MAIN SCHOOL

CLASS 12 – PHYSICS Chapter – 7 - Alternating Current

(1) Introduction
Direct current (DC) is produced by the voltage source whose pole does not change their polarity with time.
Hence direction of flow of direct current does not changes with time
Alternating current on the other hand is produced by voltage source whose terminal polarity keeps alternating
with time i.e. terminal which was positive at one instant of time becomes negative some time later and vice –
versa. Due to changing polarity of voltage source direction of flow of current also keep changing

(2) Alternating current and Alternating EMF

An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes sinusoidal with time .Thus instantaneous value of
alternating current is given by

Where, i0=current amplitude or peak value of alternating current

If T is the time period of alternating current and f is the frequency, then

Where ω is called angular frequency of A.C and φ is known as phase constant

Instead of sine function AC can also be represented by cosine function and both representation leads to same
results. Figure below shows the variation of A.C with time

The emf or voltage whose magnitude changes sinusoidal with time is known as alternating emf .
Instantaneous alternating emf or voltage is given by

where V0 is the peak value of alternating voltage.

(3)Prove that the average value of alternating current over one complete cycle is zero.
Alternating current at any instant is given by I = Io sin w t
The amount of charge that flows through the circuit in small time dt will be , d q = I d t = Io sin w t d t
Total charge that flows through the circuit in one complete cycle of a .c ,

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 𝑇
q = 𝑑 𝑞 = ∫0 Io sin w t d t = Io ( - cos wt/w)𝑇0 , w = 2π / T ,
q = - Io T/2π ( cos 2πT / T – cos 0 )
q = - Io T/2π ( cos 2π – cos 0 ) = - Io T/2π ( 1 - 1 ) = 0
The average value of a .c over one complete cycle of a . c, Iav or I m = q /T = 0
(3) Average or mean value of alternating current :When an alternating current is passed through a
moving coil galvanometer it shows no deflection ,this is because for one complete cycle mean value of
alternating current is zero as AC flows in one direction during one half cycle and in opposite direction during
another half cycle.
Average value of a.c – It is defined as that value of direct current which sends the same charge in a circuit in the
same time as is sent by the given alternating current in its half time period
Peak value of current Io – The maximum value of alternating current is called peak value Relation between
average value (Iav or Im) and peak value (Io):
The value of a .c at any instant is given by, I = Io sin w t
The amount of charge that flows through the circuit in small time dt will be , d q = I d t = Io sin w t d t
Total charge that flows through the circuit in the first half cycle of a .c ,
𝑇/2
q= 𝑑𝑞 𝑤 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = Io ( - cos wt/w) 𝑂 w = 2π / T ,

𝑇/2
q = Io / w ( - cos wt)02 = - Io T/2π ( cos 2πt / T ) 𝑜
q = - Io T/2π ( cos 2πT / 2T - cos0 ) = - Io T/2π ( cos π – cos 0 ) = - Io T/2π ( -1 - 1 ) = Io T/π
The average value of a .c over first half cycle (T/2) of a . c is,
I m = charge / time = 2 q / T = 2 Io T/Tπ = 2 Io / π = 0.637 Io
Thus average or mean value of an alternating current during half cycle is 2/ π or 0.637 times or 63.6% of its
peak value .
Similarly average or mean value of an alternating emf during half cycle is 2/ π or 0.637 times or 63.6% of its
peak value i.e V m = 2 Vo / π = 0.637 Vo .
During next half cycle mean value of ac will be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Thus the mean
value of AC over a complete cycle is zero

(4) Root Mean square value(RMS) or Virtual Value or effective valu ( Irms or Iv or Ieff ) : It is defined as that
value of a direct current which produces the same heating effect in a given resistor as is produced by the
given alternating current when passed for the same time in the same resistor. It is also defined as square
root of mean square value of current.
Relation between Root Mean square value(RMS) or Virtual Value ( Irms or Iv or Ieff ) and peak Value of AC (Io)
The instantaneous value of a.c passing through a resistance R is given by , I = Io sin w t
The small amount of heat produced in the resistance R in time dt is given by ,dH = I2R dt = (Io sin w t)2 R dt
If T is the time period of a.c , then heat produced in the resistance in one complete cycle, H =
Let Irms be effective value of a.c, then by definition , heat produced in time T ,

H = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 RT ---------- (2)

Comparing (1) an(2) 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 RT =

2
 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡 𝐼𝑜2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 T = ∫(𝐼𝑜 sinwt)2 dt = 𝐼0 ∫(sin 𝑤𝑡)2𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼0 ∫( ) 𝑑𝑡 = T
2 2
𝐼𝑜2 𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 T = T , 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707 𝐼0
2 √2

The effective or rms value of an alternating current is times its peak value.

