CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

TEACHER EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Pilar Satellite College

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

Experiences of the Students

Education drives the movement of the social conditions of these changing

times as long as it is implemented in an inclusive manner that will not contribute to the

collective destruction of nations and communities (UNESCO-MGIEP [Mahatma Gandhi

Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development], 2017; United Nations,

2015). In particular, education should be made accessible to everyone regardless of gender

and vulnerabilities. This inclusivity can be actualized by streamlining curriculums and

integrating inclusive educational policies for female students (Bericat & Sánchez Bermejo,

2016; Hsiao-Chin & Shu-Ching, 2014; Karam, 2014). In the Philippines, several steps

have been considered to ensure that all women will get equal access to quality education,

notably the institution of laws that discourage oppression of women, such as the Magna

Carta of Women, Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012, and

Gender Streamlining of Higher Education.

Family and Community Socio-economic Characteristics Research shows that

causes of adolescent pregnancy are rooted in the interplay of many factors. In particular,

family, peer, community, and societal influence are among the major reasons for early

pregnancy of adolescent girls (Asnong et al., 2018; Campere et al., 2014; Fuller et al.,

2018; Krugu et al., 2016; Morón-Duarte et al., 2014; Sámano et al., 2017; Sycharuen et
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al., 2018; Yakubu & Salisu, 2018). Economic and situational circumstances also

discourage young

Causes of student Pregnancy and Childbearing women from early pregnancy due

to the perceived consequences of childbearing (Charlton et al., 2018; Psaki, 2016). Other

precursors of early parenthood include the presence or lack of formal schooling (Almeida

& Aquino, 2011; Devkota et al., 2018; Glynn et al., 2018), parental supervision and

involvement (Copeland, 2017), aggressive behavior and substance abuse (Allen & Walter,

2018), and knowledge of oral contraception (Burr et al., 2013; Caffe et al., 2017).

Problems in Student Parenting

An adolescent with low esteem may not be concerned about avoiding

pregnancy due to the view that there is nothing to lose in case she becomes pregnancy. In

case a girl does not do well in school academically and she expects no good job in future

then nothing can hinder her from getting involved in immoral behavior that leads into

pregnancy. Still the other view is viewed as expected behavior since sexual activity has

always has always closely followed sexual immorality not only in animal species but also

in human society prior twentieth century (O’Donnell and Wyneken, 2017). For teenagers,

the fear of social isolation or rejection is huge. The rejection by their peers may be intense

fear which adolescents face. Despite this, research confirms how crippling this fear can

turn to be, leading to teenager isolation. The same parts of the brain are actually activated

by the physical pain. Due to these, more and more teens tend to choose teenage isolation
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as a means to protect themselves from the rejection as well as pain. Teenagers may choose

to withdraw after a traumatic social experience or rather a breakup. Or if not they may

suffer from social anxiety or lack of social skills (Allan, 2016). In addition, teens isolate

themselves and use technology for connection and distraction which may lead into social

media addiction. From time to time have got to beg their teens to get out of the house and

see their friends instead of the parents holding them back and implementing curfews. A

number of teens tend not to have curfews because they do not go out. In this case, teen

isolation actually makes a teen lonelier. In fact loneliness is common to teens. Teenage

isolation and loneliness also result in a wide range of unhealthy physiological and social

symptoms. Social isolation in teens can be warning sign of depression in teenagers.

Teenage isolation can be an indicator of avoidant personality disorder (Carter and

Coleman, 2016).

Challenges of Pregnant Student’s

Research by Moghadam, Khiaban, Esmaeili and Salsali (2017) on motherhood

challenges and wellbeing along with the studentship role among Iranian women which

purposed to explore and describe the experiences of Iranian female students with the role

of motherhood. The author used purposeful sampling to select twenty student mothers

aged 24 – 50 who were studying at a state or non- state university in an urban area in

northwest Iran. The researcher used individual semi structured interview as an instrument

for data collection and the data collected were analyzed using a qualitative content
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analysis approach. The study revealed that whenever the roles of mother and that of

student overlapped, student mothers made their families and children a priority over their

educational duties. The difference between this study and the present study is that the

present study is on Nigerian women students while this study researched on Iranian

women students. Also, the present study seeks to find the influence of these challenges on

the academic achievement and educational attainment of student mothers in high

institutions.

