411 For Quiz 1
411 For Quiz 1
411 For Quiz 1
CHI-WAI LEUNG
The following examples are important classes in the study of functional analysis.
Example 1.2. Consider X = Kn . Put
n
X 1/p
kxkp := |xi |p and kxk∞ := max |xi |
i=1,...,n
i=1
for 1 ≤ p < ∞ and x = (x1 , ..., xn ) ∈ Kn .
Then k · kp (called the usual norm as p=2) and k · k∞ (called the sup-norm) all are norms on Kn .
Example 1.3. Put
c0 := {(x(i)) : x(i) ∈ K, lim |x(i)| = 0}(called the null sequnce space)
and
`∞ := {(x(i)) : x(i) ∈ K, sup |x(i)| < ∞}.
i
Then c0 is a subspace of `∞ . The sup-norm k · k∞ on `∞ is defined by
kxk∞ := sup |x(i)|
i
for x ∈ `∞ . Let
c00 := {(x(i)) : there are only finitly many x(i)’s are non-zero}.
Also, c00 is endowed with the sup-norm defined above and is called the finite sequence space.
Example 1.5. Let C b (R) be the space of all bounded continuous R-valued functions f on R.
Now C b (R) is endowed with the sup-norm, that is,
kf k∞ = sup |f (x)|
x∈R
Notation 1.6. From now on, (X, k · k) always denotes a normed space over a field K.
For r > 0 and x ∈ X, let
(i) B(x, r) := {y ∈ X : kx − yk < r} (called an open ball with the center at x of radius r) and
B ∗ (x, r) := {y ∈ X : 0 < kx − yk < r}
(ii) B(x, r) := {y ∈ X : kx − yk ≤ r} (called a closed ball with the center at x of radius r).
Put BX := {x ∈ X : kxk ≤ 1} and SX := {x ∈ X : kxk = 1} the closed unit ball and the unit
sphere of X respectively.
Definition 1.7. Let A be a subset of X.
(i) A point a ∈ A is called an interior point of A if there is r > 0 such that B(a, r) ⊆ A. Write
int(A) for the set of all interior points of A.
(ii) A is called an open subset of X if int(A) = A.
Definition 1.9. We say that a sequence (xn ) in X converges to an element a ∈ X if lim kxn −ak =
0, that is, for any ε > 0, there is N ∈ N such that kxn − ak < ε for all n ≥ N .
In this case, (xn ) is said to be convergent and a is called a limit of the sequence (xn ).
Remark 1.10.
(i) If (xn ) is a convergence sequence in X, then its limit is unique. In fact, if a and b both are the
limits of (xn ), then we have ka − bk ≤ ka − xn k + kxn − bk → 0. So, ka − bk = 0 which implies that
a = b.
From now on, we write lim xn for the limit of (xn ) provided the limit exists.
(ii) The definition of a convergent sequence (xn ) depends on the underling space where the sequence
(xn ) sits in. For example, for each n = 1, 2..., let xn (i) := 1/i as 1 ≤ i ≤ n and xn (i) = 0 as i > n.
Then (xn ) is a convergent sequence in `∞ but it is not convergent in c00 .
3
Remark 1.12. With the notation as above, it is clear that a point z ∈ A if and only if B(z, r)∩A 6= ∅
for all r > 0. This is also equivalent to saying that there is a sequence (xn ) in A such that xn → a.
In fact, this can be shown by considering r = n1 for n = 1, 2....
Proposition 1.13. With the notation as before, we have the following assertions.
(i) A is closed in X if and only if its complement X \ A is open in X.
(ii) The closure A is the smallest closed subset of X containing A. The ”smallest” in here
means that if F is a closed subset containing A, then A ⊆ F .
Consequently, A is closed if and only if A = A.
Proof. If A is empty, then the assertions (i) and (ii) both are obvious. Now assume that A 6= ∅.
For part (i), let C = X \ A and b ∈ C. Suppose that A is closed in X. If there exists an element
b ∈ C \ int(C), then B(b, r) " C for all r > 0. This implies that B(b, r) ∩ A 6= ∅ for all r > 0 and
hence, b is a limit point of A since b ∈ / A. It contradicts to the closeness of A. So, A = int(A) and
thus, A is open.
For the converse of (i), assume that C is open in X. Assume that A has a limit point z but z ∈ / A.
Since z ∈ / A, z ∈ C = int(C) because C is open. Hence, we can find r > 0 such that B(z, r) ⊆ C.