Similarly the effective or rms value of an alternating emf is times its peak value i.e, 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 V𝒐
The r.m.s or virtual value of a.c is same even for a complete cycle of a.c. Ammeters and voltmeters record virtual
values of alternating current and voltage
Why rms value of AC is also known as virtual value of current : If we allow the AC current represented by
I=I0sin(ωt+φ) to pass through a resistor of resistance R, the instantaneous power dissipated due to flow of
current in the would be , P=I2R
Since magnitude of current changes with time, the power dissipation in circuit also changes. The average
Power dissipated over one complete current cycle would be

If we pass direct current of magnitude Irms through the resistor ,the power dissipate or rate of production of heat
in this case would be, P=(Irms)2R
Thus rms value of AC is that value of steady current which would dissipate the same amount of power in a given
resistance in a given time as would have been dissipated by alternating current. This is why rms value of AC is
also known as virtual value of current
(5) Phasors diagram: A quantity, which varies sinusoidally with time and represented as the projection of a
rotating vector is called a phasor. Phasors diagrams are diagram representing alternating current and voltage
(Phasors) of same frequency as the rotating vectors along with the phase angle between them

(6) A.C through pure resistor: Alternating voltage source V=V0sinωt connected to a resistor of resistance R ,
where Vo is the voltage amplitude or the peak value and 𝜔 is its angular frequency

Let at any instant of time ,is the current in the circuit ,then from

Kirchhoff’s loop rule,

i R = V0sinωt or i =(V0/R) sin ω t, i =i0 sin ω t, Where,i0=V0/R , is peak value or current amplitude
Instantaneous values of alternating current in the circuit containing R is , i
= io sin ωt and voltage is , V=V0sinωt ,
In pure resistor circuit, the current is always in phase with applied voltage i.e both v and I reach zero,
minimum and maximum values at the same time. Their relationship is represented as graphically and phasor
diagram as

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 Prove that an ideal resistor dissipates power in an a.c circuit
When an a.c is applied to an pure resistor , the current and the voltage are in same phase .
Instantaneous voltage and current: V=V0 sinωt , i = io sin ωt Work
done in the circuit in small time dt will be
dW = Pdt = VIdt = V0 io sin2ωt dt = V0 io ( 1- cos 2ωt ) dt /2 Average
power dissipated per cycle in the resistor is
𝑇

Pav = W /T = 1/T 0 𝑖𝑜 Vo( 1-cos2wt dt/2) = Io Vo T /2 ( where 𝑐𝑜𝑠2wt) dt =

T) Pav = Io Vo /2 = Vo2/2R ( io = Vo/R)
𝐼

(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 rms

Pav = VoIo/ √2√2 = Vrms Irms = (Vrms)2 / R

If line voltage is 220V ( Vrms) , Vrms = V0/√2 , V0 = Vrms√2, V0 = 220x√2 = 311V
(7) A.C through pure inductor: An ac source connected to an inductor. Usually inductor have appreciable
resistance in their windings, but we shall assume that this inductor has negligible resistance. Thus, the circuit is a
purely inductive ac circuit . The voltage source V=V0sinωt is applied to pure inductor (zero resistance) coil of
inductance L

If i is the current through the circuit and di /dt, the rate of change of current in the circuit at that instant,
then
The instantaneous induced emf generated across L = –L di/d t ( L = self –inductance of the inductor )
Total instantaneous emf in the circuit = V – L di/d t
But this emf must be zero because there is no resistance in the circuit. Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule =0

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 Where C is the constant of integration .This integration constant has dimensions of current and is independent
of time. Since source has an emf which oscillates symmetrically about zero, the current it sustain also oscillates
symmetrically about zero, so there is no time independent component of current that exists. Thus constant C=0
So we have

peak value of
current in the coil is i0=V0/ωL = Vo / XL or V0=(ωL)i0
Comparing it with the ohm's law we find product ω L has dimension of resistance and it can be represented by ,
XL= ω L = 2πf L where XL = reactance of the coil (inductive reactance) , f = frequency of the alternating
current The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit is ohm ( Ω ). SI unit
of L = henry , f = hertz ( cycle / second)
The inductive reactance XL (= ω L = 2πfL ) is zero for d.c as f =0 and has a finite value for a.c. Thus an inductor offers an
easy path to d.c and a resistive path to a.c
Comparing instantaneous values of current i = io sin ( ωt - π/2) with voltage V=V0sinωt, we see that in pure inductive
circuit the current lags behind voltage by a phase angle of π/2
This phase relationship is graphically shown as

