instrument is constrained to move only vertically.

Determine the maximum vertical steady state displacement of the platform from the

equilibrium position.

Solution

S
The natural circular frequency is given by ω =
m

4 × 800
from which ω2 = = 160rad 2 / s 2
20

67
The maximum displacement is the amplitude defined by

ω 2h 160 × 0.010
a= = = 0.0167 m
ω −p
2 2
160 − 8 2
∴ a = 16.7 mm

Question 2

The time of free vibration of a mass hung from the end of a helical spring

is 0.8 s. When the mass is stationary the upper end is made to move

upward with a displacement y mm such that y =45sin 2πt, where t is the time in

seconds measured from the beginning of the motion

Neglecting the mass of the spring and any damping effects, determine the vertical

distance through which the mass is moved in the first 0.3 sec.

Solution

2π 2π
ω= = = 2.5 rad/
tp 0.8

The equation of motion is d2x/dt2 + ω2 = ω2hsinpt

S
where ω2 =
m

The solution is of the differential equation is

ω 2 h sin pt
X = A cos ωt + B sin ωt +
ω2 − p2

when t = 0, X = 0, hence A = 0

Differentiating

dx ω 2 h cos pt
= −ωA sin ωt + ω 2 B cos ωt + 2
dt ω − p2

68
 dx pωh
when t = 0, = 0 hence B =−
dt (ω − p 2 )
2

pωh sin ωt ω 2 h sin pt

Therefore X =− + 2
ω 2 − p2 (ω − p 2 )

2π × 2.5π × 45 sin 2.5πt 2.5π × 2.5π × 45 sin 2πt

X =− +
(2.5π ) − (2π )
2 2
(2.5π )2 − (2π )2
X = - 100sin2.5πt + 125sin2πt

When t = 0.3 s,

X = -100sin0.75π + 125sin0.6π = 48.18 m

Question 3

a) Show that for a vibrating body which is subjected to a disturbing force due to the

movement of the spring support rather than by a force applied directly to the body

ω 2h
the amplitude: a =
ω 2 − p2

b) The time of free vibration of a mass hung from the end of a helical spring

is 1 sec. When the mass is stationary the upper end is made to move

upward with a displacement y mm such that y = 45cos2t, where t is the time in

seconds measured from the beginning of the motion. Neglecting the mass of the

spring and any damping effects determine the vertical distance through which the

mass is moved in the first 0.2 sec.

Solution

You might have noticed that section (a) of the equation have been proved already.

69
b. ω = 2π/tp = 2π/1 = 2π rad/s

The equation of motion is d2x/dt2 + ω2 = ω2hcospt, where ω2 = S/m

The solution is

ω 2 h cos pt
X = A cos ωt + B sin ωt +
ω 2 − p2
when t = 0, x = 0, hence A = 0

and

dx ω 2 h sin pt
= −ωA sin ωt + ω 2 B cos ωt + 2
dt ω − p2

when t = 0, dx/dt = 0
hence B=0

Therefore x= ω2hcospt
ω2 – p2
x = (2π)2 x 45cos2t
(2π)2 – (2)2
x = 50cos2t
When t = 0.2 s, x = 50cos0.4 = 50 m

Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problem

Question 1

The time of free vibration of a mass hung from the end of a helical spring is 0.5 s. When the

mass is stationary the upper end is made to move upward with a displacement y mm such that

y = 30cosπt, where t is the time in seconds measured from the beginning of the motion

Neglecting the mass of the spring and any damping effects, determine the vertical

distance through which the mass is moved in the first 0.1 sec.

70
Discuss forced damped vibration of a mechanical system
Forced Damped Motion Real systems do not exhibit idealized harmonic motion, because damping

occurs. A watch balance wheel submerged in oil is a key example. Frictional forces due to the

viscosity of the oil will cause the wheel to stop after a short time. The same wheel submerged

in air will appear to display harmonic motion, but indeed there is friction present, however

small, which slows the motion. Consider a spring–mass system consisting of a mass m and a

spring stiffness S, with an added dashpot or dampener, depicted in figure 30 as a piston inside

a cylinder attached to the mass. A useful physical model, for purposes of intuition, is a screen

door with door–closer: the closer has a spring and an adjustable piston–cylinder style dampener.

Figure-30-Forced damped vibration

Cafe door Restaurant waiters and waitresses are familiar with the cafe door, which partially

blocks the view of onlookers, but allows rapid, collision-free trips to the kitchen, see figure

32. The door is equipped with a spring which tries to restore the door to the equilibrium

position x = 0, which is the plane of the door frame. There is a dampener attached, to keep the

number of oscillations low. The equilibrium position is the plane of the door frame.

