2 Neuroscience and behaviour

Your ability to perceive your surroundings – to see, hear, and smell what’s around you – depends on your
nervous system. So does your ability to recognize people and things in the environment. Involuntary
responses such an increase in heart rate, digestion and blood flow to your muscles are also due the nervous
system. All of these processes depend on the interconnected cells that make up your nervous system. Like
the heart, lungs, and stomach, the nervous system is made up of specialized cells.

Neurons are specialized cells that transmit chemical and electrical signals. The neuron is the basic building
block of the brain and central nervous system. The brain is made up entirely of neurons and glial cells,
which are non-neuronal cells that provide structure and support for the neurons. It is believed that nearly 1
trillion neurons throughout the body are involved in the control of behaviour. They are responsible for
everything from consciousness and thought to pain and hunger.

The basic functions of a neuron

a. Receive signals (or information).
b. Integrate incoming signals (to determine whether or not the information should be passed along).
c. Communicate signals to target cells (other neurons or muscles or glands).

Structure of a neuron

There are several types of neurons, they all have a similar structure: a cell body, dendrites, axon and
terminal buttons.

Cell body:
The cell body, also called the soma, is the spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus. The cell
body is covered by cell membrane which is permeable.
The nucleus contains genes and chromosomes that determines our hereditary characteristics.
The cell body provides nutrients to others parts of the cell.

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The cell body connects to the dendrites, which bring information to the neuron, and the axon, which sends
information to other neurons.

Dendrite:
Dendrites are branch-like structures extending away from the cell body, and their job is to receive
messages from other neurons and allow those messages to travel to the cell body.
Although some neurons do not have any dendrites, other types of neurons have multiple dendrites.

Axon:
Extending from the other end of the cell body at a location called the axon hillock is the axon, a long, thin,
tube-like extension, which is considerably longer than the rest of the neuron.
The axon carries the messages received from the dendrite to other neurons. The axon is wrapped in myelin
sheath (made up of fats and protein), which covers some sections of the axon, but leaves some parts of the
axon uncovered.
The myelin sheath helps to insulate axons and to increase the speed of the electrical impulses.

Nodes of Ranvier:
Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier.
At these nodes, the signal is "recharged" as it travels along the axon.

Terminal buttons / Axon terminal:

Towards its end, the axon splits up into many branches and develops bulbous swellings known as axon
terminals (or nerve terminals). These axon terminals make connections on target cells. The cell to which
the axon terminal belongs (sending cell) is called the presynaptic cell, while the cell to which the dendrite
or cell body belongs (receiving cell) is called the postsynaptic cell.

Synapses:
There is a space between the axon ending and the dendrite of the next neuron the two cells, across which
they communicate.
This space, known as synapses, are the sites at which information is carried from the first neuron,
the presynaptic neuron, to the target neuron (the postsynaptic neuron).
At most synapses and junctions, information is transmitted in the form of chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters.

Glial cells:
The myelin sheath is not actually part of the neuron. Myelin is produced by glial cells (or simply glia, or
"glue" in Greek), which are non-neuronal cells that provide support for the nervous system. Glia function
to hold neurons in place (hence their Greek name), supply them with nutrients, provide insulation, and
remove pathogens and dead neurons.

Mirror Neurons:
Specialized neurons that fire not only when a person carry out a behaviour, but also when a person simply
observes another individual carrying out the same.
Mirror neurons explains why humans have the capacity to helps us to understand others intentions.
Mirror neurons help us learn behaviours through imitation.
It is responsible for feelings of empathy and development of language.

How neurons fire

The messages that pass through the neuron are electrical in nature. The electrical messages or impulses
move across neurons in one direction only – from the dendrites to the cell body to the axon and then to the
axon terminals.
Before a neuron is triggered it is known to be in a resting state. It is called a resting potential because it
occurs when a membrane is not being stimulated or conducted.

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A neuron at the resting state has negative electrical charge (ions) of about -70 millivolts inside the nerve
cell and positive electrical charge on the outside of the cell.