Phasor diagram

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Prove that an ideal inductor connected to an a.c source does not dissipate any power.
When an a.c is applied to an ideal inductor, the current lags the voltage in phase by π/2 .
Instantaneous voltage and current: V=V0 sinωt , i = io sin ( ωt - π/2) = - io cos ωt
Work done in the circuit in small time dt will be
dW = Pdt = VIdt = - V0 io cos ωt sinωt dt = - V0 io 2 cos ωt sinωt dt /2
d W = - V0 io sin 2ωt dt /2
Average power dissipated per cycle in the inductor is

𝑇 𝑇
Pav = W /T = 1/T∫𝑜 IoVosin2wt dt/2) dt ( where ∫𝑜 sin2wt dt = 0 )

𝑇
Pav = - io Vo /2∫𝑜 sin2wt dt = 0, Thus the average power over one complete cycle is zero
Note: (1)The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and to the frequency of the current .What
is the reactance of an inductor in a d.c circuit? (CBSE 1992) Ans: XL = ω L = 2 π f L is zero for DC for which f =0
(2) The frequency of ac is doubled. How does the reactance get affected? (CBSE 1999)
Ans : XL α f , the inductive reactance increases with increasing frequency of the current. . ( XL get doubled)

(3) An ideal inductor is in turn put across 220V , 50Hz and 220V, 100Hz supplies. Will the current flowing through
it in the two cases be the same or different? (CBSE 1998) Ans : The current flowing through the inductor will be more in
first case because inductive reactance is less than that in second case. (XL = ω L = 2 π f L)
(4) A choke coil (it is an inductor with large inductance which is used to reduce current in a.c without much loss
of energy) and a bulb are connected in series to an a.c source. The bulb shines brightly. How does its brightness
change when an iron core is inserted in the choke coil? (CBSE 1995)
Ans : When the iron core is inserted in the choke coil, the self-inductance L increases, inductive reactance (XL = ω L)
increases, current in the circuit decreases and the bulb glows dimmer.

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(5) A solenoid with an iron core and a bulb are connected to a d.c source. How does the brightness
of the bulb change, when the iron core is removed from the solenoid? (CBSE 2004)
Ans : The brightness of the bulb remains unchanged, because the solenoid does not offer any reactance
XL = ω L = 2 π f L in d.c circuit f = 0

(8) AC through pure capacitor :An ac source of alternating voltage source V=V0sinωt is connected to a
capacitor of capacitance C only, a purely capacitive circuit.

When the capacitor is connected to an ac source, it limits or regulates the current, but does not completely prevent
the flow of charge. The capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the current reverses each half cycle.
Let at any time t i be the current in the circuit and q be the charge on the capacitor at that instant
AS, there is no resistance in the circuit, so the instantaneous potential drop q/C across the capacitor must be equal to
applied alternating voltage, from the Kirchhoff’s loop rule so , q/C=V0sinωt, q = CV0sinωt Since i=dq/dt is the
instantaneous current in the circuit so

io
is the peak value of current
Comparing instantaneous values of current i = io sin ( ωt + π/2) with voltage V=V0sinωt, we see that in a perfect
capacitor current leads voltage by a phase angle of π/2 This phase relationship is graphically shown as

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Phasor diagram

Again comparing peak value of current io = Vo / Xc , with ohm's law Xc= 1/ωC =1/2πfC , has the dimension of the
resistance Where, f = frequency of alternating current , XC is known as capacitive reactance, ( SI unit is ohm) SI unit
of C= farad , f = hertz ( cycle/second)
Capacitive reactance XC (=1/ωC =1/2πfC ) is infinite for d.c as f = 0 for d.c and has a very small value for a.c. Thus a
capacitor, blocks d.c and offers a easy path to a.c
Prove that an ideal capacitor connected to an a.c source does not dissipate any power.
When an a.c is applied to a capacitor, the current leads the voltage in phase by π/2 .
Instantaneous voltage and current: V=V0 sinωt , i = io sin ( ωt + π/2) = io cos ωt
Work done in the circuit in small time dt will be dW = Pdt = VIdt = V0 io cos ωt sinωt dt = V0 io 2 cos ωt sinωt dt /2 d
W = V0 io sin 2ωt dt /2
Average power dissipated per cycle in the capacitor is
𝑇 𝑇
Pav = W /T = 1/T (∫0 𝑖𝑜 Vosin2wt dt/2) ( where ∫0 sin2wt dt = 0 )
𝑇
Pav = io Vo /2 (∫0 sin2wt dt ) = 0, Thus the average power over one complete cycle is zero.
Note :
(1) When a capacitor is connected to a voltage source in a dc circuit, current will flow for the short time required to
charge the capacitor. As the charge accumulates on the capacitor plates, the voltage across then increases,
opposing the current. That is, a capacitor in a dc circuit will limit or oppose the current as it changes. When
capacitor is fully charged , the current in the circuit falls to zero.
(2) Factors on which the rate of charging and discharging of a capacitor depends - (i) its capacitance (ii) resistance
of the circuit
(3) For very high frequency a.c supply, a capacitor behaves like pure conductor. Why? (CBSE 1997)

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 Ans : XC α 1 / f , the capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency of current . At very high
frequency , capacitive reactance becomes negligibly small and capacitor behaves like a pure conductor.

