water

Article
Monitoring Water Quality of the Haihe River Based on
Ground-Based Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Qi Cao 1 , Gongliang Yu 2 , Shengjie Sun 1 , Yong Dou 1 , Hua Li 2 and Zhiyi Qiao 1, *
1 Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aqua-Ecology and Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Tianjin Agricultural
University, Tianjin 300384, China; [email protected] (Q.C.); [email protected] (S.S.);
[email protected] (Y.D.)
2 CAS Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Wuhan 430072, China; [email protected] (G.Y.); [email protected] (H.L.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-022-23781299

Abstract: The Haihe River is a typical sluice-controlled river in the north of China. The construction
and operation of sluice dams change the flow and other hydrological factors of rivers, which have
adverse effects on water, making it difficult to study the characteristics of water quality change
and water environment control in northern rivers. In recent years, remote sensing has been widely
used in water quality monitoring. However, due to the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the
limitation of instrument resolution, satellite remote sensing is still a challenge to inland water quality
monitoring. Ground-based hyperspectral remote sensing has a high temporal-spatial resolution and
can be simply fixed in the water edge to achieve real-time continuous detection. A combination of
hyperspectral remote sensing devices and BP neural networks is used in the current research to invert
water quality parameters. The measured values and remote sensing reflectance of eight water quality
parameters (chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), phycocyanin (PC), total suspended sediments (TSS), total nitrogen



(TN), total phosphorus (TP), ammonia nitrogen (NH4 -N), nitrate-nitrogen (NO3 -N), and pH) were


modeled and verified. The results show that the performance R2 of the training model is above 80%,
Citation: Cao, Q.; Yu, G.; Sun, S.;
and the performance R2 of the verification model is above 70%. In the training model, the highest
Dou, Y.; Li, H.; Qiao, Z. Monitoring
fitting degree is TN (R2 = 1, RMSE = 0.0012 mg/L), and the lowest fitting degree is PC (R2 = 0.87,
Water Quality of the Haihe River
Based on Ground-Based
RMSE = 0.0011 mg/L). Therefore, the application of hyperspectral remote sensing technology to
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing. Water water quality detection in the Haihe River is a feasible method. The model built in the hyperspectral
2022, 14, 22. https://doi.org/ remote sensing equipment can help decision-makers to easily understand the real-time changes of
10.3390/w14010022 water quality parameters.

Academic Editors: Zheng Duan and

Keywords: ground-based remote sensing; hyperspectral; water quality; BP neural network; Haihe River
Babak Mohammadi

Received: 3 November 2021

Accepted: 19 December 2021
Published: 22 December 2021 1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The lack of water resources is one of the most important global issues that human
with regard to jurisdictional claims in society is currently facing. Water resource security is one of the international research
published maps and institutional affil- spotlights in recent years [1]. Monitoring water quality is an essential tool for determining
iations. and controlling pollution-prone areas to conserve drinking water safety [2]. Traditional
monitoring methods of water quality variables are to select fixed sampling points, to collect
samples regularly, and to bring the water samples back to the laboratory for analysis, which
cannot provide the water quality data of the same period at the regional scale, and is
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
generally a time-consuming and labor-intensive process [3,4]. It shows obvious limitations
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
for continuous monitoring of fixed points. The YSI multi-parameter water quality analyzer
This article is an open access article
is a commonly used portable multi-parameter water quality analyzer, which can detect
distributed under the terms and
several physical and chemical indicators of water in the field, but the price of the analyzer
conditions of the Creative Commons
is relatively high. When different indicators are detected, the probe needs to be replaced
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and calibrated with a standard solution, otherwise, the accuracy of the data will be affected.
4.0/).
The monitoring method of the buoy station is to place the water quality sensor on the

Water 2022, 14, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14010022 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2022, 14, 22 2 of 13