The nerve cell membrane contains special passageways that are commonly referred to as gates or channels.
When the nerve cell receives a signal from a stimulus or other cells, some of the gates or channels open,
and the positive electrical ions rush into the cell and negative ions rush outside the cell. The sudden arrival
of these positive ions causes the charge to change from negative to positive. This is state is now known as
action potential. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other end in a great speed.

When an action potential travels down an axon and reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of
neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell.
Neurotransmitter molecules cross the synapse and bind to membrane receptors on the postsynaptic cell,
conveying an excitatory or inhibitory signal.

The firing of the neuron follows an all-or-none law: The all-or-none law means that a neuron either fires or
it doesn't. If the threshold potential is met, then the neuron fires. If it is not met, there is no neuronal firing
at all

Types of Neurons
There are three primary types of neuron: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. All three have
different functions, but the brain needs all of them to communicate effectively with the rest of the body
(and vice versa).

Sensory neurons:
Sensory (afferent) neurons get information about what's going on inside and outside of the body and bring
that information into the CNS so it can be processed. For instance, if you picked up a hot plate, sensory
neurons in your fingertips would convey the information to your CNS that it was really hot.

Motor neurons:
Motor (efferent) neurons get information from other neurons and convey commands to your muscles,
organs and glands. For instance, if you picked up a hot plate, it motor neurons in the muscles in your
fingers would cause your hand to let go.

Interneurons:
Interneurons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to another. They receive information
from other neurons (either sensory neurons or interneurons) and transmit information to other neurons
(either motor neurons or interneurons).
For instance, if you picked up a hot plate, the signal from the sensory neurons in your fingertips would
travel to interneurons in your spinal cord. Some of these interneurons would signal to the motor neurons
controlling your finger muscles (causing you to drop the hot plate), while others would transmit the signal
up the spinal cord to neurons in the brain, where it would be perceived as pain.

The Human Nervous System

In humans and other vertebrates, the nervous system can be broadly divided into two sections: the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is in the CNS that all of the
analysis of information takes place.

Spinal cord:
The spinal cord is as thick as a pencil, contains bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the
length of the back.
It is the primary means for transmitting messages from the brain and rest of the body.
Injuries to the spinal cord lead to: quadriplegia or paraplegia.
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Quadriplegia is a condition in which voluntary muscle movement below the neck is lost.
Paraplegia is less severe condition in which people are unable to voluntarily move any muscles in the
lower half of the body.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), which consists of the neurons and parts of neurons found outside
of the CNS, includes sensory neurons and motor neurons. There are two major divisions of the PNS - the
somatic division and the autonomic division – both which connect the CNS with the sense organs, muscles,
glands, and other organs.

The Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system controls such voluntary actions as walking and smiling through the use of
efferent motor nerves. The somatic nervous system processes sensory information with the exception of
reflex actions – an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus.

The Autonomic Nervous System, in vertebrates, is the part of the nervous system that controls and
regulates the internal organs without any conscious recognition or effort by the organism.
The autonomic nervous system is most important in two situations:
In emergencies that cause stress and require us to "fight" or take "flight" (run away)
In nonemergency that allow us to "rest" and "digest."

The autonomic nervous system comprises two antagonistic sets of nerves:

the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The sympathetic nervous system connects the internal organs to the brain by spinal nerves. When
stimulated, these nerves prepare the organism for stress by increasing the heart rate, increasing blood flow
to the muscles, and decreasing blood flow to the skin, thus preparing the body to fight or flee from the
stressful situation.
When the stress subsides, the nerve fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system increase digestive
secretions, reduces blood pressure, pulse rate, and reduce the heartbeat, thus preparing the body to come to
normal state. The parasympathetic nervous work to save energy.