(4) An electric lamp connected in series with a capacitor and a a.c source is glowing with certain brightness. How
does the brightness of the lamp change on increasing the capacitance? (CBSE 1998)
Ans: As capacitance increases , capacitive reactance (XC=1/ω C ) decreases, hence current through the circuit
increases.
(5) A bulb and a capacitor are connected in series to an a.c source of variable frequency. How will the brightness
of the bulb change on increasing the frequency of a.c source? Give reason (CBSE 2005)
Ans : On increasing the frequency of the a.c source, the capacitive reactance (XC=1/ω C =1/2πf C ) decreases,
current increases , blub glows brighter
(6) At a higher frequency of a.c source , the charge on the capacitor plates will vary more rapidly ( d q /d t will be
higher), resulting in an increases in the instantaneous current ( I = d q /d t) . This lowers the capacitance
reactance. The capacitive reactance XC=1/ω C =1/2πf C is infinite for direct current for which frequency f=0

(9) LCR series circuit :A circuit containing a capacitor ,resistor and inductor connected in series through an
alternating voltage source V=V0sinωt

Same amount of ac current will flow in all the three circuit components ,i = io sin ( ωt + Ф) where
Ф = phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the circuit vector
sum of potential drop across each component would be equal to the applied voltage
If i be the amount of current in the circuit at any time and VL,VC and VR the potential drop across L,C and R respectively
then
VRo=ioR ⇒ Voltage is in phase with i
VLo= ioXL= ioωL ⇒ Voltage is leading i by 900
VCo= ioXC = io/ωC ⇒ Voltage is lagging behind i by 900
Since VL is ahead of i by 90° and VC is behind by 90° so that phase difference between VL and VC is 180° and they are in
direct opposition to each other as shown in the figure

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In figure we have assumed that VL is greater than VC which makes i lags behind V If VC > VL then i lead V
In this Phasors diagram as we have assumed that VL > VC ,there resultant will be (VL -VC)
The resultant of all the three ,which is equal to applied voltage V,
2 2 2
Vo = √ 𝑉𝑅𝑂 + ( 𝑉𝐿𝑂 − 𝑉𝐶𝑂 )

Vo = Io √𝑅 2 + ( 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2

Z = √𝑅 2 + ( 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2

𝑧 = 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐢𝐭

Vo = io Z ,

From Phasors diagram current i lag behind resultant voltage V by an phase

angle given by,

Impedance diagram

From equation three cases arises

(i) When ωL > 1/ωC then tanφ is positive i.e. φ is positive and voltage leads the current I , the circuit is more
inductive rather than being capacitive in nature
(ii) When ωL < 1/ωC, then tanφ is negative i.e. φ is negative and voltage lags behind the current i , the circuit is
more capacitance dominated circuit
(iii) When ωL = 1/ωC ,then tanφ is zero i.e. φ is zero and voltage and current are in phase, the circuit is pure
resistive Note:

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 (1) When are the voltage and current in LCR series a.c circuit in Phase ? (CBSE 1992, 2002) Ans: When
XL = XC , voltage and current in a series LCR – circuit are in same phase.

(10) Resonance condition of a series LCR circuit : In series LCR circuit when phase Ф between the current and voltage
is zero the circuit is said to be resonant circuit
The current amplitude in the LCR series circuit is given by

io = Vo / 2, with Xc = 1/ ωC and XL = ωL

If ω is varied, then at a particular value of the angular frequency of ac, ω0, the inductive reactance (XL) and
capacitive reactance (Xc) are just equal and impedance is minimum. This is called resonance frequency. When
, XL=XC , ωoL = 1/ωoC, we have

which
is the minimum value Z can have.
• A series LCR circuit when current and voltage are in the same phase which admits maximum current
corresponding to a particular angular frequency ω 0 of the ac source is called series resonant circuit and the
angular frequency ω 0 is called the resonant angular frequency .
Hence at resonance , ωoL = 1/ω0C, or ωo =1/√LC .
• The frequency at which the current amplitude io attains a peak value is called natural or resonant frequency
of the circuit Thus , ωo=2πfo , or f0=1/2π√LC
• The current amplitude or peak current at resonant frequency will be , i0=V0/R, and reactance is zero
• If f < fo : XL = 2πf L , XC = 1/2πf L , XL < XC , Capacitive circuit , current leads the voltage
• If f > fo : XL = 2πf L , XC = 1/2πf L , XL > XC , Inductive circuit , current lags the voltage
• If f = fo : XL = 2πf L , XC = 1/2πf L , XL = XC , resistive circuit , current in phase with the voltage