This gives B(z, r) ∩ A = ∅. This contradicts to the assumption of z being a limit point of A. So,
A must contain all of its limit points and hence, it is closed.
For part (ii), we first claim that A is closed. Let z be a limit point of A. Let r > 0. Then there
is w ∈ B ∗ (z, r) ∩ A. Choose 0 < r1 < r small enough such that B(w, r1 ) ⊆ B ∗ (z, r). Since w is a
limit point of A, we have ∅ = 6 B ∗ (w, r1 ) ∩ A ⊆ B ∗ (z, r) ∩ A. So, z is a limit point of A. Thus, z ∈ A
as required. This implies that A is closed.
It is clear that A is the smallest closed set containing A.
The last assertion follows from the minimality of the closed sets containing A immediately.
The proof is finished.
Proposition 2.4. Let Y be a subspace of a Banach space X. Then Y is a Banach space if and
only if Y is closed in X.
Proof. For the necessary condition, we assume that Y is a Banach space. Let z ∈ Y . Then there
is a convergent sequence (yn ) in Y such that yn → z. Since (yn ) is convergent, it is also a Cauchy
sequence in Y . Then (yn ) is also a convergent sequence in Y because Y is a Banach space. So,
z ∈ Y . This implies that Y = Y and hence, Y is closed.
For the converse statement, assume that Y is closed. Let (zn ) be a Cauchy sequence in Y . Then
it is also a Cauchy sequence in X. Since X is complete, z := lim zn exists in X. Note that z ∈ Y
because Y is closed. So, (zn ) is convergent in Y . Thus, Y is complete as desired.
Corollary 2.5. c0 is a Banach space but the finite sequence c00 is not.
Proposition 2.6. Let (X, k · k) be a normed space. Then there is a normed space (X0 , k · k0 ),
together with a linear map i : X → X0 , satisfy the following condition.
(i) X0 is a Banach space.
(ii) The map i is an isometry, that is, ki(x)k0 = kxk for all x ∈ X.
(iii) the image i(X) is dense in X0 , that is, i(X) = X0 .
Moreover, such pair (X0 , i) is unique up to isometric isomorphism in the following sense: if (W, k ·
k1 ) is a Banach space and an isometry j : X → W is an isometry such that j(X) = W , then there
is an isometric isomorphism ψ from X0 onto W such that
j = ψ ◦ i : X → X0 → W.
In this case, the pair (X0 , i) is called the completion of X.
5
Example 2.7. Proposition 2.6 cannot give an explicit form of the completion of a given normed
space. The following examples are basically due to the uniqueness of the completion.
(i) If X is a Banach space, then the completion of X is itself.
(ii) By Corollary 2.5, the completion of the finite sequence space c00 is the null sequence space
c0 .
(iii) The completion of Cc (R) is C0 (R).
Example 2.9.
(i) The set of all integers Z is a nowhere dense subset of R.
(ii) The set (0, 1) is a nowhere dense subset of R2 but it is not a nowhere dense subset of R.
(iii) Let A := {x ∈ c00 : x(n) ≥ 0, for all n = 1, 2...}. Notice that A is a closed subset of c00 . We
claim that int(A) = ∅. In fact, let a ∈ A and r > 0. Since a ∈ c00 , there is N such that a(n) = 0
for all n ≥ N . Now define z ∈ c00 by z(n) = x(n) for n 6= N and z(N ) := −r 2 . Then z ∈ c00 \ A
and kz − ak∞ < r. So, int(A) = ∅ and thus, A is a nowhere dense subset of c00 .
Theorem
S∞ 2.11. Baire Category Theorem: Let X be a Banach space. Suppose that X =
n=1 A n for a sequence of subsets (An ) of X. Then there is An0 not nowhere dense in X.
c
Proof. Suppose that each An is nowhere dense in X. If we put Wn :=TAn , then each Wn is an open
dense subset of X by Lemma 2.10 (i). Lemma 2.10 (ii) implies that Wn 6= ∅. This gives
\ c [ c [ [
X) Wn = Wn = An ⊇ An = X.
This leads to a contradiction. The proof is finished.
Lemma 3.2. Let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in a normed space X. If (xn ) has a convergent
subsequence in X, then (xn ) itself is convergent too.
Proof. Let (xnk ) be a convergent subsequence of (xn ) and let L := limk xnk ∈ X. We are going to
show that limn xn = L.