71
 Figure-32-A cafe door on three hinges with dampener in the lower hinge.

Pet door designed for dogs and cats, the small door in figure 33 allows animals to enter and

exit the house freely. A pet door might have a weather seal and a security lock. The

equilibrium position is the plane of the door frame. The pet door swings freely from hinges

along the top edge. One hinge is spring–loaded with dampener. Like the cafe door, the spring

restores the door to the equilibrium position while the dampener acts to eventually stop

the oscillations. However, there is one fundamental difference, if the spring–dampener

system is removed, then the door continues to oscillate!

Figure-33-Pet door

72
Derive the equation of forced damped vibration of a mechanical system
Forced damped linear vibrations

If a body of mass m, as shown in the fig below is acted by a restoring force S per unit

displacement, a damping force c per unit velocity and also by an external harmonic force Pcospt,

the equation of motion is

Pcospt

Figure-34-Forced damped vibration

md 2 x dx
2
+ c + Sx = P cos pt
dt dt
2
d x cdx S
or 2 + + x = P cos pt
dt mdt m

This equation may be written as

d 2 x 2µdx 2 p
+ + ω x = cos pt
dt 2 dt m
Where 2μ = c/m and ω2 = S/m

The complementary function, i.e. the solution of

73
 d 2 x 2µdx
2
+ +ω2x = 0
dt dt

will be 1. If μ > ω x =C1e(-μ +√ μ2-ω2 ) t + C2e(-μ-√ μ2-ω2)t

2. If μ = ω x =C1e-μ t + C2e-μt

∴ X = (C1 + C2)e-μt

3. If μ < ω

X =C1e (-μ +√ μ2-ω2 )t + C2e(-μ-√ μ2-ω2)t

X = e-μt {C1e-i√( ω2-μ2)t + C2e- i√(ω2-μ2)t}

X = e-μt {C1[cos √(ω2-μ2)t + isin √(ω2- μ2)t] + C2 [cos√( ω2-μ2)t – isin√(ω2-μ2)t]}

X = e-μt{Acos√(ω2-μ2)t + Bsin√(ω2-μ2)t}

where

A = C1 + C2 B = i (C1 – C2)

The first equation may be written

(D2 + 2μD + ω2) x = P/mcospt

Where D represents d/dt

The particular integral is given by

 1 P
x =  2  cos pt
2 
 D + 2µD + ω  m
 1 P
x =   cos pt
2
(
 2µD + ω − P
2
) m
since f(D2) cospt = f (-p2) cospt

 2µD − ω 2 − p 2
x=
( ) P
 cos pt
 (
 4µ 2 D 2 − ω 2 − p 2 ) 2 m

P
x=
(
 − 2µp sin pt − ω 2 − p 2 cos pt 
m  )


2 2
− 4µ p − ω − p2
(
2 2 
 )
74
 [
P 4µ 2 p 2 + ω 2 − p 2 ( ) ]cos( pt − α )
2

x=
[
m 4µ 2 p 2 + (ω − p ) ]2 2 2

where

2µp
α = tan −1
ω 2 − p2
i.e.

P cos( pt − α )
x=
m [4µ p
2 2
(
+ ω 2 − p2 )]
2

The complementary function (or transient solution) represents the damped free vibration of

the body which dies out, leaving

P cos( pt − α )
x=
m [4µ p 2 2
(
+ ω 2 − p2 )] 2

to represent the steady-state vibration. this is a harmonic motion of frequency p/2π Hz and

amplitude

P
a=
m [4µ 2
p + ω 2 − p2
2
( )]
2

lagging the disturbing force by an angle α

P
When p = ω, the amplitude is instead of infinity, as in the case of undamped motion.
2µmp
da
The maximum amplitude occurs when =0
dp

If P is constant, then p = (ω 2
)
− 2µ 2 for maximum amplitude. When µ is small, the maximum

amplitude occurs when p ≈ ω, but as µ increases, the maximum amplitude occurs at lower values

ω
of p, reaching the limiting value of p = 0 when µ = .
2

75
If P α p2, then p =
ω2 for maximum amplitude. When µ is small, the maximum
(ω 2
− 2µ 2 )
amplitude occurs when p ≈ ω, but as µ increases, the maximum amplitude occurs at higher values

ω
of p, reaching the limiting value of p = ∞ when µ =
2

180o
µ/ω = 0

µ/ω = 0.15
µ/ω = 0.25 µ/ω = 0.4 µ/ω = 1/√2
90 o

O
ω p
Figure-35- (α) varies with (p) for the same values of µ/ω.

When µ is small, the effect upon the amplitude and phase angle is small, except near the

resonant frequency.

76
Solve problems involving forced damped vibration of a mechanical

system
Question 1

A simple vibrating system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the motion

is subjected to a damping force which is proportional to the velocity. The equivalent mass is

30kg, the stiffness of the spring is 4.5KN/m, and the damping force is 240N at 1m/s. Find the

amplitude of the forced vibration produced when a periodic force of 40cos10t N acts on the

mass.

