Lecture 2

Lecture 2: Chapter 1
Materials Used in Electronics

In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be classified into three
groups: conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. When atoms combine to
form a solid, crystalline material, they arrange themselves in a symmetrical
pattern. The atoms within the crystal structure are held together by covalent
bonds, which are created by the interaction of the valence electrons of the atoms.
Silicon is a crystalline material.
Carbon is used in some types of electrical resistors.
Notice that the carbon atom has four electrons in the valence shell and two
electrons in the inner shell
 Carbon is used in some types of electrical resistors.
 Notice that the carbon atom has four electrons in the valence shell and two
electrons in the inner shell
1- Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors
2- Band Gap
3- Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom
4- Silicon and Germanium

Insulators
Materials (Electrical Property) Semiconductors
Conductors
Insulators
 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under

normal conditions.
 Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element materials
and have very high resistivity.
 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there are very
few free electrons in an insulator.
 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.
Conductors
 A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.

 Most metals are good conductors.
 The best conductors are single-element materials, such as copper (Cu), silver
(Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which are characterized by atoms with only
one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom.
 These loosely bound valence electrons become free electrons.
 Therefore, in a conductive material the free electrons are valence electrons.
Semiconductors
 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its

ability to conduct electrical current.
 A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a
good insulator.
 Single element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), astatine (At),
boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge).
 Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, indium phosphide,
gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are also commonly
used.
 The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with four
valence electrons.
 Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor.
Band Gap
 When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can leave the valence
shell, become a free electron, and exist in what is known as the conduction
band.
 The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction band
is called an energy gap or band gap.
 This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in order to
jump from the valence band to the conduction band
Band Gap
Band Gap
 It is a region in insulators and semiconductors

where no electron states exist.
 Although an electron may not exist in this region, it

can “jump” across it under certain conditions.
 For insulators, the gap can be crossed only when

breakdown conditions occur as when a very high
voltage is applied
Band Gap
 In semiconductors the band gap is smaller, allowing

an electron in the valence band to jump into the
conduction band if it absorbs a photon.
 The band gap depends on the semiconductor material

Band Gap
 In conductors, the conduction band and valence band

overlap, so there is no gap.
 The electrons in the valence band move freely into the

conduction band, so there are always electrons
available as free electrons.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom
Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a conductor.
The copper’s valence electron is in the fourth shell, which is a greater

distance from its nucleus than the silicon’s valence electron in the third shell
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom
 Valence electron in copper has more energy than the valence electron in
silicon.
 This means that it is easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire

enough additional energy to escape from their atoms and become free
electrons than it is in silicon.
 In fact, large numbers of valence electrons in copper already have

sufficient energy to be free electrons at normal room temperature.
Silicon and Germanium
 Both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons.
 The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while those in
silicon are in the third shell, closer to the nucleus.
 The germanium valence electrons are at higher energy levels than those in
silicon and, therefore, require a smaller amount of additional energy to escape
from the atom.
 This property makes germanium more unstable at high temperatures and
results in excessive reverse current. For this reason, silicon is a more widely
used semi conductive material.
 A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence

electrons shares an electron with each of
its four neighbors.
 This effectively creates eight shared

valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability.
 An intrinsic crystal is one that has no

impurities
Activity
1- What is the basic difference between conductors and insulators?
2-How do semiconductors differ from conductors and insulators?
3- How many valence electrons does a conductor such as copper have?
4- How many valence electrons does a semiconductor have?
5- Name three of the best conductive materials.
6- What is the most widely used semi conductive material?
7-Why does a semiconductor have fewer free electrons than a conductor?
8- What is meant by the term intrinsic?
9-What is a crystal?
CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
The way a material conducts electrical current is important in understanding
how electronic devices operate.
Each shell around the nucleus

corresponds to a certain energy band
and is separated from adjacent shells by
band gaps, in which no electrons can
exist.
Conduction Electrons and Holes
An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat

(thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence
band into the conduction band, becoming free electrons
Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the

valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.
For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one
hole left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair.
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls

back into a hole in the valence band.
Electron and Hole Current
When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic Silicon, the thermally

generated free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move randomly
in the crystal structure, are now easily attracted toward the positive end.
 The movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semi-conductive

material and is called electron current.
 Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the holes created
by the free electrons exist.
 Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms and
are not free to move randomly in the crystal structure as are the free
electrons.
 A valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little change in its
energy level, thus leaving another hole where it came from.
The valence electrons are attracted to the positive ions, keeping the positive ions
together and forming the metallic bond.
The valence electrons do not belong to a given atom, but to the crystal as a whole.
There is only one type of current the movement of free electrons because there are
no “holes” in the metallic crystal structure.
Activity
1) Are free electrons in the valence band or in the conduction band?
2) Which electrons are responsible for electron current in silicon?
3) What is a hole?
4) At what energy level does hole current occur?
5) Name the two energy bands at which current is produced in silicon?
6) What happens when heat is added to silicon