buoy and supply power through the solar charging plate and battery so that the water
body in the area where the buoy station is located can be continuously monitored without
anyone. However, the buoy will deviate from the placement position under the influence
of wind, thus affecting the accuracy of data. The water undergoes continuous and dynamic
changes, and therefore, continuous water quality monitoring is important as a method for
determining hygienic conditions.
Since the 1980s, remote sensing has become a powerful tool for lake monitoring [5].
Spectral imaging takes advantage of the fact that each material has its unique spectral
signature, and the spectrum of individual pixels in the image provides information about
its composition and material surface [6]. Hyperspectral remote sensing combines the
benefits from remote sensing and spectroscopy. In hyperspectral remote sensing, spectral
data are usually high dimensional and fine spectral bands that are highly correlated with
each other [7]. These spectral signatures support the identification of elements or the
measurement of concentrations [8]. Therefore, hyperspectral remote sensing technology is
more suitable for complex inland bodies of water with changeable optical characteristics.
The substances in the water determine the spectral characteristics of the water body, and the
substances affecting the spectral distribution and light intensity in the inland surface water
can be roughly divided into three categories: phytoplankton pigments, yellow substances,
and suspended substances [9]. Hyperspectral technology has been widely applied to
water quality parameters with optical activity, such as Chl-a [10,11] PC [12,13], TSS [14,15],
chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) [16], transparency [17], and turbidity [18].
Although some scholars have studied water quality parameters such as TN, TP, NH4 -N, and
NO3 -N [19,20], it is also a great challenge to estimate the concentrations of total phosphorus,
total nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen in inland waters because the above
parameters do not have optical activity in the perception wavelength.
Based on the different platforms of the observation sensor, hyperspectral remote
sensing technology can be divided into airborne, spaceborne, hand-held, and ground-
based. Airborne hyperspectral remote sensing is flexible in configuration and investigation
time in spatial resolution, spectral range, number of bands, and bandwidth, etc., with high
spectral and spatial resolution, but limited coverage, it is more suitable for small water
bodies, and continuous monitoring cannot be realized due to flight restrictions [21–23].
Spaceborne hyperspectral coverage area is higher, but the spatial and spectral resolution is
relatively rough, which is not suitable for small inland water bodies. In recent decades, a
series of empirical, semi-empirical, and semi-analytical algorithms have been developed
to estimate water quality parameters, and Landsat, MODIS, and other methods have
been used to explore long-term changes in different inland waters [24–27]. Ground-based
remote sensing is a fixed point above the ground with a camera with high-resolution image
acquisition and periodic image acquisition of a fixed water surface. Ground-based remote
sensing can realize periodic and continuous sampling by fixing sensors on pre-planned
sampling points. Under the condition of using the sun as the light source, higher spectral
resolution and lower equivalent radiation noise can be obtained simultaneously. Ground-
based remote sensing and proximal remote sensing have been applied to water quality
testing over the last several years [28,29].
The shortage of water resources has become the main contradiction of water problems
in China, especially in the northern region [30]. The northern rivers are characterized by
low water volume, short flood season, long glaciation period, and high sediment content.
However, previous studies have mostly focused on the southern region [31–34]. Up to date,
real-time continuous monitoring of the water quality of the northern flowing, urban water
streams is usually scarce, thwarting an accurate grasp of their water quality status and
timely detection of water quality issues. The Haihe River is a typical river controlled by
sluice in North China. The construction and operation of sluice dams change hydrological
factors such as the river’s flow rate and flow rate, resulting in the change of the deposition
and diffusion of river pollutants and the change of water quality [35]. The ecological water
of the Haihe River belongs to external water transfer, which is mainly stopped to ensure
Water 2022, 14, 22 3 of 13

the safety of flood control since the flood season starts in June. The aquatic species in the
mainstream of the Haihe River is relatively single. The dominant population in spring
every year is Potamogeton crispus L., which has an apparent inhibitory effect on the growth
of cyanobacteria. However, the growth period of Potamogeton crispus L. is short, and in
May, it decays and dies, and no other organisms are competing with cyanobacteria. After
June, the light conditions are sufficient, and the temperature continues to rise, which is
suitable for algae growth. Therefore, the end of May to early June is mostly the time when
cyanobacterial outbreaks start. Tianjin is a northern region of China, and the weather has
started to turn cooler by September. Therefore, May–August is the time when the Haihe
River is very prone to cyanobacterial blooms. In this study, we selected stations in the
Tianjin section of the Haihe River to establish ground-based hyperspectral in northern
China for the first time to continuously monitor water. The relationship between reflectance
spectra and water quality parameters Chl-a, PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N, and pH was
analyzed by constructing a BP machine learning model in order to use hyperspectral remote
sensing fast, in real-time, and continuously, thereby understanding the water quality.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area
The Haihe river has the comprehensive functions of drainage, storage, water sup-
ply, shipping, tourism, and environmental protection and is one of the significant water
resources in Tianjin. Under the background of rapid urbanization and economic develop-
ment, water shortages and water degradation have become increasingly severe in many
watersheds in China [36]. In all seven river basins, the Haihe basin is suffering the most
water shortages and water pollution [37]. In addition, environmental quality poses a threat
to the people due to poor water quality [38]. The sampling site is located at Lishunde Wharf
(89◦ 070 15.7200 N, 117◦ 120 38.9500 ), Heping District, Tianjin (Figure 1). The spectrometer is set
up on the wharf, and the instrument is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, so as to avoid
the influence of foreign bodies such as people walking by when it is set up on the roadside.