Solution

P
a=
m [4µ 2
(
p2 + ω 2 − p2 )]
2

But S/m = ω2 and μ = c/2m

From the periodic force F = 40cos10t P = 40, p = 10

S = 4500N/m, c = 7Nm/s, m = 30Kg,

Hence ω2 = 4500/30 = 150 (rad/s)2

μ = 7/60 = 0.117 hence μ2 = 0.0137

40 40
a= =
30 [4 × 0.0137 × 100 + (150 − 100) ] 2
30 54.4 + 2500

a = 40/1516.2 = 0.026m

Question 2

A simple vibrating system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the

motion is subjected to a damping force which is proportional to the velocity. The

equivalent mass is 40 kg, the stiffness of the spring is 2.5 KN/m, and the damping force is

480 N at 2 m/s. Find the amplitude of the forced vibration produced when a periodic

force F = 40cos10t N acts on the mass.

77
 Figure-36-Forced damped vibration

P
a=
m [4µ 2
(
p + ω 2 − p2
2
)]
2

But S/m = ω2 and μ = c/2m

From the periodic force F = 40cos10t

Therefore, P = 40, p = 10

S = 2500 N/m, c = 240 Nm/s, m = 40 Kg,

Hence ω2 = 2500/40 = 62.50 (rad/s)2

μ = 240/80 = 3 hence μ2 = 9

40 40
a= =
40 [4 × 9 × 100 + (62.50 − 100) ] 2
40 3600 + 1406.25

78
 a = 40/40 x 70.75 = 0.014 m

Now with the aid of the knowledge acquired you will be able to solve the following problems

exercises.
Example1

A simple vibration system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the motion

is subjected to a damping force, which is directly proportional to the velocity. The equivalent

mass is 30 kg. The stiffness of the spring is 4.5 KN/m and the damping force is 7 N at 1m/s.

Find the amplitude of the forced vibrations produced when a periodic force of 40cos19t acts

on the mass.

Example 2

A simple vibration system with one degree of freedom is under spring control and the motion

is subjected to a damping force, which is directly proportional to the velocity. The equivalent

mass is 2 kg, the stiffness of the spring is 15 KN/m and the damping force is 7 N at 1m/s. Find

the amplitude of the forced vibrations produced when a periodic force of 25cos100t acts on

the mass.

79
Discuss periodic movement of the support of forced damped vibration
Periodic movement of the support

Periodic movement of the support is when the body may be subjected to a disturbing force due

to the movement of the spring support rather than by a force applied directly to the body.

Also it may be due to the vibration of the foundation and it is assumed that the base movement

is not affected by the subsequent motion of the mass.

This type of vibration occurs in many situations ranging from the vibration of a spring support,

an instrument on a moving vehicle to the motion of a building during an earthquake.

In many cases, the excitation is not due to a directly applied force, instead it can be caused by

disturbance of the base (causing the spring length to change). Examples of this are earthquakes

that shake a structure, structure borne vibration from adjacent equipment shaking a machine

sitting on a pedestal or vehicle suspensions hitting a speed bump. In this case the body may

have been damped, and the vibration on the body will lessened

If the vibration is produced by a periodic movement of the support as shown in figure 37

such that the displacement of the support, y = hcospt, the equation of motion is

m
x

Figure-37-Forced damped vibration

80
 d 2x dx
m 2 + c + S (x − y ) = 0
dt dt
d 2x dx
ie 2
+ 2 µ + ω 2 x = ω 2 h cos pt
dt dt

ω 2h
The amplitude of this equation is a =
[4µ p 2 2
(
+ ω 2 − p2 )]
2

If the’ fixed’ member of the dash-pot is attached to the moving support as shown in the

figure 38 below, the damping is proportional to the relative velocity between the mass and

the support. The equation of motion then become:

Y y

S
v
S

m
b mx

Figure-38-Periodic Movement of the support

81
 d 2 x  dx dy 
m + c −  + S ( x − y ) = 0 − − − −1
dt 2  dt dt 
If the relative displacement between the mass and the support is z, then

x–y=z

dx dy dz
− =
dt dt dt

d 2x d 2 y d 2z
and − =
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
Equation 1 can therefore be written as

 d 2z d 2 y  dz
m 2 + 2  + c Sz = 0
 dt dt  dt

d 2z dz d 2y
or m 2 + c + Sx = −m 2 = mp 2 h cos pt
dt dt dt
d 2z dz
∴ + 2µ + ω 2 z = p 2 cos pt
dt 2 dt

Discuss resonance in relation to vibration in a mechanical system

When a harmonic disturbance is imposed on a system and the damping forces are sufficiently

small that the exciting frequency coincides with a natural frequency, the vibration grows to a

catastrophically large value known as Resonance.