N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
 Semi-conductive materials do not conduct current well and are of limited value
in their intrinsic state.
 The limited number of free electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
valence band
 Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by increasing the number of

free electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful in
electronic devices.
 Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity can

be drastically increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the
intrinsic (pure) semi-conductive material.
 This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers

(electrons or holes).
 The two categories of impurities are n-type and p-type.

N-type Semiconductor
 To increase the number of conduction-

band electrons in intrinsic silicon,
pentavalent impurity atoms are added.
 These are atoms with five valence

electrons such as arsenic (As),
phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb).
 The extra electron becomes a conduction

electron because it is not involved in bonding.
 Because the pentavalent atom gives up an

electron, it is often called a donor atom.
The number of conduction electrons can be carefully controlled by the number of

impurity atoms added to the silicon.
A conduction electron created by this doping

process does not leave a hole in the valence band
because it is in excess of the number required
to fill the valence band.
The electrons are called the majority carriers in

n-type material. Although the majority of
current carriers in n-type material are electrons,
there are also a few holes that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated.
These holes are not produced by the

addition of the pentavalent impurity
atoms. Holes in an n-type material are
called minority carriers.
P-type Semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity atoms are
added
These are atoms with three valence electrons

such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium
(Ga).
All three of the boron atom’s valence

electrons are used in the covalent bonds;
and, since four electrons are required, a hole
results when each trivalent atom is added
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as

an acceptor atom.
The number of holes can be carefully

controlled by the number of trivalent
impurity atoms added to the silicon.
A hole created by this doping process is not

accompanied by a conduction (free) electron.
Majority and Minority Carriers
 Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or germanium) doped with
trivalent atoms is called a p-type semiconductor.
 The holes are the majority carriers in p-type semiconductor material.
 Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material are holes, there are
also a few conduction-band electrons that are created when electron-hole pairs
are thermally generated.
 These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms. Conduction-band electrons in p-type material are the
minority carriers.
Activity
 Define doping.
 What is the difference between a pentavalent atom and a trivalent atom?
 What are other names for the pentavalent and trivalent atoms?
 How is an n-type semiconductor formed?
 How is a p-type semiconductor formed?
 What is the majority carrier in an n-type semiconductor?
 What is the majority carrier in a p-type semiconductor?
 What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

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Lecture 2: Chapter 1

Materials Used in Electronics

Carbon is used in some types of electrical resistors.

 Carbon is used in some types of electrical resistors.

1- Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors

3- Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom

4- Silicon and Germanium

Materials (Electrical Property) Semiconductors

 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under

 A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.

 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its

 It is a region in insulators and semiconductors

 Although an electron may not exist in this region, it

 For insulators, the gap can be crossed only when

 In semiconductors the band gap is smaller, allowing

 The band gap depends on the semiconductor material

 In conductors, the conduction band and valence band

 The electrons in the valence band move freely into the

Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a conductor.

The copper’s valence electron is in the fourth shell, which is a greater

 This means that it is easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire

 In fact, large numbers of valence electrons in copper already have

 A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence

 This effectively creates eight shared

 An intrinsic crystal is one that has no

Each shell around the nucleus

An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat

Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.

When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls

When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic Silicon, the thermally

 The movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semi-conductive

1) Are free electrons in the valence band or in the conduction band?

2) Which electrons are responsible for electron current in silicon?

4) At what energy level does hole current occur?

5) Name the two energy bands at which current is produced in silicon?

6) What happens when heat is added to silicon

 Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by increasing the number of

 Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity can

 This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers

 The two categories of impurities are n-type and p-type.

 To increase the number of conduction-

 These are atoms with five valence

 The extra electron becomes a conduction

 Because the pentavalent atom gives up an

The number of conduction electrons can be carefully controlled by the number of

A conduction electron created by this doping

The electrons are called the majority carriers in

These holes are not produced by the

These are atoms with three valence electrons

All three of the boron atom’s valence

Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as

The number of holes can be carefully

A hole created by this doping process is not

Majority and Minority Carriers

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