2.2. Field Data

A total of 111 samples were collected from May 2021 to August 2021. In total, 10 L of
in-situ surface water (about 20 cm) was collected with a plexiglass water collector, which
was stored at low temperature and brought back to the laboratory for water quality analysis
as soon as possible. The water quality parameters were analyzed in the laboratory. TN,
TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N, TSS, and pH were measured to determine the eutrophication level
of water bodies, and Chl-a and PC were used to detect cyanobacterial blooms. Water
samples were filtered through 47 mm pore size GF/C membranes (Whatman) and stored
to determine Chl-a and PC content. The membrane was extracted in a centrifuge tube with
ethanol (4 ◦ C, 24 h), centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 min, and the supernatant was obtained.
The absorbance values at 630 nm, 645 nm, 663 nm, and 750 nm were measured by a UV
spectrophotometer to calculate the content of Chl-a in water samples. The membrane was
placed in a centrifuge tube with a 0.05 mol/L phosphate buffer, and the freeze–thaw method
(freezing at −20 ◦ C and thawing at room temperature) was repeated seven times, then the
membrane was centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 10 min, and the supernatant was obtained.
The absorbance values at 615 nm and 652 nm were measured by UV spectrophotometer, and
the content of PC in the water sample was calculated. The TN was measured by oxidation
with potassium persulfate, and a UV spectrophotometer determined the absorbance values
at 220 nm and 275 nm. TP was digested with 5% potassium persulfate for total phosphorus,
molybdenum antimony anti-spectrophotometric, and the absorbance value at 700 nm was
measured by UV spectrophotometer. NH4 -N was measured by the Nessler reagent method,
and the absorbance value at 420 nm was determined by UV spectrophotometry. NO3 -N
was measured by the zinc-cadmium reduction method, and the absorbance value at 543 nm
was determined by UV spectrophotometry. The electrode of the pH meter was rinsed with
Water 2022, 14, 22 4 of 13

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

distilled water, immersed in the water sample, and gently shaken until the data were stable.
Then the pH data were recorded.

Figure 1. Study area map and locations of the water samples. The green dots are the sampling points
of the Lishunde Wharf
Figure in the
1. Study Haihe
area map River, and theofblue
and locations lines samples.
the water are the rivers. Thedots
The green highest elevation
are the samplingispoints
70 m, and theoflowest is −44 m.
the Lishunde Wharf in the Haihe River, and the blue lines are the rivers. The highest elevation is
70 m, and the lowest is −44 m.
2.3. Ground-Based Hyperspectral
2.2. Field
ATP2000P, which Data
is a fiber optic spectrometer from Optosky Photonics Inc. in Xiamen,
China, was purchased
A totaland
of 111used in thiswere
samples study. ATP2000P
collected from has
Maya2021
spectral resolution
to August 2021. of
In 2.4 nm,
total, 10 L of
in-situ
a signal-to-noise surface
ratio watercovering
of 843:1, (about 20acm) was collected
wavelength with
range of a280–1130
plexiglass water
nm, andcollector,
provideswhich
1980 spectralwas stored atfor
channels low temperature
water quality and brought
retrieval and back to the laboratory
a temporal for water
resolution of upquality
to the anal-
seconds levelysiscan
as soon
be setasaccording
possible. The water quality
to actual needs.parameters were analyzed
It can be used outdoorsinforthealaboratory.
long
TN, TP, NH 4-N, NO3-N, TSS, and pH were measured to determine the eutrophication
time and can obtain spectral data remotely online. The spectrometer is approximately
3.5 m abovelevel
the of water
water bodies,and
surface and 0.5
Chl-a
mand
fromPCthe
were used reducing
shore, to detect cyanobacterial blooms.orWater
the river’s bottom
samples were filtered through 47 mm pore size GF/C membranes (Whatman)
riparian influence on the spectrometer, as shown in Figure 2. The measurement time ranged and stored
to determine Chl-a and PC content. The membrane was extracted in a centrifuge tube with
from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m., and the monitoring frequency was a continuous measurement with
1 min intervals.
 provides 1980 spectral channels for water quality retrieval and a temporal resoluti
up to the seconds level can be set according to actual needs. It can be used outdoors
long time and can obtain spectral data remotely online. The spectrometer is approxim
3.5 m above the water surface and 0.5 m from the shore, reducing the river’s botto
riparian influence on the spectrometer, as shown in Figure 2. The measurement
Water 2022, 14, 22 5 of 13
ranged from 7 am to 5 pm, and the monitoring frequency was a continuous measure
with 1 min intervals.