When a light or a sound wave strikes an object that is already vibrating at some particular

frequency, and if that frequency happens to match the resonant frequency of the object it’s

hitting; then you’ll get what’s called resonance. Objects, mechanical systems and charged

particles tend to vibrate at a specific frequency. We call this frequency the resonant

frequency or the natural frequency. Resonance occurs when the matching vibrations of another

object increase the amplitude of an object’s oscillations.

82
Some real life examples of resonance that we witness are:

Musical Instruments

Whenever a person hits, strikes, strums, drums or tweaks any musical instrument, the

instrument is set into oscillation or vibration at the natural frequency of vibration of the

instrument. A unique standing wave pattern defines each frequency of vibration as a specific

instrument. These natural frequencies of a musical instrument are known widely as the

harmonics of the specified instrument. Suppose a second interconnected object or instrument

vibrates or oscillates at that specified frequency. In that case, the first object can be forced

to vibrate at a frequency higher than its natural harmonic frequency. This phenomenon is known

as resonance, i.e. one object vibrating or oscillating at the natural frequency of another object

forces the other object to vibrate at a frequency higher than its natural frequency.

Bridge

Group of soldiers marching on the bridge are often asked to break their steps because their

rhythmic marching can set extreme vibrations at the bridge’s natural frequency. The bridge

can break apart if the synchronized footsteps resonate with the natural frequency of the

bridge. One of the examples of the above is the Tacoma Bridge Collapse, where the frequency

of the air matched with the frequency of the bridge, which then led to its destruction.

Swing

The swing moves forward and backwards when pushed. If a series of regular pushes are given

to the swing, its motion can be built. The person pushing the swing has to sync with the swing’s

timing, which results in the swing’s motion having increased amplitude to reach higher. Once

the swing reaches its natural oscillation frequency, a gentle push helps maintain its amplitude

83
due to resonance. But, if the push given is irregular, the swing will hardly vibrate, and this out-

of-sync motion will never lead to resonance, and the swing will not go higher.

Different Types of Resonance

There are many types of resonance, and they are:

Mechanical Resonance

Mechanical resonance can be defined as the tendency of a mechanical system to respond at

greater amplitude when the frequency of its oscillations matches the system’s natural

frequency of vibration (its resonance frequency or resonant frequency) than it does at other

frequencies.

Acoustic Resonance

Acoustic resonance is a phenomenon in which an acoustic system amplifies sound waves whose

frequency matches one of its own natural frequencies of vibration. Acoustic resonance is an

important consideration for instrument builders as most acoustic instruments such as the

length of tube in a flute, the strings and body of a violin and the shape of a drum membrane

use resonators. Acoustic resonance is also important for hearing.

Can sound break glass?

Electrical Resonance

In a circuit when the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are equal in magnitude

electrical resonance occurs.

Some Effects of Resonance

Resonance may lead to intolerable vibration or the generation of excessive noise in the system

84
Three examples of self-exited vibrations, which might occur at one of the natural

frequencies of vibration of the system are:

• Flutter in aircraft, where the existing force is aerodynamic.

• Oil whip in shafting, where it is hydrodynamic

• Stick-slip vibrations where it is frictional

In other to solve vibration problems the first step is to determine either analytically or

experimentally the natural frequencies of the system.

Try these questions on resonance

1. What is resonance

Resonance is a phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating system forces another

system around it to vibrate with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of operation.

2. What are some examples of resonance?

Swing moves forward and backwards when pushed. If a series of regular pushes are given to

the swing, its motion can be built. The person pushing the swing has to sync with the swing’s

timing, which results in the motion of the swing having increased amplitude to reach higher.

Once the swing reaches its natural frequency of oscillation, a gentle push to the swing helps

maintain its amplitude due to resonance.

3. What causes resonance to occur?

Resonance occurs when the matching vibrations of another object increase the amplitude of an

object’s oscillations

4. What is the resonant frequency?

The resonant frequency is the natural frequency where a medium vibrates at the highest

amplitude.

5. How can a bridge collapse due to resonance?

Group of soldiers marching on the bridge are often asked to break their steps because their

rhythmic marching can set extreme vibrations at the bridge’s natural frequency. The bridge

can break apart if the synchronized footsteps resonate with the natural frequency of the

bridge.
85
Discuss the purpose of measuring vibration
An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a

structure. The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass

to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is proportional

to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is a

constant, then the charge is also proportional to the acceleration

A complete assessment of exposure to vibration requires the measurement of vibration

acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2). Vibration exposure direction is also

important and is measured in well-defined directions. Vibration frequencies and duration of

exposure are also determined. How hard a person grips a tool affects the amount of vibrational

energy entering the hands; therefore, hand-grip force is another important factor in the

exposure assessment.