The Endocrine System

Another of the body’s communication system, the endocrine system is a chemical communication network
that sends messages throughout the body via the blood stream.
The Endocrine system secretes hormones – chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the
functioning or growth of the body.
It also influences and is influenced by the functioning of the nervous system. Although it is not part of the
brain, it is closely linked to the hypothalamus.

Some of the important glands and their functions:

Pituitary Gland:
a. Found near and regulated by the hypothalamus. It is called the master gland as it controls the
functioning of the rest of the endocrine system.
b. Besides, the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland controls growth.
c. Produces Oxytocin which responsible for pleasure and life satisfaction. In new mothers, it produces
milk to feed the new born.

Pineal Gland:
a. The pineal gland secretes melatonin and related hormones which may play a role in sleep.
b. Possibly affect the secretion of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.

Thyroid:
a. Increases the body’s metabolic rate.
b. Promotes calcium deposition in the bones.
c. Also reduces the calcium levels present in the blood and tissue fluid.
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Adrenal cortex:
a. Regulates sodium and potassium balance in the blood
b. Regulates growth, metabolism, development, immune function and body’s response to stress by
producing cortisol.

Adrenal medulla:
a. Produces norepinephrine and epinephrine which plays an important role in “fight or flight” response.

Pancreas:
a. Produces Insulin

Testes:
a. Produces Testosterone which promotes the development and maturation of the testes, as well as the
sexual characteristics of men.

Ovaries:
a. Produces Estrogen which is responsible for the development of the female reproductive system,
including the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and genitalia, as well as the sexual characteristics of
women.
b. Produces Progesterone which promotes secretory changes in the uterus and fallopian tubes in
preparation of pregnancy.

The Central Core: Our Old Brain

The brain stem is the oldest and innermost region of the brain. It’s designed to control the most basic
functions of life, including breathing, attention, and motor responses.
The central core is referred to as the “old brain”, because its evolution can be traced back to some 500
million years to primitive structures found in nonhumans.
The brain stem consists of hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain. The hind brain consists of medulla
oblongata, pons, reticular formation, and cerebellum.
The mid brain consists of the limbic system. The forebrain consists of thalamus and hypothalamus.

The Medulla:
The brain stem begins where the spinal cord enters the skull and forms the medulla, the area of the brain
stem that controls heart rate and breathing.

Pons:
The spherical shape above the medulla is the pons, a structure in the brain stem that helps control the
movements of the body, playing a particularly important role in balance and walking.

The Cerebellum:
The cerebellum (literally, “little brain”) consists of two wrinkled ovals behind the brain stem. It functions
to coordinate voluntary movement.
People who have damage to the cerebellum have difficulty walking, keeping their balance, and holding
their hands steady.
Consuming alcohol influences the cerebellum, which is why people who are drunk have more difficulty
walking in a straight line.
Cerebellum contributes to emotional responses, helps us discriminate between different sounds and
textures, and is important in learning.

The Reticular formation:

Running through the medulla and the pons is a long, narrow network of neurons known as the reticular
formation.
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The job of the reticular formation is to filter out some of the stimuli that are coming into the brain from the
spinal cord and to relay the remainder of the signals to other areas of the brain.
The reticular formation also plays important roles in walking, eating, sexual activity, and sleeping.
When electrical stimulation is applied to the reticular formation of an animal, it immediately becomes fully
awake, and when the reticular formation is severed from the higher brain regions, the animal falls into a
deep coma.

Hidden within the forebrain, above the brain stem are other parts of the old brain (thalamus and
hypothalamus) that also are involved in the processing of behaviour and emotion.

The Thalamus:
The thalamus is the egg-shaped structure above the brain stem acts primarily as a relay station for
information about the senses.
Messages from the sense organs travel to the thalamus to be communicated upwards to the higher parts of
the brain.
The thalamus also integrates information from higher parts of the brain, filtering it so that it can be sent to
the cerebellum and medulla.

The Limbic system:

Whereas the primary function of the brain stem is to regulate the most basic aspects of life, including
motor functions, the limbic system is largely responsible for memory and emotions, including our
responses to reward and punishment. The limbic system is a brain area, located between the brain stem and
the two cerebral hemispheres, that governs emotion and memory.
It includes the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus.