Figure 2. In-situ hyperspectral outdoor application system of Lishunde wharf.

Figure 2. In-situ hyperspectral outdoor application system of Lishunde wharf.

Since
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER
Since
at the
the reflectance
the reflectance
REVIEW wavelength at of
the230–400
wavelength of 230–400
nm and higher nm
thanand
900higher than 900
nm has nm
6 of
miscellaneous peaks, only the reflectance at 400–900 nm was retained.
miscellaneous peaks, only the reflectance at 400–900 nm was retained. As the influence As the influen
shadow
of shadow was caused by was caused light
a different by a different
cycle andlight
the cycle and the
influence influence
of foreign of foreign
matter suchmatter su
as defoliation,defoliation,
plastic, and dead and
plastic, fish,dead
the abnormal value ofvalue
fish, the abnormal the water body body
of the water reflectivity
reflectivity spe
spectrum is higher
trum is higher than the normal value. The original band was screened,the
than the normal value. The original band was screened, and andRrsthe Rrs (42
(420) ≥ 20% was thewas
≥ 20% abnormal spectrum
the abnormal with awith
spectrum reflectivity much
a reflectivity higher
much thanthan
higher thatthat
of the
of the norm
normal water spectrum, whichwhich
water spectrum, was removed [29]. [29].
was removed This This
result is shown
result in Figure
is shown 3. 3.
in Figure

Ground-based
Raw spectra
remote sensing

Yes
Rrs (420) ≥ 0.2
exclude
(a)
No
Yes
NDVI ≥ 0.2

No
Yes
Rrs (880) ≥ 0.15 exclude
(b)
No
Normal spectra (d)

Clean spectra

(c)
(d)

Figure 3. RemoteFigure 3. Remote

sensing sensing
spectral spectral
filtering filtering pretreatment:
pretreatment: (a) anomalous(a)spectra
anomalous
withspectra with reflectan
reflectance
much higher than the normal water spectra. (b) Water surface vegetation spectra under hyperspe
much higher than the normal water spectra. (b) Water surface vegetation spectra under hyperspectral
tral imaging. (c) Hyperspectral view of anomalous floating objects on the water surface. (d) Pr
imaging. (c) Hyperspectral
processing view of spectrum.
normal anomalous floating objects on the water surface. (d) Pre-processing
normal spectrum.
2.4. Machine Learning Models
The traditional regression model is simple and easy to operate, but it is difficult t
solve complex nonlinear problems; therefore, the model inversion lacks precision [39]. I
contrast, the machine learning method improves the complex relationship between ind
pendent variables and dependent variables in the process of model correction and ca
solve nonlinear regression problems more effectively [40].
Water 2022, 14, 22 6 of 13

2.4. Machine Learning Models

The traditional regression model is simple and easy to operate, but it is difficult to
solve complex nonlinear problems; therefore, the model inversion lacks precision [39].
In contrast, the machine learning method improves the complex relationship between
independent variables and dependent variables in the process of model correction and can
solve nonlinear regression problems more effectively [40].
The BP (back propagation) neural network was a concept put forward by scientists
led by Rumelhart and McClelland in 1986. It is a multi-layer forward network for the
weight training of nonlinear differentiable functions. It is the most widely used neural
network at present. MATLAB 2019a version was used for model inversion. The input layer
is the filtered spectral values, in which wavelengths of 400–900 nm for a total of 1221 input
elements, and the hidden layer of 5 neuron nodes, are the best, and the output layer was
set as the water quality index.