The amount of exposure is determined by measuring acceleration in the units of m/s2. Most

regulating jurisdictions and standard agencies use acceleration as a measure of vibration

exposure for the following reasons:

• Several types of instruments are available for measuring acceleration, the rate of

change of velocity in speed or direction per unit time (e.g., per second).

• Measuring acceleration can also give information about velocity and amplitude of

vibration.

• The degree of harm is related to the magnitude of acceleration.

Health research data tells us that the degree of harm is related to the magnitude of

acceleration.

86
 Fiqure-39a-accelerometer

What is the need for vibration measurement?

Vibration may influence the durability and reliability of machinery systems or structures and

cause problems such as damage, abnormal stopping and disaster.

Vibration measurement is an important countermeasure to prevent these problems:

Research and Development

To develop and design more reliable products, vibration measurement and shock

measurement is operated in testing of samples of finished products.

Improving the Quality of Product

To solve the problems caused by vibration and improve the quality of products, vibration

measurement is operated for a sample, of mass-produced or all completed products to eliminate

inferior pieces and produce satisfactory ones.

Safety Management in Factories

87
To prevent the breakdown and trouble from machinery, vibration is measured periodically and

compared to the vibration at initial condition or at normal condition after the maintenance for

judging the deterioration of equipment.

Maintenance of Production systems

Vibration measurement is used not only when the problem occurs but also when the daily

maintenance is performed. The production system is kept in operation by detecting the

deterioration or possible failure of a part through adverse vibration patterns.

Discuss control to exposure to vibration.

Protecting workers from the effects of vibration usually requires a combination of appropriate

tool selection, the use of appropriate vibration-absorbing materials (in gloves, for example),

good work practices, and education programs.

What are some examples of controlling exposure to vibration?

Anti-Vibration Tools

Tools can be designed or mounted in ways that help reduce the vibration level. For example,

using anti-vibration chain saws reduces acceleration levels by a factor of about 10. These types

of chain saws must be well maintained. Maintenance must include periodic replacement of shock

absorbers. Some pneumatic tool companies manufacture anti-vibration tools such as anti-

vibration pneumatic chipping hammers, pavement breakers and vibration-damped pneumatic

riveting guns.

Anti-Vibration Gloves

Conventional protective gloves (e.g., cotton, leather), commonly used by workers, do not reduce

the vibration that is transferred to workers' hands when they are using vibrating tools or

equipment. Anti-vibration gloves are made using a layer of viscoelastic material. Actual

measurements have shown that such gloves have limited effectiveness in absorbing low-
88
frequency vibration, the major contributor to vibration-related disorders. Therefore, they

offer little protection against developing vibration-induced white finger syndrome. It is a

secondary form of Raynaud’s syndrome, an industrial injury triggered by continuous use of

vibrating hand-held machinery. It is a disorder that affects the blood vessels, nerves, muscles,

and joints, of the hand, wrist and arm. Injury can occur at frequencies between 5 and 2000Hz

but the greatest risk for fingers is between 50 and 300Hz.

Do check the pictures of the induce white finger syndromes on your smart phone

Figure-39b-Induced white finger syndromes (Raynaud’s syndrome)

However, gloves do provide protection from typical industrial hazards (e.g., cuts, abrasions)

and from cold temperatures that, in turn, may reduce the initial sensation of white finger

attacks.

Safe Work Practices

Along with using anti-vibration tools and gloves, workers can reduce the risk of hand-arm

vibration syndrome (HAVS) by following work practices:

• Employ a minimum hand grip consistent with safe operation of the tool or process.

• Wear sufficient clothing, including gloves, to keep warm.

• Avoid continuous exposure by taking rest periods.

• Rest the tool on the work piece whenever practical.

• Refrain from using faulty tools.

89
 • Maintain properly sharpened cutting tools.

• Consult a doctor at the first sign of vibration disease and ask about the possibility of

changing to a job with less exposure.

Employee Education

Training programs are an effective means of heightening the awareness of HAVS in the

workplace. Training should include proper use and maintain vibrating tools to avoid unnecessary

exposure to vibration. Vibrating machines and equipment often produce loud noise as well.

Therefore, training and education in controlling vibration should also address concerns about

noise control.

Whole-Body Vibration

The following precautions help to reduce whole-body vibration exposure:

• Limit the time spent by workers on a vibrating surface.

• Mechanically isolate the vibrating source or surface to reduce exposure.

• Ensure that equipment is well maintained to avoid excessive vibration.

• Install vibration damping seats.

Describe how the accelerometer is mounted to a body.

How is the Accelerometer Mounted?

