Lab 2

Dept.
of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LAB (EC39002)
Nedunuri Akula Tejaswini

Roll No: 21EC30009
Group No.: 6
Experiment No: 2
Title of Expt.: Design of PN sequence generator using Linear Feedback

Shift Register
INTRODUCTION:
A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a code sequence of 1s and 0s with some

auto-correlation properties. It is generated by means of a feedback shift register.
It is used in spread spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length sequence,
which is a type of cyclic code.
Brief Theory:
Pseudo-Noise (PN) sequences are commonly used to generate noise that is

approximately "white". It has applications in scrambling, cryptography, and
spread-spectrum communications. It is also commonly referred to as the
Pseudo-Random Binary Sequence (PRBS). These are very widely used in
communication standards these days. The qualifier "pseudo" implies that the
sequence is not truly random. Actually, it is periodic with a (possibly large) period,
and exhibits some characteristics of a random white sequence within that period.
PN sequences are generated by Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSR), as
shown in the following figure:
In the figure, the output xk is binary (0 or 1), and so are the constants hj, j=0,1,…n,
and ⊕
denotes the XOR operation. This means that xk is given by:
xk = h1xk-1⊕……⊕ hnxk-n
Since xk⊕xk=0, it follows from the above that: xk ⊕ h1xk-1⊕……⊕hnxk-n =0 or h(D)x(D)

=0
where h(D) = 1 ⊕ h1D⊕……⊕ hnDn and D denotes a unit delay (xkDj =xk-j for any j).
Note that the “1” in the polynomial does not correspond to a tap.
Properties of PN sequence:
1. Balance Property: In each period of a maximum length sequence, the

number of 1s is always one more than the number of 0s.
2. Run Property: Among the runs of 1s and 0s in each period of a

maximum length sequence, one half the runs of each kind are of length
one, one-fourth are of length two, one eighth are of length three, and so
on as long as these fractions represent meaningful numbers of runs. By
“run” we mean a subsequence of identical symbols (1s and 0s) within a
period of sequence. The length of this subsequence is the length of run.
If the length of linear feedback shift register is m, the total number of
runs is (N+1)/2 where N = 2m - 1.
3. Correlation Property: Correlation is a measure of similarity between

two sequences. When the two sequences compared are different it is the
‘cross correlation’ and when they are the same it is the ‘autocorrelation’.
Based on the correlation property, if any PN output sequence is
compared with any cyclic shift of itself, the number of agreements differs
from the number of disagreements by at most one count. Therefore, if
the cross correlation is done for different shifts, there will be maximum
correlation when there is no shift and minimum correlation when the
cyclic shift is one or more. The correlation property makes
synchronization easier since during synchronization, by correlating the
transmitter PN sequence with the receiver PN sequence the receiver PN
sequence can be continuously delayed until a set threshold of the
correlation under which acquisition can be declared is attained. Based
on the above fact it is evident that for a large stage PN sequence the
acquisition time may be larger since the maximum possible number of
cyclic shifts is also large. For shorter PN sequence lengths, the
acquisition time lasts shorter time durations. However, the length of the
PN sequence that is used is not the only factor that determines the
acquisition time. The nature of the communication channel also plays a
part in determining the acquisition time.
Key Objectives:To design a pseudo noise sequence generator using a
feedback shift register and keeping the lock condition in consideration
Component Details:
● IC 7495 (4-bit shift register)
● IC 7486 (XOR)
● IC 7432 (OR)
● IC 7402 (NOR)
● IC 7408 (AND)
● Connecting wires
● Digital multimeter
● Digital Signal Oscilloscope
● Signal generator
● Bread board(x1)
● DC supply voltages of +5V, 0V
First polynomial:1+x^3+x^4
A B C D Output
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
PN sequence of length 15
Number of 1’s = 8 and number of 0’s = 7, so balance property is satisfied.
It satisfies Run length property also, so it is a PN sequence.
Polynomial 2 : 1+x+x^2+x^3+x^4
A B C D Output
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
A sequence of length 5
Sequence does not satisfy balance property because number of zeros is much
lesser than number of ones, therefore it is not a PN sequence.
Polynomial 3 : 1+x^4+x^2
A B C D Output
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1
A sequence of length 6
Sequence does not satisfy balance property because number of zeros is much
lesser than number of ones, therefore it is not a PN sequence
Part B:
Correlation Property: Correlation is a measure of similarity between two
sequences. When the two sequences compared are different it is the ‘cross
correlation’ and when they are the same it is the ‘autocorrelation’. Consider a PN
sequence x(·) of length-N which takes value +1 for ‘1’ and −1 for ‘0’. Then, the
autocorrelation function Rx(k)
Given polynomial: x^3 + x + 1