Let ε > 0. Since (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence, there is N ∈ N such that kxm − xn k < ε for all
m, n ≥ N . On the other hand, since limk xnk = L, there is K ∈ N such that nK ≥ N and
kL − xnK k < ε. Thus, if n ≥ nK , we see that kxn − Lk ≤ kxn − xnK k + kxnK − Lk < 2ε. The proof
is finished.
Proposition 3.3. Let X be a normed space. Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i) X is a Banach space.
(ii) Every absolutely convergent series in X is convergent.
P
Proof. For showing (i) ⇒ (ii), assume
Pn that X is a Banach space and
Plet xk be an absolutely
convergent series in X. Put sn := k=1 xk the n-th partial sum ofX xk . Let ε > 0. Since the
P
series k xk is absolutely convergent, there is N ∈ N such that kxk k < ε for all n ≥ N
n+1≤k≤n+p
X
and p = 1, 2..... This gives ksn+p − sn k ≤ kxk k < ε for all n ≥ N and p = 1, 2..... Thus,
n+1≤k≤n+p P
(sn ) is a Cauchy sequence in X. Then by the completeness of X, we see that the series xk is
convergent in X as desired.
Now suppose that the condition (ii) holds. Let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in X. Notice that by the
definition of a Cauchy sequence, we can find a subsequence (xnk ) of (xn ) such that kxnk+1 − xnk k <
1/2k for all k = 1, 2...... From this, we see that the series
P
P k (xnk+1 −xnk ) is absolutely convergent in
X. Then the condition (ii) tells us that the series k (xnk+1 − xnk ) is convergent in X. Notice that
m
X
xnm = xn1 + (xnk+1 − xnk ) for all m = 1, 2, .... Therefore, (xnk )∞
k=1 is a convergent subsequence
k=1
of (xn ). Then by Lemma 3.2, we see that (xn ) is convergent in X. The proof is finished.
Recall that a basis of a vector space V over K is a collection of vectors in V , say (vi )i∈I , such
that for each element x ∈ V , we have a unique expression
X
x= αi vi
i∈I
Definition 3.4. A sequence (xn ) is called a Schauder basis for a normed space X if for each
element x ∈ X, there is a unique sequence (αn ) in K such that
∞
X
(3.1) x= αn xn .
n=1
Remark 3.5.
(i) Notice that a Schauder basis must be linearly independent vectors. So, it is clear that every
Schauder basis is a vector basis for a finite dimensional vector space. However, a Schauder
basis need not be a vector basis for a normed space in general. For example, if we consider
the sequence (en ) in c0 given by en (n) = 1; otherwise, en (i) = 0, then (en ) is a Schauder
basis for c0 but it it is not a vector basis.
(ii) In the Definition 3.4, the expression 3.1 depends on the order of (xn ). More precise, if
σ : {1, 2...} → {1, 2...} is a bijection, then the Eq 3.1 CANNOT assure that we still have
X∞
the expression x = ασ(n) xσ(n) for each x ∈ X.
n=1
Example 3.6. (i) If X is of finite dimension, then the vector bases are the same as the
Schauder bases.
(ii) Let en be a sequence defined as in Remark 3.5(i), then the sequence (en ) is a Schauder basis
for the spaces c0 and `p for 1 ≤ p < ∞.
Definition 3.7. A normed space X is said to be separable if there is a countable dense subset of
X.
Example 3.8. (i) The space Cn is separable. In fact, it is clear that (Q + iQ)n is a countable
dense subset of Cn .
(ii) The space `∞ is an important example of nonseparable Banach space. In fact, if we put
D := {x ∈ `∞ : x(i) = 0 or 1}, then D is an uncountable subset of `∞ . Moreover, we
have kx − yk∞ = 1 for any x, y ∈ D with x 6= y. Thus, {B(x, 1/2) : x ∈ D} is an
uncountable family of disjoint open balls of `∞ . So, if C is a countable dense subset of `∞ ,
then C ∩ B(x, 1/2) 6= ∅ for all x ∈ D. Also, for each element z ∈ C, there is a unique
element x ∈ D such that z ∈ B(x, 1/2). It leads to a contradiction since D is uncountable.
Therefore, `∞ is nonseparable.
Proposition 3.9. Let X be a normed space. Then X is separable if and only if there is a countable
P any element x ∈ X and
subset A of X such that the linear span of A is dense in X, that is, for
ε > 0, there are finite many elements x1 , .., xN in A such that kx − N k=1 αk xk k < ε for some
scalars α1 , .., αN .
Consequently, if X has a Schauder basis, then X is separable.
Proof. The necessary condition is clear.