Most machines involve rotary mechanisms. Motors, pumps, compressors, fans, belt conveyors,

gearboxes, all involve rotary mechanisms and are frequently used in machines.

Most rotary mechanisms in turn have bearings that support the weight of rotating parts and

bear the forces associated with rotary motion and vibration. In general, large amounts of force

are borne by bearings. It is not surprising that bearings are often the place where damage

occurs and where symptoms first develop.

90
Vibration measurements are thus usually taken at the bearings of machines, with

accelerometers mounted at or near the bearings.

Figure-40

Since conclusions regarding machine condition - and hence whether or not money and human

safety are risked - depend on the accuracy of measurements, we must be very careful how

measurements are taken. It is important to always remember that the way in which we mount

the accelerometer very much determines the accuracy of measurements.

How should accelerometers be mounted to ensure measurements are accurate and how can we

do so safely? Here are some guidelines:

(a) Mount as Close as Possible to the Bearing

Imagine a doctor who listened to your heart through thick clothing and placed the stethoscope

closer to your kidney than to your heart. You would likely doubt his diagnosis as he would be

basing it on sounds distorted by undue obstruction and noise from other organs.

Figure-41

91
When measuring vibration, we must always attach the accelerometer as close as possible to

the bearing. More specifically, we must attach it as close as possible to the centerline of the

bearing to avoid picking up distorted signals.

Figure-42

(b) Make Sure the Accelerometer is firmly Attached

For the accelerometer to detect true vibration behavior, it needs to undergo exactly the same

vibratory movement as the vibrating component. An accelerometer must therefore be attached

firmly to the vibrating component so that it does not rock or move independently of the

component. A loosely mounted accelerometer produces signals distorted by its own independent

movements and therefore gives the wrong message.

Various mounting methods exist, but mounting by means of a magnet is the most popular as it

offers a balance between measurement reliability and convenience to the user. The magnetic

mounting supplied in the Commtest vb kit can be attached very firmly, while allowing the user

to measure multiple machines using the same accelerometer, with minimum time spent on

attaching and detaching the accelerometer.

92
To ensure that the accelerometer is firmly attached, it must be stuck to a magnetic mounting

surface this is even. The magnetic mount must sit securely on the surface with the

accelerometer positioned in the prescribed orientation.

Figure-43

For the surface to be even, it must be free of debris, rust, and flaking paint.

Figure-44

The mounting surface must be truly magnetic (iron, nickel, or cobalt alloys). The magnetic

mounting must not, for example, be attached to an aluminum surface by virtue of iron beneath

the aluminum surface.

Figure-45

93
To avoid loss of magnetism, the magnetic mounting must not be dropped or heated. Care must

also be taken not to strip the screw thread on the accelerometer and magnetic mounting.

Figure-46

(c) Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented Correctly

Different situations require the accelerometer to be oriented differently. For example, to

detect parallel misalignment the accelerometer is usually mounted in the radial direction of the

bearings, but to detect angular misalignment the accelerometer needs to be mounted in the

axial direction.

The signal produced by the accelerometer is dependent on the orientation in which the

accelerometer is mounted, since the amplitude (amount) of vibration varies in different

directions.

94
 Figure-47

(d) Mount the Same Accelerometer in the Same Location

For a particular measurement point it is important to always mount the accelerometer at the

same location to minimize measurement inconsistencies that may lead to wrong conclusions.

Where possible, always use the same accelerometer for a particular measurement point.

Figure-48

95
(e) Mount the Accelerometer on Something Substantial

The accelerometer must never be mounted on a very flexible part of the machine as the

spectrum will be distorted by the flapping of the flexible part.

The accelerometer must never be used on structures that are very light as the weight of the

accelerometer and magnetic mounting will distort the vibration behavior of the structure. In

general, the combined weight of the accelerometer and magnetic mounting should be less than

10% of the weight of the vibrating structure.

Figure-49

(f) Take Care of the Accelerometer

If the accelerometer is treated roughly it may produce unreliable signals. Because of the

strength of the magnetic mount, you must take care when attaching the accelerometer to a

mounting surface. You can achieve this by approaching the mounting surface with the magnetic

mounting tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnetic mounting, you must not use the

accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the magnetic mounting should be

gripped tightly and then tilted sideways to break the contact.

96
 Figure-50

The accelerometer cable should never be twisted acutely, but must be anchored in a manner

that prevents it from being damaged. Twisted or freely swinging cables can distort the

measured spectrum.

Figure-51

(g) Take Care of Personal Safety

You must manage hazards at all times. When taking vibration measurements, three kinds of

hazards stand out in likelihood or severity: injury by moving parts, electrical shock, and magnet-

induced damage.

Firstly, when mounting the accelerometer, you must take care to prevent the cable from

becoming entangled with moving machinery. While the quick-release connector minimizes this

danger it should not be relied on as a substitute for correct installation.