Note:
(1) If the frequency of a.c source in a series LCR circuit is increased, how does the current in the circuit change? (CBSE
1998)
Ans: With the increase in frequency, the current in a series LCR circuit first increases, attains a maximum value at f = fo,
and then decreases
(2) A radio tuner has an LC circuit with a natural frequency, which we determine as follows: When the circuit is driven
by the electromagnetic oscillations of a radio signal detected by the antenna, the tuner circuit responds with a large
amplitude of electrical oscillation only for the station frequency that matches the natural frequency. Thus, only the
signal from one station is passed on to the amplifier, even though signals from all stations are driving the circuit at
the same time. When you turn the knob on the radio tuner to change the station, we vary the capacitance of a
capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency
of the radio signal received . When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal of
the particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.

(11) Sharpness of resonance : The current amplitude in the LCR series circuit is given by,

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io = Vo / 2

and is maximum when ω = ωo , at that particular frequency Xc = XL

ωoL = 1/ω0 C or ωo=1/√LC
The maximum value of current is i0=V0/R
For values of ω other than ωo, the amplitude of current is less than the maximum value.
A value of ω for which the current amplitude is 1/√2 ( 0.707) times its maximum value io, at this value the
power dissipated by the circuit becomes half

From the curve we see there are two values of ω i,e ω1 and ω2 , one greater and the other smaller than ωo and
symmetrical about ωo, ω1 = ω0 + Δω, ω2 = ω0 − Δω
i.e., ω1 − ω2 = 2Δω is often called the bandwidth of the circuit
ω0/2Δω − Measure of the sharpness of resonance,
Smaller the Δω, , the sharper or narrower is the resonance
Mathematical expression for Sharpness of resonance :The current amplitude in the LCR series circuit is given by

io = Vo / 2

The current amplitude io is ( 1/ √2) times it maximum value , for ω1 = ω0 + Δω

At ω1 , io = Vo /

𝑅 , 𝜔 =R ,
where ω1 = ω0 + Δω
( ω0 + Δω) L – 1/ ( ω0 + Δω) C = R,
ωo L ( 1 + Δω / ωo ) - 1/ ω0 C ( 1 + Δω / ω0 ) = R
ωo L ( 1 + Δω / ωo ) - ωo L / ( 1 + Δω / ω0 ) = R (ωo L = 1 / ω0 C )
ωo L ( 1 + Δω / ωo ) - ωo L ( 1 + Δω / ω0 ) -1= R (Δω / ω0 << 1)
ωo L ( 1 + Δω / ωo - 1 + Δω / ω0 ) = R
ωo L 2Δω / ωo = R

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 The sharpness of resonance is given by ωo / 2Δω = ωo L/R ------ (1)
The ratio ωo L/R is called the quality factor Q of the circuit , Q = ωo L/R ----------- (2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we get, Q = ωo / 2Δω , 2Δω = ωo / Q,
• so larger the value of Q, the smaller is the value of 2Δω or the band width and sharper is the
resonance , ωo = 1/√LC , Q = 1/ ωo CR
• The resonant frequency is independent of R, but sharpness of peak depends on R.
• If Q is large i.e R is low or L is large, the circuit is more selective
• For small value of R, the peak is higher thus resonance is sharp,
• For large values of R, the curve is broad sided i.e resonance is less sharp , maximum current is less,
• Resonance curves shows the variation in circuit current (peak current i0) with change in frequency of
the applied voltage
• Figure below shows the shape of resonance curve for various values of resistance R

Angular frequency is close to the resonant frequency such an LCR series circuit is said to be more selective or sharper.

Note :
(1) If Xc > XL , Ф is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive, the current in the circuit leads the source
voltage
(2) Xc < XL, Ф is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive, the current in the circuit lags the source
voltage
(3) Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are present in the circuit. Only then do
the Voltage across L and C cancel each other ( both being out of phase) and the current amplitude is Vo /R,
the total source voltage appearing across R. This mean that we cannot have resonance in a RL or RC circuit.