We are now going to prove the converse statement. Suppose that X is the closed linear span of a
countable subset A. Now let D be the linear span of A over the field Q + iQ. Since Q is a countable
dense subset of R, this implies that D is a countable dense subset of X. Thus, X is separable.
The last statement is clearly follows from the definition of a Schauder basis at once.
By Proposition 3.9, we have the following important examples of separable Banach spaces at once.
Corollary 3.10. The spaces c0 and `p for 1 ≤ p < ∞ all are separable.
8 CHI-WAI LEUNG
Remark 3.11. Proposition 3.9 leads to the following natural question which was first raised by
Banach (1932).
The Basis Problem: Does every separable Banach space have a Schauder basis?
The answer is 00 No00 .
This problem was completely solved by P. Enflo in 1973.
Definition 4.1. A subset A of a normed space X is said to be compact (more precise, sequentially
compact) if every sequence in A has a convergent subsequence with the limit in A.
Recall that a subset A is closed in X if and only if every convergent sequence (xn ) in A implies
that lim xn ∈ A.
The following is an important characterization of a compact set in the the case X = R. Warning:
this result is not true for a general normed space X.
Theorem 4.4. Let A be a closed subset of R. Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i) A is compact.
(ii) A is closed and bounded.
9
Definition 4.5. We say that two norms k · k and k · k0 on a vector space X are equivalent, write
k · k ∼ k · k0 , if there are positive numbers c1 and c2 such that c1 k · k ≤ k · k0 ≤ c2 k · k on X.
Example 4.6. Consider the norms k · k1 and k · k∞ on `1 . We are going to show that k · k1 and
k · k∞ are not equivalent. In fact, if we put xn (i) := (1, 1/2, ..., 1/n, 0, 0, ....) for n, i = 1, 2.... Then
xn ∈ `1 for all n. Notice that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence with respect to the norm k · k∞ but it is
not a Cauchy sequence with respect to the norm k · k1 . Hence k · k1 k · k∞ on `1 .
Proposition 4.7. All norms on a finite dimensional vector space are equivalent.
Proof. Let X be a finite dimensional vector space and let {e1 , ..., eN } be a vector base of X. For
each x = N
P Pn
i=1 αi ei for αi ∈ K, define kxk0 = i=1 |αi |. Then k · k0 is a norm X. The result is
obtained by showing that all norms k · k on X are equivalent to k · k0 .
PN
Notice that for each x = i=1 αi ei ∈ X, we have kxk ≤ ( max kei k)kxk0 . It remains to find
1≤i≤N
c > 0 such that ck · k0 ≤ k · k. In fact, let KN be equipped with the sup-norm k · k∞ , that is
k(α1 , ..., αN )k∞ = max1≤1≤N |αi |. Define a real-valued function f on the unit sphere SKN of KN
by
f : (α1 , ..., αN ) ∈ SKN 7→ kα1 e1 + · · · + αn eN k.
Notice that the map f is continuous and f > 0. It is clear that SKN is compact with respect to the
sup-norm k · k∞ on KN . Hence, there is c > 0 such that f (α) ≥ c > 0 for all α ∈ SKN . This gives
kxk ≥ ckxk0 for all x ∈ X as desired. The proof is finished.
Lemma 4.8. Let X be a normed space. Then the closed unit ball BX is compact if and only if
every bounded sequence in X has a convergent subsequence.
In the rest of this section, we are going to show the converse of Proposition 4.9 (ii) also holds.
Before showing the main theorem in this section, we need the following useful result.
Lemma 4.10. Riesz’s Lemma: Let Y be a closed proper subspace of a normed space X. Then
for each θ ∈ (0, 1), there is an element x0 ∈ SX such that d(x0 , Y ) := inf{kx0 − yk : y ∈ Y } ≥ θ.
Proof. Let u ∈ X − Y and d := inf{ku − yk : y ∈ Y }. Notice that since Y is closed, d > 0
and hence, we have 0 < d < dθ because 0 < θ < 1. This implies that there is y0 ∈ Y such that
u−y0
0 < d ≤ ku − y0 k < dθ . Now put x0 := ku−y 0k
∈ SX . We are going to show that x0 is as desired.
Indeed, let y ∈ Y . Since y0 + ku − y0 ky ∈ Y , we have
1
kx0 − yk = ku − (y0 + ku − y0 ky)k ≥ d/ku − y0 k > θ.
ku − y0 k
So, d(x0 , Y ) ≥ θ.
Theorem 4.12. Let X be a normed space. Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i) X is a finite dimensional normed space.
(ii) The closed unit ball BX of X is compact.