97
Other things that could tangle with moving machinery include loose clothing, long hair, data

transfer cables and straps.

Figure-52

Secondly, you must never attach the accelerometer to any high voltage surface as this may

cause electrical shock.

Thirdly, you must never bring the magnetic mounting near any magnet-sensitive objects such

as pacemakers, credit cards, floppy disks, video tapes, cassette tapes and watches since these

items can be damaged by magnetic fields.

There are other possible hazards. You should read and thoroughly understand the vb Series

Instrument Reference Guide before using the instrument or its accompanying accessories.

Use the accelerometer to measure the frequency of a body.

In order to determine the frequency of a body using the accelerometer you will need:

• An accelerometer

• An equipment that needs to be monitored eg. An electric motor

As the electric motor is running

• Mount the accelerometer as Close as Possible to the Bearing

98
 Figure-53

• Make Sure the Accelerometer is firmly Attached

Figure-54

99
• Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented Correctly

Figure-55

• Mount the Accelerometer on Something Substantial

Figure-56

100
 • Take Care of the Accelerometer

Because of the strength of the magnetic mount, you must take care when attaching the

accelerometer to a mounting surface. You can achieve this by approaching the mounting surface

with the magnetic mounting tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnetic mounting, you must

not use the accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the magnetic mounting

should be gripped tightly and then tilted sideways to break the contact.

The accelerometer cable should never be twisted acutely, but must be anchored in a manner

that prevents it from being damaged.

Figure-57

• Take Care of Personal Safety

Firstly, when mounting the accelerometer, you must take care to prevent the cable from

becoming entangled with moving machinery. While the quick-release connector minimizes this

danger it should not be relied on as a substitute for correct installation.

Other things that could tangle with moving machinery include loose clothing, long hair, data

transfer cables and straps.

Figure-58

Secondly, you must never attach the accelerometer to any high voltage surface as this may

cause electrical shock.

101
Thirdly, you must never bring the magnetic mounting near any magnet-sensitive objects such

as pacemakers, credit cards, floppy disks, video tapes, cassette tapes and watches since these

items can be damaged by magnetic fields.

• Take reading from the accelerometer

• Orientate the accelerometer to find other readings

• Interpret reading

Checklist Table 7
No Yes No
1
Were you provided with all the accelerometer?

2
Did you get access to an electric motor?

3
Did you Mount as Close as Possible to the Bearing?

4
Did you make sure Make Sure the Accelerometer is
firmly Attached?
5 Did you Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented
Correctly?

6 Was the Accelerometer Mounted on Something

Substantial

7 Did you Take Care of the Accelerometer?

8 Could you take the readings

102
9 Could you interpret the readings

103
Describe vibration isolation.
Vibration isolation is a commonly used technique for reducing or suppressing unwanted

vibrations in structures and machines. With this technique, the device or system of interest is

isolated from the source of vibration through insertion of a resilient member or isolator. There

are various types of isolators, including metal springs, rubber mounts, and pneumatic mounts.

Vibration isolation is usually applied in the following two situations:

• The foundation of a vibrating system is protected from large transmitted forces due

to harmonic excitation or rotating unbalanced mass and

• The vibrating system, which may be a delicate device or instrument, is protected from

the motion of its base

In either situation, a transmissibility of the vibration isolation system is modified at a given

frequency, so as to reduce forces transmitted to the foundation or to suppress displacement

transmitted to the delicate device in consideration.

Vibration isolation

Vibration isolation system is that setting of isolation devices between the upper structure and

the foundation, as shown in Figure 59 and this will reduce the transmission of vibration energy.

The methods of vibration isolation usually include rubber isolation, sliding isolation, hybrid

isolation, etc.

104
 Figure-59-Structure vibration isolation

Rubber isolation

Rubber bearing, also known as sandwich (or laminated/multi) rubber isolation pad, consists of

rubber and steel plane alternately. Rubber bearings are the most mature and widely used

isolation devices, as shown in Figure 60. In order to meet the damping requirements of the

isolation system, lead plug or high damping rubber is adopted in rubber bearings. The rubber

bearing is an ideal device not only having the advantages of strong vertical bearing capacity,

small horizontal stiffness and large horizontal allowable displacement, but also withstanding

the vertical earthquake excitations with certain strength. However, the device has poor

tension properties and the effect of vertical isolation is not obvious. In the recent years, some

multi-dimensional earthquake isolation devices are proposed based on the ordinary rubber

bearing

105
 Figure-60-Rubber isolator

Sliding isolation

Sliding isolation relies on sliding support elements installed between the basement and the

upper structure. Sliding support elements can reduce transmission of vibration energy

effectively due to energy consumption by relative sliding motion and friction. Theoretical and

practical studies show that the sliding isolation system has excellent capacity for vibration

isolation. The main advantage of the sliding isolation system is that its isolation effect is

affected by the frequency of slight ground motion, and resonance phenomenon does not occur

easily. At the same time, the construction of the sliding isolation system is simple and the cost

is lower. The sliding isolation system has some drawbacks, such as bad restoring capacity due

to no lateral stiffness and an instability of the friction coefficient.