2.5. Accuracy Assessment

The coefficient of determination (R2 ) and root mean relative error (RMSE) for Chl-a,
PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N, and pH concentrations were used to evaluate the models.
Model training was mainly realized through MATLAB 2019a.
2
∑i (ŷi − yi )
R2 = 1 − 2
(1)
∑i ( yi − yi )
s
m
1
RMSE =
m ∑ ( Measi − Estii )2 (2)
i =1

where m denotes the number of data points, i denotes the ith data point, and Meas and Esti
denote measurements and estimates, respectively.

3. Results
3.1. Analysis of Measured Water Quality
Table 1 summarizes the measured water quality parameters in this experiment. Ac-
cording to the “Surface Water Environmental Quality Standard” (GB 3838-2002) in China,
the index parameters were selected and displayed in Table S1. The highest value of NH4 -N
exceeded the surface water class V standard, the lowest value met the requirement of water
class II, and the average value met the provision of water class IV. The highest value of
TN far exceeded the standard of surface water class V, the lowest value of TN met the
requirement of water class III. The average value met the requirement of water class V. The
highest value of TP met the requirement of water class II, and the lowest value met the
provision of water class I. The average value met the requirement of water class I. Overall
the water quality was below Class II. In comparison to the water quality in previous years,
the overall water quality of the Haihe river tends to be better [41].

Table 1. Water quality parameter concentrations of Haihe Reiver.

Time Water Quality Index Mean ± Standard Deviation (Scope)

NH4 -N (mg/L) 1.293 ± 0.925 (0.260–3.811)
TN (mg/L) 2.043 ± 1.165 (0.853–5.020)
TP (mg/L) 0.010 ± 0.010 (0.001–0.041)
TSS (mg/L) 9.311 ± 5.370 (2.267–25.667)
May to August 2021
Chl-a (µg/L) 34.925 ± 34.641 (7.287–206.251)
PC (mg/L) 0.013 ± 0.006 (0.005–0.289)
NO3 -N (mg/L) 3.464 ± 2.718 (0.728–10.594)
pH 7.56 ± 0.524 (6.06–8.19)
Water 2022, 14, 22 7 of 13

3.2. Model Development and Validation

The bands with spurious peaks below 400 nm and above 900 nm were removed first.
Then, the anomalous spectra with Rrs (420) ≥ 20%, (NIR−R)/(NIR+R) ≥ 20%, and Rrs
(880) ≥ 15%, were removed from the spectra above the water. A total of 1221 bands from
400–900 nm were obtained. MATLAB 2019a was used for model construction, and the clean
data, after quality control, was imported into the software. During the model construction
process, input data parameters based on the Neural Network Fitting app were adjusted,
70% of the data was randomly selected for training and 30% for validating the model.
The machine-learning algorithm was used to evaluate the performance of Chl-a, PC, TSS,
TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N, and pH retrieval. The applicability of the models in practical
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
applications and the errors caused by model simulations are analyzed, as shown in Figure 4
and Table 2.

Figure 4. Performance evaluation of Chl-a, PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4-N, NO3-N, and pH retrievals using
Figure 4. Performance evaluation of Chl-a, PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N, and pH retrievals using
machine-learning algorithms. The training results and the validation results of the BP neural net-
machine-learning
work. algorithms. The training results and the validation results of the BP neural network.

Table 2. Training and validation statistics (R2, RMSE) for Chl-a, PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4-N, NO3-N,
and pH concentrations based on ground-based remote sensing.

Training Dataset Validation Dataset

R2 RMSE R2 RMSE
Chl-a 0.96 2.04 (μg/L) 0.88 4.77 (μg/L)
Water 2022, 14, 22 8 of 13

Table 2. Training and validation statistics (R2 , RMSE) for Chl-a, PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N,
and pH concentrations based on ground-based remote sensing.

Training Dataset Validation Dataset

R2 RMSE R2 RMSE
Chl-a 0.96 2.04 (µg/L) 0.88 4.77 (µg/L)
PC 0.87 0.0011 (mg/L) 0.86 0.0018 (mg/L)
TSS 0.98 0.45 (mg/L) 0.72 1.94 (mg/L)
TN 1.0 0.0012 (mg/L) 0.90 0.056 (mg/L)
TP 0.99 0.0015 (mg/L) 0.86 0.005 (mg/L)
NH4 -N 0.96 0.25 (mg/L) 0.90 0.35 (mg/L)
NO3 -N 0.93 0.91 (mg/L) 0.77 2.16 (mg/L)
pH 0.93 0.14 0.97 0.077
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
The machine learning model performance of all water quality in this experiment was
good (R2 ≥ 0.72). The model training results show that the coefficient of determination
of Chl-a,
NH4-NTSS, TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N,
0.96 0.25and pH are all R2 >0.90
(mg/L) 0.9, being better0.35than that of
(mg/L)
PC, NO
which was R 2 = 0.87. The model verification results show that TSS and NO -N content
3-N 0.93 0.91 (mg/L) 0.77 2.163 (mg/L)
estimation
pH models are0.93 low. The coefficient of determination of
0.14 TSS and NO3 -N 0.077
0.97 are R2 < 0.8.
The coefficient of determination of Chl-a, TN, TP, NH4 -N, and PC are R > 0.8. 2