(12) Power in AC Circuit : The rate at which electric energy is consumed in an electric circuit
A voltage v = vosin ωt is applied to an LCR circuit, which drives a current in the circuit.
This is given by I= Io sin(ωt + Φ)
Instantaneous power supplied by the source is
p = VI = (vo sinωt) × (Io sin(ωt + Φ) = vo Io sinωt sin(ωt + Φ)
p = voIIo /2 ( cos Φ – cos (2ωt + Φ) ) ( sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B)

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 If the instantaneous power supplied by the source remains constant for a small time dt, then work done
during this time is d W = P dt = V i d t

𝑻
Total work done over a complete cycle ( t= 0 to t = T) , W = ∫𝟎 𝑽𝑰𝒅𝒕
The average power dissipated in the circuit over a complete cycle

𝑻 𝑻
Pav = W /T = 1/ T = ∫𝟎 𝑽𝑰𝒅𝒕= Voio/2T ( 𝐜= ∫𝟎 (cos Φ − cos (2ωt + Φ) ) 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
Pav = (vo io /2T )cos Φ ( t)𝐓𝟎 ∫𝟎 cos (2ωt + Φ) ) 𝒅𝒕 = 0
Pav = (vo io /2T )cos Φ ( T- 0 ) = (vo io /2)cos Φ
Pav = (vo / √ 2)( io /√2 )cos Φ ( vrms = vo / √ 2, irms = io /√2 )
Pav = vrms irms cos Φ where cos Φ is called power factor
Avearge power = apparent power x power factor

cos Φ = R /Z , Pav = vrms irms R / Z , Power factor is defined as the ratio of average
power to the apparent power of an a.c circuit.

Power factor :
(a) Maximum : cos Φ = 1, R = Z , circuit is purely resistive.
(b) Minimum : cos Φ = 0 , R = 0 , circuit is purely inductive or capacitive

Case I : For resistive circuit (containing only resistor), Φ = 0, cos 0 =1

Therefore, maximum power is dissipated. Pav = vrms irms
Case II : For pure inductive circuit or pure capacitive circuit, the phase difference between current and
voltage is π/2, Φ = π/2 , cos π/2 = 0 Therefore, no power is dissipated. Pav = 0 This current is sometime referred to
as watt-less current.
Case III : For LCR series circuit,

Pav = vrms irms cos Φ , Ф may be non-zero in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. So power

is consumed in such circuits, but only in the resistor R.
Case IV : Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance
XL = Xc , XL – Xc =0 and Ф = 0, cos 0 = 1 and P = vrms irms , Therefore, maximum
power is dissipated in circuit (through R) at resonance.
Note :
(1) What is the maximum value of power factor? When does it occur?

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 Ans : one , purely resistive circuit
(2) What is the minimum value of power factor? When does it occur?
Ans : zero , purely inductive or capacitive circuit
(3) Why power correction is must in heavy machinery? (CBSE 2001, 2004)
Ans: Pav = vrms irms cos Φ , heavy machinery needs large power. For a given supply voltage , it
require either large current or improvement of power factor , for supplying large current thick
wires have to be used which is not economical , in practice power factor is increased by
decreasing Φ this is done by using a capacitor of appropriate capacitance
(4) What is the power dissipation in an a.c circuit in which voltage and current are given by
E = 230 sin ((ωt + π/2) ) and I = 10 sinωt (CBSE 2005)
( Ans : Pav = vrms irms cos Φ , Φ = π/2 , Pav = 0)
(5) Which is the best method of reducing current in an a.c circuit and why?( CBSE 1996)
Ans : By using Choke coil or capacitor , as the average power dissipated per cycle is zero

(13) LC Oscillations : When a charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through a non-resistive inductor, electrical
oscillations of constant amplitude and frequency are produced. These oscillations are called L-C oscillations
A capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and magnetic energy respectively.
When a capacitor ( initially charged) is connected with an inductor, the charge on the capacitor and current
in the circuit exhibit the phenomenon of electrical oscillations.
Let at t = 0, the capacitor is charged q0 and connected to an inductor.
The moment the circuit is completed, the charge in the capacitor starts decreasing giving rise to
current in the circuit.
Let q → Charge, t→ Time, i→ Current
Since d i/d t is positive, the induced emf in L will have polarity as shown i.e Vb < Va .

Induced emf across the inductor at any instant = - L di / d t

P.D across the capacitor at that instant = q /c
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule
q / C –L di / d t = 0 , (i = - ( d q /d t ) as q decreases , I increases)
L d2q/d2t + q / c = 0 ,
2 2
d q/d t + q / LC = 0 , where ωo = 1/√LC
d2q/d2t + ωo2 q = 0 ,
This equation is of the form of a simple harmonic oscillator equation
d2x /d2t + ωo2 x = 0 .
The charge oscillates with a natural frequency of ωo = 2πfo = 1/√LC ,