(iii) Every bounded sequence in X has convergent subsequence.
Proof. The implication (i) ⇒ (ii) follows from Proposition 4.9 (ii) at once.
Lemma 4.8 gives the implication (ii) ⇒ (iii).
Finally, for the implication (iii) ⇒ (i), assume that X is of infinite dimension. Fix an element
x1 ∈ SX . Let Y1 = Kx1 . Then Y1 is a proper closed subspace of X. The Riesz’s lemma gives an
element x2 ∈ SX such that kx1 − x2 k ≥ 1/2. Now consider Y2 = span{x1 , x2 }. Then Y2 is a proper
closed subspace of X since dim X = ∞. To apply the Riesz’s Lemma again, there is x3 ∈ SX such
that kx3 − xk k ≥ 1/2 for k = 1, 2. To repeat the same step, there is a sequence (xn ) ∈ SX such
that kxm − xn k ≥ 1/2 for all n 6= m. Thus, (xn ) is a bounded sequence but it has no convergent
subsequence by using the similar argument as in Proposition 4.2. So, the condition (iii) does not
hold if dim X = ∞. The proof is finished.
Proposition 5.3. Let X and Y be normed spaces. Let B(X, Y ) be the set of all bounded linear
maps from X into Y . For each element T ∈ B(X, Y ), let
kT k = sup{kT xk : x ∈ BX }.
be defined as in Proposition 5.1.
Then (B(X, Y ), k · k) becomes a normed space.
Furthermore, if Y is a Banach space, then so is B(X, Y ).
In particular, if Y = K, then B(X, K) is a Banach space. In this case, put X ∗ := B(X, K) and call
it the dual space of X.
Proof. One can directly check that B(X, Y ) is a normed space (Do It By Yourself !).
We are going to show that B(X, Y ) is complete if Y is a Banach space. Let (Tn ) be a Cauchy
sequence in L(X, Y ). Then for each x ∈ X, it is easy to see that (Tn x) is also a Cauchy sequence
in Y . So, lim Tn x exists in Y for each x ∈ X because Y is complete. Hence, one can define a map
T x := lim Tn x ∈ Y for each x ∈ X. It is clear that T is a linear map from X into Y .
It needs to show that T ∈ L(X, Y ) and kT − Tn k → 0 as n → ∞. Let ε > 0. Since (Tn ) is a Cauchy
sequence in L(X, Y ), there is a positive integer N such that kTm − Tn k < ε for all m, n ≥ N . So, we
have k(Tm − Tn )(x)k < ε for all x ∈ BX and m, n ≥ N . Taking m → ∞, we have kT x − Tn xk ≤ ε
for all n ≥ N and x ∈ BX . Therefore, we have kT − Tn k ≤ ε for all n ≥ N . From this, we see
that T − TN ∈ B(X, Y ) and thus, T = TN + (T − TN ) ∈ B(X, Y ) and kT − Tn k → 0 as n → ∞.
Therefore, limn Tn = T exists in B(X, Y ).
Proposition 5.4. Let X and Y be normed spaces. Suppose that X is of finite dimension n. Then
we have the following assertions.
(i) Any linear operator from X into Y must be bounded.
(ii) If Tk : X → Y is a sequence of linear operators such that Tk x → 0 for all x ∈ X, then
kTk k → 0.
12 CHI-WAI LEUNG
Proof. Using Proposition 4.7 and the notation as in the proof, then there is c > 0 such that
Xn n
X
|αi | ≤ ck αi e i k
i=1 i=1
for all scalars α1 , ..., αn . Therefore, for any linear map T from X to Y , we have
kT xk ≤ max kT ei k ckxk
1≤i≤n
for all x ∈ X. This gives the assertions (i) and (ii) immediately.
Proposition 5.5. Let Y be a closed subspace of X and X/Y be the quotient space. For each
element x ∈ X, put x̄ := x + Y ∈ X/Y the corresponding element in X/Y . Define
(5.1) kx̄k = inf{kx + yk : y ∈ Y }.
If we let π : X → X/Y be the natural projection, that is π(x) = x̄ for all x ∈ X, then (X/Y, k · k)
is a normed space and π is bounded with kπk ≤ 1. In particular, kπk = 1 as Y is a proper closed
subspace.
Furthermore, if X is a Banach space, then so is X/Y .
In this case, we call k · k in (5.1) the quotient norm on X/Y .