To
To further
further analyze
analyze the
the applicability
applicability of of models
models in
in practical
practical application
application and
and thethe error
error
caused by model simulation, the measured data and model simulation
caused by model simulation, the measured data and model simulation data of all sam- data of all sampling
points were selected
pling points for linear
were selected fitting,
for linear as shown
fitting, in Figure
as shown 5. The
in Figure results
5. The show
results thatthat
show an
accuracy of over 70% for TSS (R 2 = 0.77), NO -N (R2 = 0.78), and over 80% for Chl-a
an2 accuracy of over 3
70% for TSS (R = 0.77), NO3-N (R = 0.78), and over 80% for Chl-a (R2
2 2
(R = 0.86), PC (R 2 = 0.88), TN (R2 = 0.87), TN (R2 = 0.88), and NH -N (R2 = 0.87). Only pH
= 0.86), PC (R2 = 0.88), TN (R2 = 0.87), TN (R2 = 0.88), and NH4-N (R 4 2 = 0.87). Only pH (R2 =
(R2 = 0.65) was over 60%.
0.65) was over 60%.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. The
The measured
measured data
data and
and model
model simulation
simulation data
data of
of all
all sampling
sampling points
points were
were selected
selected for
for
linear fitting.
linear fitting.

4. Discussion
water pollution
Widespread water pollution in
in China
China poses
poses aa serious
serious challenge
challenge toto sustainable
sustainable social
economic development and the improvement
and economic improvement of people’s
people’s livelihoods
livelihoods [42]. The 2015
2015
Annual Report on China’s Environmental Quality released by the Ministry of Environ-
mental Protection, according to Five Classes of Water Bodies Specified in Chinese Surface
Water Quality Standard (GB3838-2002), the water quality of the mainstream of the Haihe
River is in class V and worse than Class V [43]. In contrast, water quality ranged from
Class III to Class V on some dates during the experimental phase. In recent years, the state
Water 2022, 14, 22 9 of 13

Annual Report on China’s Environmental Quality released by the Ministry of Environmen-