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 fo = 1/2π √LC and it varies sinusoid ally with time as q = qo cos ((ωot + Φ)
Where qo→ Maximum value of q, Φ → Phase constant
At t = 0 , q = qo, we have cosΦ= 1 or Φ= 0 q = qo cos(ω0t )
The current i = - dq /dt is given by i = io sinω0 t
Where, io = ω0 qo
LC oscillations are similar to the mechanical oscillation of a block attached to a spring.
The capacitor with an initial charge qo connected to an ideal inductor. The electrical energy stored in the charged
capacitor is UE = qo2/2C . Since there is no current in the circuit, energy in the inductor is zero.
Thus , the total energy of LC circuit is U = UE = q02/2C .
At t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor begins to discharge the energy stored in its electric field decreases.
The discharge of the capacitor represents a current in the circuit. As the current increases , it sets up a magnetic field
in the inductor and some energy is now stored in the form of magnetic energy. Thus, energy is transferred from the
electric field of the capacitor to the magnetic field of the inductor, UB = Li2/2
At t = T /4 , as the current reaches its maximum value io and all energy is stored in the magnetic field, UB = Lio2/2.
Maximum electrical energy equals the maximum magnetic energy.
The capacitor now has no charge and hence no energy. The current now starts charging the capacitor. This process
continues till the capacitor is fully charged at t = T/2. But it is charged with a polarity opposite to its initial state The
whole process will repeat itself till the system reverts to its original state. Thus the energy in the system oscillates
between the capacitor and the inductor.

The right side of the figure shows the analogous energy transfer in the oscillating block– spring system- The potential
energy ½ kx2 stored in a stretched spring is analogous to the electric potential energy qm2/2C stored in the capacitor.
The kinetic energy ½ mv2 of the moving block is analogous to the magnetic energy ½ LI2 stored in the inductor, which
requires the presence of moving charges.
Conservation of energy in LC oscillations: As the sum of potential and kinetic energies remains constant in SHM, the
sum of energies stored in the capacitor and inductor remains constant in LC oscillations .
At any instant, the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is UE = q2/2C
The magnetic energy stored in the inductor at any instant is UB = Li2/2
If there is no (resistive) loss of energy, then the total energy of the LC circuit at any instant will be U
= UE + UB = q2/2C + Li2/2
But q = qo cos ωot , i = - dq /dt = ω0 qo sinω0 t

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 U = qo2 cos2 ωot /2C + L ω02 qo2 sin2ω0 t/2
U = qo2 cos2 ωot /2C + L qo2 sin2ω0 t/2LC ( ω02 = 1/ LC)
U = qo2 (cos2 ωot + sin2ω0 t ) /2C = qo2 / 2C = CVo2/2 = initial energy . It is equal to the initial energy
of the capacitor both are time independent .
Note : LC – oscillations are usually damped due to following reasons:
Every inductor has some resistance. This causes energy loss as heat. The amplitude of oscillation goes on decreasing and
the oscillation finally die out. Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would not remain
constant. It is radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves. In fact , radio and TV transmitters is based on such
radiations.

(14) Transformers: It is an electrical device for converting an alternating current at low voltage into that at high voltage
or vice versa. If it increases the voltage, it is called step up transformer and if it decreases the voltage, it is called step
down transformer.
Principle − It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When current in one circuit changes, an induced
current is set up in the neighboring circuit.
Construction – It consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They are wound on a soft-iron core, either
one on top of the other or on separate limbs of the core. One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns. Primary
col is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer.
Two different arrangements used for winding the primary and secondary coils in a transformer

Three assumptions (i) the primary resistance and current are small (ii) the same flux links both the primary and the
secondary as very little flux escapes from the core, and (iii) the secondary current is small Working
When an alternating voltage is supplied to the primary coil PP’. The resulting current produces an alternating magnetic
flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in secondary. The value of this emf depends on thr number of turns
in the secondary.
In an ideal transformer primary has negligible resistance and all the flux in the core links both primary and secondary
windings
Let Ф be the flux in each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a voltage Vp is applied to it. The
induced emf or voltage Es, in the secondary with Ns turns is Es = - Ns dФ/dt
As the secondary current is small Es = Vs = - Ns dФ/dt --------- (1)
The alternating flux Ф also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary.
Ep = - Np dФ/dt
If resistance of primary coil is extremely low Ep = Vp = = - Np dФ/dt ---------- (2)
Comparing (1) and (2) Vs / Vp = Es/ Ep = Ns/Np
Laminated core: The core of a transformer is laminated to reduce the energy losses due to eddy currents, so that its
efficiency may remains nearly 100%.
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient ( no energy loss) the input power is equal to the output power , and
since P = VI
IpVp = Is Vs , where Is and Ip are the current in secondary and primary respectively

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Vs / Vp = Ip / Is = Ns/Np , Vs = N sV p / Np and Is = Np Ip /Ns
Assuming the transformer to be an ideal one the expression for the ratio of its
(a) Output voltage to input voltage : Vs / Vp = Ns/Np
(b) Output current to input current : Is / Ip = Np/Ns