Proof. Notice that since Y is closed, one can directly check that kx̄k = 0 if and only is x ∈ Y , that
is, x̄ = 0̄ ∈ X/Y . It is easy to check the other conditions of the definition of a norm. So, X/Y is
a normed space. Also, it is clear that π is bounded with kπk ≤ 1 by the definition of the quotient
norm on X/Y .
Furthermore, if Y ( X, then by using the Riesz’s Lemma 4.10, we see that kπk = 1 at once.
We are going to show the last assertion. Suppose that X is a Banach space. Let (x̄n ) be a Cauchy
sequence in X/Y . It suffices to show that (x̄n ) has a convergent subsequence in X/Y by using
Lemma 3.2.
Indeed, since (x̄n ) is a Cauchy sequence, we can find a subsequence (x̄nk ) of (x̄n ) such that
kx̄nk+1 − x̄nk k < 1/2k
for all k = 1, 2.... Then by the definition of quotient norm, there is an element y1 ∈ Y such that
kxn2 − xn1 + y1 k < 1/2. Notice that we have, xn1 − y1 = x̄n1 in X/Y . So, there is y2 ∈ Y such that
kxn2 −y2 −(xn1 −y1 )k < 1/2 by the definition of quotient norm again. Also, we have xn2 − y2 = x̄n2 .
Then we also have an element y3 ∈ Y such that kxn3 − y3 − (xn2 − y2 )k < 1/22 . To repeat the same
step, we can obtain a sequence (yk ) in Y such that
kxnk+1 − yk+1 − (xnk − yk )k < 1/2k
for all k = 1, 2.... Therefore, (xnk − yk ) is a Cauchy sequence in X and thus, limk (xnk − yk ) exists
in X while X is a Banach space. Set x = limk (xnk − yk ). On the other hand, notice that we have
π(xnk − yk ) = π(xnk ) for all k = 1, 2, , ,. This tells us that limk π(xnk ) = limk π(xnk − yk ) = π(x) ∈
X/Y since π is bounded. So, (x̄nk ) is a convergent subsequence of (x̄n ) in X/Y . The proof is
complete.
Corollary 5.6. Let T : X → Y be a linear map. Suppose that Y is of finite dimension. Then T
is bounded if and only if ker T := {x ∈ X : T x = 0}, the kernel of T , is closed.
Proof. The necessary part is clear.
Now assume that ker T is closed. Then by Proposition 5.5, X/ ker T becomes a normed space.
Also, it is known that there is a linear injection Te : X/ ker T → Y such that T = Te ◦ π, where
π : X → X/ ker T is the natural projection. Since dim Y < ∞ and Te is injective, dim X/ ker T < ∞.
This implies that Te is bounded by Proposition 5.4. Hence T is bounded because T = Te ◦ π and π
is bounded.
13
Remark 5.7. The converse P of Corollary 5.6 does not hold when Y is of infinite dimension. For
example, let X := {x ∈ `2 : ∞ 2 2
n=1 n |x(n)| < ∞} (notice that X is a vector space Why?) and
2
Y = ` . Both X and Y are endowed with k · k2 -norm.
Define T : X → Y by T x(n) = nx(n) for x ∈ X and n = 1, 2.... Then T is an unbounded
operator(Check !!). Notice that ker T = {0} and hence, ker T is closed. So, the closeness of ker T
does not imply the boundedness of T in general.
We say that two normed spaces X and Y are said to be isomorphic (resp. isometric isomorphic)
if there is a bi-continuous linear isomorphism (resp. isometric) between X and Y . We also write
X = Y if X and Y are isometric isomorphic.
Remark 5.8. Notice that the inverse of a bounded linear isomorphism may not be bounded.
Example 5.9. Let X : {f ∈ C ∞ (−1, 1) : f (n) ∈ C b (−1, 1) for all n = 0, 1, 2...} and Y := {f ∈
X : f (0) = 0}. Also, X and Y both are equipped with the sup-norm k · k∞ . Define an operator
S : X → Y by Z x
Sf (x) := f (t)dt
0
for f ∈ X and x ∈ (−1, 1). Then S is a bounded linear isomorphism but its inverse S −1 is
unbounded. In fact, the inverse S −1 : Y → X is given by
S −1 g := g 0
for g ∈ Y .
Proposition 6.1. Let X be a normed space. Put X ∗ = B(X, K). Then X ∗ is a Banach space and
is called the dual space of X.