tal Protection, according to Five Classes of Water Bodies Specified in Chinese Surface Water
Quality Standard (GB3838-2002), the water quality of the mainstream of the Haihe River is
in class V and worse than Class V [43]. In contrast, water quality ranged from Class III to
Class V on some dates during the experimental phase. In recent years, the state attaches
great importance to the water environment, and the water quality of the mainstream of
Haihe river has been improved to a certain extent. The adverse effects of the construction
of the sluice and dam on the water body make it difficult to study the changing charac-
teristics of the water quality and the water environment control of the Northern Rivers.
Hyperspectral remote sensing offers new options for water environmental monitoring.
There are several problems in the high precision remote sensing estimation of inland water
quality parameters. First, existing spaceborne hyperspectral sensors are more suitable for
large-scale water and land, such as the Landsat, MODIS, and Gaofen series launched by
China. Second, the complex optical characteristics increase the difficulty of remote sensing
inland waters. Most previous studies concentrate mainly on monitoring the substances
with optical properties in the water, such as chlorophyll [44–46] and CDOM [47]. Relatively
few studies focused on components that lack optical properties in the water, e.g., TN, TP,
NH4 -N, and NO3 -N [20]. This made it difficult to construct a higher precision remote
sensing model. Thirdly, cyanobacteria and vertical movement is driven by gas vesicles
which lead to their vertical distribution in water being uneven. The signals obtained by
remote sensing are only surface water and the quantitative inversion model is challenging
to represent various heterogeneity characteristics of cyanobacteria blooms effectively. So
it may not be easy to obtain accurate information on chlorophyll concentrations [48]. The
biggest advantage of ground remote sensing is that it can achieve continuous monitoring
with high Spatio-temporal resolution and high spectral resolution (2.4 nm). Besides, the
device can be fixed beside any water body that needs to be monitored with simple support,
not only limited to rivers and lakes, but also aquaculture water bodies, sewage treatment
inlet, and outlet, which can be used in multiple scenarios. As the hyperspectral probe is
close to the water surface, there is no need for complex atmospheric correction, and the
correction can be automatically performed each time the data is collected. Moreover, a
trained water quality parameter estimation algorithm can be embedded in the hyperspec-
tral imaging system to display the water quality parameter concentration in real-time while
preserving the spectral information so as to help decision-makers fully understand the real-
time changes of water quality. Therefore, the installation of ground-based hyperspectral
remote sensing in the mainstream of the Haihe River is of great practical significance for
the continuous monitoring of the water quality in the Haihe River.
In recent years, hyperspectral technology has become increasingly mature. Several
linear regression empirical models using single band and single band ratios have been
established. The empirical model has the advantages of a fast data processing speed and
simple modeling. Still, when the established model is applied to other water bodies with
different concentrations or different types of optically active components, the model is
not applicable [49–51]. The bio-optical model is also a common method for inversion of
water quality parameters of inland water, which needs to consider various water quality
conditions [52]. This study builds the BP neural network models based on the solid
nonlinear mapping capability, the high self-learning and self-adaptive capability, and the
fault tolerance capability. The system usually works even in case of localized damage and
therefore has high robustness. In our study, the BP machine learning model showed high
R2 values when fitted. We evaluated both the training and testing set to verify that our
predictive model and select the optimal results of each model. The model with the highest
fitting degree was TN (R2 = 1, RMSE = 0.0012 mg/L), which was much higher than that
of the Sun et al. BP neural network model (R2 = 0.83, RMSE = 0.23 mg/L) [29] and the
Song et al. Ga-pls model (R2 = 0.88, RMSE = 0.07 mg/L) [53]. This may be due to the limited
amount of data that resulted in over-fitting. An overall accuracy of over 90% for our result
of TP (R2 = 0.99, RMSE = 0.0015 mg/L), Sun’s result of TP (R2 = 0.93, RMSE = 0.02 mg/L),
Water 2022, 14, 22 10 of 13

and Song’s result of TP (R2 = 0.91, RMSE = 0.017 mg/L), was found. Among our results, the
lowest fitting degree was PC (R2 = 0.87, RMSE = 0.0011 mg/L), with results a little more than
Pyo et al. ‘s SAE-ANN model (R2 = 0.82, RMSE = 9.32 mg/L) [13]. The retrieval of the Chl-a
concentration has always been the focus of water color remote sensing research. Monitoring
Chl-a concentration in inland water has become the frontier of watercolor remote sensing
worldwide [54]. Our value of Chl-a (R2 = 0.96, RMSE = 2.04 µg/L), indicates an excellent
fit. Model inversion of TSS has been proposed as a hot spot in remote sensing research for
several years. In the present study, we generated a robust BP neural network to predict
TSS with a reflectance spectrum. The result indicates a strong correlation between them
with R2 = 0.98. Higher than Jensen et al., the VIP-filtered first derivative-based PLSR model
attained an R2 of 0.83 [55]. The training model of NO3 -N showed a good fitting R2 = 0.93
and RMSE = 0.91 mg/L, but the fitting of the validation model was significantly lower
than that of the training model, showing R2 = 0.77 and RMSE = 2.16 mg/L. In this study,
while the BP neural network shows a good fit, it also exposes the model’s limitations. Most
obviously, the model solves a complex nonlinearization problem in which the network’s
weights are adjusted gradually by moving along the direction of local improvement, which
can cause the algorithm to fall into local extremes and cause local miniaturization problems.
In turn, it has been found that the learning rate of the BP network is not stable enough,
and there may be a situation where the results obtained from multiple training sessions
are different.
At present, the sampling time of this experiment is mainly concentrated in May
to August, the amount of data collected is limited, and the results are limited to the
concentration range of each water parameter. In addition, the northern water body is
characterized by freezing in winter. It is still uncertain whether the BP neural network
model constructed in this study applies to other seasons in the Haihe River. It is necessary to
continue collecting data from additional months in the subsequent research to fit the model
further so that it applies to all months except the icing period. In the future, the inversion
model will be input into the hyperspectral remote sensing system so as to achieve the
overall monitoring of annual changes in water quality of the mainstream of the Haihe River.
At present, the range of concentration variation of accumulated water quality parameters is
limited, and there is great uncertainty in extrapolating the established model algorithm to
other waters with lower or higher concentrations. In the future, more different water will be
accumulated: black-odor water, clean water, breeding water, etc., to increase the amount of
data, optimize the algorithm, and improve the adaptability of the model in different water
bodies. Future studies will also explore the use of more machine learning models, such as
deep learning. Water resources affect the survival and development of human beings. In the
course of social and economic development, the water resources are seriously affected, and
the water environment deteriorates. As a developing country, China’s natural environment
has undergone great changes in recent decades [56,57]. Therefore, the monitoring of
the water environment is particularly important. The remote sensing sensor has the
characteristics of large-scale and dynamic observation and can quickly obtain a broad-
spectrum of information for a water area. Various water quality parameters can be obtained
through data modeling and retrieval. Therefore, remote sensing has gradually become
an indispensable means of water environment monitoring. With the development of
technology and practical needs, satellite, UAV, and ground remote sensing can be combined
to build an integrated monitoring system of satellite, UAV, and ground-based remote
sensing. Satellite remote sensing pictures of different bands can be combined with ground-
based synchronous measured data to achieve joint monitoring between heaven and earth.
The foundation of a water quality automatic online monitoring system can meet the
requirements of daily tracking to perform considerable time and space scale continuous
monitoring. When combined with space-based satellite images, one can quickly discern
traces of the sources of pollution with timeliness and convenience. This has the ability to
provide timely warnings, assessments, and emergency relief for the integrated prevention
and control of environmental pollution, ecological changes, disaster monitoring, etc.
Water 2022, 14, 22 11 of 13