Efficiency of transformer of transformer is defined as

η = ( output power / input power) x 100%
Step up transformer - Ns > Np , the voltage is stepped up ( Vs > Vp) , there is less current in the secondary than in the
primary ( Is < Ip ) ( Ns/ Np > 1)
Step-up transformer

Step – down transformer - Ns < Np , in this case Vs < Vp and Is > Ip , that is the voltage is stepped down or reduced
and the current is increased Step-down transformer

According to law of conservation of energy,

Input electrical power = Output electrical power
Vp Ip = VsIs
Es/ Ep = Vs/ Vp = Ns/Np = K
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
(1) If Ns>Np , that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.
(2) If Ns<Np, that is K<1 , then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
Again for an ideal transformer, VpIp = VsIs
Or, Is/Ip = Vp/Vs = 1/K
Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio

Transformers are used in telegraph, telephone, power stations, etc.

Use of transformer in long distance transmission of electric power
The voltage output of the generator is stepped –up (so current is reduced and consequently, the I2R loss is cut down). It
is then transmitted over long distance to an area sub-station near the consumers . There the voltage is stepped down. It
is further stepped down at distributing sub-stations and utility poles before a power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.
Disadvantage of transmitting A.C over long distance at low voltage and high current:
(i) Large length of transmission cable have sufficient resistance. Hence large amount of energy (I2Rt) will be lost
as heat during transmission.

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(ii) Large Voltage drop (IR) across the line wire. Hence voltage at the receiving station will be much smaller than at
generating station.
Losses in transformer:
(1) Resistance of the windings− Some energy is lost due to heat produced ( I2R) in the copper wires used in the
primary and secondary windings. In high current, low voltage windings, these are minimized by using thick wire
.Heat in copper wire is generated by working of a transformer. It can be diminished using thick copper wires.
(2) Eddy currents − The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and causes heating. The
effect is reduced by having a laminated core. Loss is in the bulk of iron core due to the induced eddy currents. It
is minimized by using thin laminated core.
(3) Hysteresis loss – The alternating current caries the iron core through cycles of alternately magnetizing and
demagnetizing. Work is done in each of these cycle and is lost as heat. This is called hysteresis loss. It is
minimized using a special alloy of iron core with silicon having narrow hysteresis loop.
(4) Flux leakage − The magnetic flux produced by the primary may not fully pass through the secondary due to the
poor design of the core or the air gaps in the core. Some of the flux may leak into air. It can be reduced by
winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.
(5) Humming losses – Due to the passage of alternating current, the core of the transformer starts vibrating and
produces humming sound. Thus electrical energy is wasted in the form of humming sounds produced by the
vibrating core of the transformer
Due to energy losses, out power of a transformer is always less than the output power
VsIs < VpIp
Efficiency of transformer η = ( output power / input power) x 100%
η = VsIs / VpIp
since VsIs < VpIp efficiency is never 100%
Note :
(1) Transformer is used to step down A.C voltage where as pure resistor is used to step down the d.c voltage.
(2) Why can’t transformer be used to step up d.c voltage? (CBSE 1993, 2001)
Ans : The d .c supply does not produce a changing magnetic flux in primary and hence no emf is set up in
secondary
(3) What causes the core of transformer to get heated up under operation ? (CBSE 1995)
(Ans : Eddy currents set up in the iron core heat up a transformer)
(4) Why is the core of a transformer made of a magnetic material of high permeability? (CBSE 1990)
( Ans: Due to high permeability of core material the magnetic field lines of force will crowd the core. Most of the
flux linked with the primary will pass through the secondary. Flux leakage decreases and efficiency of
transformer increases)
(5) In India, domestic power supply is at 220V, 50Hz, while in USA it is 110V, 50Hz. Give one advantage and one
disadvantage of 220Vsupply over 110V supply? (CBSE 2004)
Ans: Advantage : The power loss at 220V supply is less than that at 110V, Disadvantage : The 220V is more
dangerous because its peak value ( 311V) is much higher than the peak value (155V) for 110V supply.
(6) Distinguish between resistance , reactance and impedance for an a .c circuit . (CBSE 2000)
Ans : Resistance : The resistance of an a.c circuit is the ohmic resistance offered by a conductor connected in
the circuit. It is due to the nature of the material (resistivity) of the conductor.

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 Reactance : The reactance of an a .c circuit is the resistance offered by an inductor or a capacitor
connected in the circuit. It arises because the alternating e. m. f and the current differ in
phase by π/2, when a .c flows through an inductor or a capacitor.
Impedance: The impedance of an a.c circuit is the effective resistance offered by the LR- circuit, CR-circuit
or LR-circuit.

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