Example 6.2. Let X = KN . Consider the usual Euclidean norm on X, that is, k(x1 , ..., xN )k :=
|x1 |2 + · · · |xN |2 . Define θ : KN → (KN )∗ by θx(y) = x1 y1 + · · · + xN yN for x = (x1 , ..., xN )
p
and y = (y1 , ..., yN ) ∈ KN . Notice that θx(y) = hx, yi, the usual inner product on KN . Then by
the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, it is easy to see that θ is an isometric isomorphism. Therefore, we
have KN = (KN )∗ .
Example 6.4. We have the other important examples of the dual spaces.
(i) (`1 )∗ = `∞ .
(ii) For 1 < p < ∞, (`p )∗ = `q , where p1 + 1q = 1.
(iii) For a locally compact Hausdorff space X, C0 (X)∗ = M (X), where M (X) denotes the space
of all regular Borel measures on X.
Parts (i) and (ii) can be obtained by the similar argument as in Example 6.3 (see also in [3, Chapter
8]). Part (iii) is known as the Riesz representation Theorem which is referred to [3, Section 21.5]
for the details.
In the rest of this section, we are going to show the Hahn-Banach Theorem which is a very
important Theorem in mathematics. Before showing this theorem, we need the following lemma
first.
Since y and α are arbitrary in inequality 6.2, we see that |F (y + αv)| ≤ ky + αvk for all y ∈ Y and
α ∈ R. Therefore the result holds when K = R.
Now for the complex case, let h = Ref and g = Imf . Then f = h + ig and f, g both are real linear
with khk ≤ 1. Note that since f (iy) = if (y) for all y ∈ Y , we have g(y) = −h(iy) for all y ∈ Y .
This gives f (·) = h(·) − ih(i·) on Y . Then by the real case above, there is a real linear extension H
on Z := Y ⊕ Rv ⊕ iRv of h such that kHk = khk. Now define F : Z −→ C by F (·) := H(·) − iH(i·).
Then F ∈ Z ∗ and F |Y = f . Thus it remains to show that kF k = kf k = 1. It needs to show
that |F (z)| ≤ kzk for all z ∈ Z. Note for z ∈ Z, consider the polar form F (z) = reiθ . Then
F (e−iθ z) = r ∈ R and thus F (e−iθ z) = H(e−iθ z). This yields that
|F (z)| = r = |F (e−iθ z)| = |H(e−iθ z)| ≤ kHkke−iθ zk ≤ kzk.
The proof is finished.
Remark 6.6. Before completing the proof of the Hahn-Banach Theorem, Let us first recall one
of super important results in mathematics, called Zorn’s Lemma, a very humble name. Every
mathematics student should know it.
Zorn’s Lemma: Let X be a non-empty set with a partially order “ ≤ ”. Assume that every totally
order subset C of X has an upper bound, i.e. there is an element z ∈ X such that c ≤ z for all c ∈ C.
Then X must contain a maximal element m, that is, if m ≤ x for some x ∈ X, then m = x.
The following is the typical argument of applying the Zorn’s Lemma.
Theorem 6.7. Hahn-Banach Theorem : Let X be a normed space and let Y be a subspace of
X. If f ∈ Y ∗ , then there exists a linear extension F ∈ X ∗ of f such that kF k = kf k.
Proof. Let X be the collection of the pairs (Y1 , f1 ), where Y ⊆ Y1 is a subspace of X and f1 ∈ Y1∗
such that f1 |Y = f and kf1 kY1∗ = kf kY ∗ . Define a partial order ≤ on X by (Y1 , f1 ) ≤ (Y2 , f2 ) if
Y1 ⊆ Y2 and f2 |Y1 = f1 . Then by the Zorn’s lemma, there is a maximal element (Ye , F ) in X. The
maximality of (Ye , F ) and Lemma 6.5 will give Ye = X. The proof is finished.
Proposition 6.8. Let X be a normed space and x0 ∈ X. Then there is f ∈ X ∗ with kf k = 1 such
that f (x0 ) = kx0 k. Consequently, we have
kx0 k = sup{|g(x)| : g ∈ BX ∗ }.
Also, if x, y ∈ X with x 6= y, then there exists f ∈ X ∗ such that f (x) 6= f (y).
Proof. Let Y = Kx0 . Define f0 : Y → K by f0 (αx0 ) := αkx0 k for α ∈ K. Then f0 ∈ Y ∗ with
kf0 k = kx0 k. So, the result follows from the Hahn-Banach Theorem at once.
Remark 6.9. Proposition 6.8 tells us that the dual space X ∗ of X must be non-zero. Indeed, the
dual space X ∗ is very “Large00 so that it can separate any pair of distinct points in X.