Hybrid isolation

The hybrid isolation system is constituted by two or more isolation systems in a certain way

(series, parallel, and series-parallel, etc.) for better vibration isolation effect. A hybrid

106
isolation system makes full use of the advantages of different isolation systems and overcomes

shortcomings of different components. For example, when the sliding isolation system and the

rubber isolation system are connected in parallel, the former has better load-carrying capacity

and can decrease the number of rubber bearings, and the latter can provide restoring force.

Hybrid isolation systems have complex hysteresis characteristics due to different isolation

components, which can lead to difficult analysis.

Spring Vibration Isolators

Kinetics spring vibration isolators are used to reduce the transmission of noise, shock, and

vibration produced by mechanical, industrial or process equipment into or within a building

structure.

Typical Isolated Equipment includes:

• Pumps
• Fans

• Cooling Towers

• Rooftop Units

• Chillers

• Boilers

• Compressors

107
 Figure-61-Spring vibration isolator

Why is vibration isolation such a critical issue?

Without good vibration control, expensive equipment may fail faster, produce inaccurate

results, and even make noise. In addition to vibration caused by motors, fans, and other

equipment, some installations may suffer from seismic activity that can create acute and

damaging levels of vibration. If frequencies of vibration are allowed to pass into the structure,

they may cause significant damage to the building and surrounding systems.

The importance of vibration isolation efficiency

Reduction of vibration does more than just eliminate a nuisance; it can also help prevent a

variety of problems, such as:

• Loosening of bolts, screws, and other fixtures: Facilities that neglect vibration control

may spend more time and money on typical maintenance.

108
 • Disruption of or damage to sensitive equipment: Sensitive equipment may produce

inaccurate results and fail faster when subjected to uncontrolled vibration.

• Production losses and energy inefficiencies: Equipment subject to vibrations may have to

work harder and may fail more rapidly, resulting in more energy consumption and extra

downtime.

Use vibration isolator to isolate a body.

Torsional Vibration Dampers (TVDs) provide vital protection for a vehicle’s engine. Torsional

Vibration Dampers are made up of rubber and metal components; the rubber within the

metal absorbs excessive vibrations that are leaked from the engine. These vibrations,

if transmitted, can damage surrounding components causing them to fail prematurely. Having

failing parts within the engine can cause significant damage to the vehicle.

If the driver starts to hear excessive noise coming from the engine or the vehicle

is vibrating excessively, then the following steps must be followed to rectify it.

Figure-62-Torsional vibration damper

To start with the job, you will need the following tools:

109
 • Torque wrench

• Hammer

• Screwdrivers

• Wrenches

• Pliers

• Ratchet and Socket Sets

• Allen Wrenches

After everything is set go through the following steps.

Step 1

The belt routing can be quite complex, so we advise that you take a picture or draw a
quick sketch of this.

Step 2

Next, remove the tensioner from the belt, which can easily be done by rotating the pulley.

Step 3

To remove the torsional vibration damper from the crankshaft, you need to loosen the
mounting bolts. As we know, not everything is as straight forward and some torsional
vibration damper are different.

If the torsional vibration damper you are replacing has a central expansion bolt, then you will
need to block the flywheel. Like most repairs on a vehicle, all the parts need to be replaced,
and this includes the central bolt.

Step 4

Unpack the new damper and place this on the engine.

Step 5

Now that the new torsional vibration damper is on, we need to tighten the mounting bolts. If
there are several bolts, we recommend tightening alternate bolts and working them in a
star pattern. Torque the mounting bolts to a third of the installation torque.
110
Step 6

Before fully tightening the bolts, I recommend you torque the mounting bolts to two-thirds,
and then continue to tighten them to the full torque as specified by the vehicle manufacturer
in the manual

Inspect the front end auxiliary drive for wear and to replace any parts that are showing
significant signs of stress.

Step 8

The final step to the installation and removal process is reloading the belt onto the
tensioner by rotating the tensioner to the correct position.

As you go through the process of fixing the torsional vibration damper adhere to all
safety precautions.

Checklist Table 8
No Yes No
1 Were you provided with all the apparatus needed
2 Were you able to get all tools needed
3 Could you remove the tensioner from the belt
4 Were you able fix the torsional vibration damper
5 Were you able to tighten the bolts correctly
6 Were you able to reload the belt onto the tensioner

111
112