5. Conclusions
Our results show the ground-based remote sensing technology for water quality (Chl-
a, PC, TSS, TN, TP, NH4 -N, NO3 -N and pH) monitoring of the river in North China and
demonstrate their feasibility based on field observation. Ground-based remote sensing
combined with a BP neural network has great potential in the estimation of water quality
parameters of inland waters. The determination coefficients R2 of Chl-a, PC, TSS, TP, TN,
NH4 -N, NO3 -N, and pH were all above 0.8, and the monitoring results were accurate.
The validation results showed that the determination coefficients R2 of Chl-a, PC, TN, TP,
NH4 -N, NO3 -N, and pH were all above 0.8, and the determination coefficients of TTS
were above 0.7. Ground-based remote sensing realizes continuous observation with high
spatio-temporal resolution and high spectral resolution (2.4 nm), providing an effective
and practical method for the long-term continuous monitoring of the inland water quality
of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and aquaculture water. In future studies, the water samples
obtained during different months of the year from the Haihe River, and more water
samples and water quality parameters of inland waters in various environments, will
be continuously collected to improve the robustness of the models in combination with
satellite, UAV, and ground-based remote sensing to achieve the integration of online water
quality monitoring and early warning systems. Furthermore, the water samples and water
quality parameters of the aquaculture water environment will be collected to promote the
application of ground-based remote sensing in the aquaculture water environment.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at:

https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/w14010022/s1, Table S1: Surface water environmental
quality standards part of the project standard limits
Author Contributions: All authors contributed significantly to the preparation of this manuscript.
Conceptualization, Q.C.; methodology, Q.C., G.Y. and S.S.; software, Q.C., S.S. and Y.D.; formal
analysis, Q.C.; investigation, Q.C. and G.Y.; resources, Q.C.; data curation, Q.C. and Z.Q.; writing—
original, Q.C.; writing—review and editing, G.Y., Y.D., H.L. and Z.Q.; visualization, Q.C. and Z.Q.;
supervision, Z.Q.; project administration, Z.Q. and G.Y.; funding acquisition, Z.Q. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by a Major Project of Ecological Environment Management in
Tianjin (Grant No. 18ZXSZSF00080), the National Key Research and Development Program of China
(Grant No. 2017YFA0605201), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
51779247).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank all colleagues for participating in on-site sample collec-
tion and chemical analysis, especially Xijun Yang, Zihao Sun, Yuan Gao, and Can Wang. We would
like to express our deep appreciation to Da Huo for his constructive suggestions in the manuscript.
The modelling processes was powered and supported by the Wuhan Branch, Supercomputing Center,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, China.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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