Sequence obtained: 01001110
This sequence satisfies balance property and run length property, so is a PN
sequence.
**Discussion:**
The objective of this experiment was to design a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence

generator using a Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR) and to investigate the
properties of generated sequences. The experiment involved the use of various
integrated circuits (ICs) such as 7495 (4-bit shift register), 7486 (XOR gate),
7432 (OR gate), 7402 (NOR gate), and 7408 (AND gate), along with connecting
wires, a digital multimeter, a digital signal oscilloscope, a signal generator, a
breadboard, and DC supply voltages of +5V and 0V.
The PN sequences were generated based on specific polynomial expressions.

The discussion focused on three polynomials: 1 + x^3 + x^4, 1 + x + x^2 + x^3 +
x^4, and 1 + x^4 + x^2. The generated sequences were analyzed for their
balance property, run length property, and correlation property.
The first polynomial (1 + x^3 + x^4) produced a PN sequence of length 15. The
sequence satisfied both the balance and run length properties, confirming its
nature as a PN sequence. The second polynomial (1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + x^4)
resulted in a sequence of length 5, which did not satisfy the balance property and
was identified as not a PN sequence. Similarly, the third polynomial (1 + x^4 +
x^2) produced a sequence of length 6 that did not meet the balance property
criteria, leading to the conclusion that it was not a PN sequence.
In Part B of the experiment, the correlation property was discussed. The

autocorrelation function Rx(k) for a given polynomial (x^3 + x + 1) was examined,
and the obtained sequence (01001110) was verified to satisfy both the balance
and run length properties, confirming its PN sequence characteristics.
**Conclusion:**
In conclusion, the experiment successfully demonstrated the design of a PN

sequence generator using a Linear Feedback Shift Register. The analysis of
generated sequences based on different polynomials revealed the importance of
selecting appropriate feedback structures to achieve desirable properties in PN
sequences. The balance property, run length property, and correlation property
were crucial aspects in determining the nature of the generated sequences.
The experiment provided valuable insights into the practical implementation of

PN sequences and their applications in communication systems, particularly in
spread spectrum techniques. The correlation property discussion highlighted the
significance of synchronization in communication, showcasing the potential of PN
sequences in facilitating efficient data transmission.
Overall, the experiment enhanced the understanding of PN sequence generation

and its relevance in digital communication. It also emphasized the role of specific
polynomial expressions and the corresponding feedback shift register
configurations in achieving desired sequence properties.

Lab 2

Uploaded by

Lab 2

Uploaded by

Dept.

of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LAB (EC39002)

Nedunuri Akula Tejaswini

Title of Expt.: Design of PN sequence generator using Linear Feedback

A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a code sequence of 1s and 0s with some

Pseudo-Noise (PN) sequences are commonly used to generate noise that is

Since xk⊕xk=0, it follows from the above that: xk ⊕ h1xk-1⊕……⊕hnxk-n =0 or h(D)x(D)

1. Balance Property: In each period of a maximum length sequence, the

2. Run Property: Among the runs of 1s and 0s in each period of a

3. Correlation Property: Correlation is a measure of similarity between

Given polynomial: x^3 + x + 1

The objective of this experiment was to design a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence

The PN sequences were generated based on specific polynomial expressions.

In Part B of the experiment, the correlation property was discussed. The

In conclusion, the experiment successfully demonstrated the design of a PN

The experiment provided valuable insights into the practical implementation of

Overall, the experiment enhanced the understanding of PN sequence generation

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