Furthermore, for any normed space Y and any pair of points x1 , x2 ∈ X with x1 6= x2 , we can
find an element T ∈ B(X, Y ) such that T x1 6= T x2 . In fact, fix a non-zero element y ∈ Y . Then
by Proposition 6.8, there is f ∈ X ∗ such that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ). So, if we define T x = f (x)y, then
T ∈ B(X, Y ) as desired.
Proposition 6.10. With the notation as above, if M is closed subspace and v ∈ X \ M , then there
is f ∈ X ∗ such that f (M ) ≡ 0 and f (v) 6= 0.
16 CHI-WAI LEUNG
Proof. Since M is a closed subspace of X, we can consider the quotient space X/M . Let π : X →
X/M be the natural projection. Notice that v̄ := π(v) 6= 0 ∈ X/M because v̄ ∈ X \ M . Then by
Corollary 6.8, there is a non-zero element f¯ ∈ (X/M )∗ such that f¯(v̄) 6= 0. So, the linear functional
f := f¯ ◦ π ∈ X ∗ is as desired.
Remark 6.12. The converse of Proposition 6.11 does not hold. For example, consider X = `1 .
Then `1 is separable but the dual space (`1 )∗ = `∞ is not.
Example 7.2. Let X and Y be the finite dimensional normed spaces. Let (ei )ni=1 and (fj )m j=1 be
∗ ∗
the bases for X and Y respectively. Let θX : X → X and θY : X → Y be the identifications as
in Example 6.2. Let e∗i := θX ei ∈ X ∗ and fj∗ := θY fj ∈ Y ∗ . Then e∗i (el ) = δil and fj∗ (fl ) = δjl ,
where, δil = 1 if i = l; otherwise is 0.
Now if T ∈ B(X, Y ) and (aij )m×n is the representative matrix of T corresponding to the bases
(ei )ni=1 and (fj )m ∗ ∗ ∗ 0
j=1 respectively, then akl = fk (T el ) = T fk (el ). Therefore, if (alk )n×m is the
∗ ∗ ∗ 0
representative matrix of T corresponding to the bases (fj ) and (ei ), then akl = alk . Hence the
transpose (akl )t is the the representative matrix of T ∗ .
Proposition 7.3. For a normed space X, let Q : X −→ X ∗∗ be the canonical map, that is,
Qx(x∗ ) := x∗ (x) for x∗ ∈ X ∗ and x ∈ X. Then Q is an isometry.
17
Proof. Note that for x ∈ X and x∗ ∈ BX ∗ , we have |Q(x)(x∗ )| = |x∗ (x)| ≤ kxk. Then kQ(x)k ≤
kxk.
It remains to show that kxk ≤ kQ(x)k for all x ∈ X. In fact, for x ∈ X, there is x∗ ∈ X ∗ with
kx∗ k = 1 such that kxk = |x∗ (x)| = |Q(x)(x∗ )| by Proposition 6.8. Thus we have kxk ≤ kQ(x)k.
The proof is finished.
Proof. For Part (i), if dim X < ∞, then dim X = dim X ∗∗ . Hence, the canonical map Q : X → X ∗∗
must be surjective.
Part (ii) follows from (`p )∗ = `q for 1 < p < ∞, p1 + 1q = 1.
For Part (iii), notice that c∗∗ 1 ∗ ∗∗
0 = (` ) = ` . Since `
∞ is non-separable but c is separable. So, the
0
∗∗ ∞
canonical map Q from c0 to c0 = ` must not be surjective.
For the case of `1 , we have (`1 )∗∗ = (`∞ )∗ . Since `∞ is non-separable, the dual space (`∞ )∗ is
non-separable by Proposition 6.11. So, `1 6= (`1 )∗∗ .
QY (x0 )(y ∗ ) = y ∗ (x0 ) = x∗ (x0 ) = QX (x0 )(x∗ ) = φ(x∗ ) = y0∗∗ (x∗ |Y ) = y0∗∗ (y ∗ ).
Example 7.8. By using Proposition 7.7, we immediately see that the space `∞ is not reflexive
because it contains a non-reflexive closed subspace c0 .
18 CHI-WAI LEUNG
References
[1] R.G. Bartle and I.D. Sherbert, Introduction to Real Analysis, (4th ed), Wiley, (2011).
[2] J. Muscat, Functional Analysis, Springer, (2014).
[3] H. Royden and P. Fitzpatrick, Real analysis, fourth edition, Pearson, (2010).
[4] W. Rudin. Functional analysis, second edition, McGraw-Hill Inc, (1991).