The Amygdala:
The amygdala consists of two “almond-shaped” clusters (amygdala comes from the Latin word for
“almond”) and is primarily responsible for regulating our perceptions of, and reactions to, aggression and
fear.
The amygdala has connections to other bodily systems related to fear, including the sympathetic nervous
system, facial responses (which perceive and express emotions), the processing of smells, and the release
of neurotransmitters related to stress and aggression.

In one early study, Klüver and Bucy (1939) damaged the amygdala of an aggressive rhesus monkey. They
found that the once angry animal immediately became passive and no longer responded to fearful
situations with aggressive behaviour.
Electrical stimulation of the amygdala in other animals also influences aggression. In addition to helping us
experience fear, the amygdala also helps us learn from situations that create fear. When we experience
events that are dangerous, the amygdala stimulates the brain to remember the details of the situation so that
we learn to avoid it in the future.

The Hippocampus:
The hippocampus consists of two “horns” that curve back from the amygdala. The hippocampus is
important in storing information in long-term memory.
If the hippocampus is damaged, a person cannot build new memories, living instead in a strange world
where everything he or she experiences just fades away, even while older memories from the time before
the damage are untouched.

The Hypothalamus:
Located just under the thalamus (hence its name) the hypothalamus is a brain structure that links the
nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus helps to maintain homeostasis – a steady internal environment for the body.

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Secondly, it helps to produce and regulate vital behaviours such as eating, drinking, and sexual behaviour –
which are needed for survival of species.

The Cerebral Cortex: Our new brain

All animals have adapted to their environments by developing abilities that help them survive. Some
animals have hard shells, others run extremely fast, and some have acute hearing. Human beings do not
have any of these particular characteristics, but we do have one big advantage over other animals—we are
very, very smart.
The key to the advanced intelligence of humans is not found in the size of our brains. What sets humans
apart from other animals is our larger cerebral cortex—that allows us to so successfully use language,
acquire complex skills, create tools, and live in social groups.

In humans, the cerebral cortex is wrinkled and folded, rather than smooth as it is in most other animals.
This creates a much greater surface area and size, and allows increased capacities for learning,
remembering, and thinking.
Although the cortex is only about one tenth of an inch thick, it makes up more than 80% of the brain’s
weight. The cortex contains about 20 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synaptic connections.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres, and each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, each
separated by folds known as fissures.
The frontal lobe (behind the forehead), which is responsible primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and
judgment.
The parietal lobe, which extends from the middle to the back of the skull and which is responsible
primarily for processing information about touch.
The occipital lobe, at the very back of the skull, which processes visual information.
The temporal lobe, (pretty much between the ears) responsible primarily for hearing and language.

The Brain is flexible: Neuroplasticity

Neuro refers to neurons and plasticity refers to the brains malleability. Brain plasticity is a common term
used by neuroscientists, referring to the brains ability to change at any age – for better or worse. Plasticity
is the capacity of the brain to change with learning. The brain’s neurons have a remarkable capacity to
reorganize and extend themselves to carry out particular functions in response to the needs of the
organism, and to repair damage. As a result, the brain constantly creates new neural communication routes
and rewires existing ones. Thus, Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to change its structure and
function in response to experience or damage.

For instance, London taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus than London bus drivers. The reason is
because this region of hippocampus is specialized in acquiring information and using complex spatial
information order to navigate efficiently. Taxi drivers have to navigate around London whereas bus drivers
follow a limited route. Studies have shown in bilinguals, the left parietal cortex is larger than
monolinguals. When a tumour in the left hemisphere of the brain impairs language, the right hemisphere
will begin to compensate to help the person recover the ability to speak.

Our brains are the most “plastic” when we are young children, as it is during this time that we learn the
most about our environment. Neuroplasticity continues to be observed even in adults.