According to Gaant and Hallman (2016), although, pregnancy and motherhood do

not always interrupt school girls’ education they can introduce a new set of circumstances

that influence future decision related to the girl’s education. In their opinion Chigona and

Chetty (2017) opined that being frequently absent from school results in pregnant students

missing a lot of school work (Lectures, Assignment, Tests etc.). Teenage pregnancy is a

significant public health issue in Nigeria, particularly among in-school adolescents. It is

associated with a range of negative outcomes, including poor academic performance,

higher rates of school dropout, and increased risk of poverty and social exclusion

(National Population Commission, 2019). According to the 2018 Nigeria Demographic

and Health Survey (NDHS), the teenage pregnancy rate in Nigeria is 19%, with a higher

prevalence in rural areas and among less educated and poorer households (National

Population Commission, 2019). The impact of teenage pregnancy on academic

performance has been extensively studied globally, with evidence suggesting that teenage

pregnancy is associated with poor academic outcomes, such as lower grades, increased
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absenteeism, and higher rates of school dropout (Sedgh et al., 2015). In Nigeria, several

studies have also shown a significant association between teenage pregnancy and poor

academic performance (Adepoju et al., 2019; Olugbenga-Bello et al., 2013). It must be

noted that the world is populated by a higher number of teenagers aged 10-19 years, which

comprises about one fifth of the world’s population, equivalent to 1.2 billion” [3]. WHO

report that in 2019, adolescents aged 15–19 years in low- and middle-income countries

(LMICs) had an estimated 21 million pregnancies each year, of which approximately 50%

were unintended (WHO). Many different articles such as the new times published in

January 21, 2015 and Gender Analysis for USAID/Rwanda Learning Enhanced Across

Rwanda Now! ProjecJuly 2014. EXTERNAL VERSION shows how unplanned

pregnancies for female adolescents look like in African countries, and how the affected

persons are being treated after getting that problem in different African societies.

Normally a female person ought to bear when she is beyond 18 years old in Rwanda even

the adolescence period starts from 12-18 years old.

Socio-economic Characteristics

We examined socioeconomic, academic, and health-related factors associated with

respondent reports that childcare interfered with academics. Participants: 176

undergraduate student parents. Methods: We administered a cross-sectional survey to a

representative sample of students at a public university in New York City. Using a sub-set

of those who reported being parents/guardians (n = 176), we conducted bivariate analyses

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to assess factors associated with childcare problems interfering with school. Results:

About 30% of the sample reported that childcare interfered with school

somewhat/moderately/a lot in the last year. Compared to those with no/little perceived

interference, they were significantly more likely to need mental health treatment (30% vs.

13%; p < 0.01), worry that they would run out of food sometimes/often (32% vs. 16%; p <

0.01), and experience housing problems (26% vs. 9%; p < 0.01). Conclusions: Offering

mental healthcare and services addressing food and housing insecurity can help college

students to navigate challenges inherent to being a student parent (Manze, Meredith;

Watnick, Dana; Freudenberg, Nicholas 2023).

Relationships Between Pregnancy on their Academic

Ample evidence exists establishing the relationship between pregnancy during

high school and subsequent educational difficulties, yet little research has investigated the

relationship between pregnancy during college and subsequent educational difficulties.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between pregnancy in

undergraduate college students and educational attainment and to determine the strength

and direction of said relationship. A quantitative research approach composed of historical

medical and retention data was utilized. Vincent Tinto's theory of student departure was

applied to frame the use of experience of pregnancy diagnosis as a variable related to

retention. Findings indicate a negative relationship between pregnancy diagnosis and

educational retention, with specific ages and ethnicities at increased risk. [The dissertation
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citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC (Steinkamp,

Sarah Hope 2017). The finding supports Mailborn's (2015) concern that if teenage mothers

ultimately marry, she will become the primary caretaker and her chances of furthering her

education will be drastically reduced. Day (2015) stated that the effects apply to the

infants; teenage mothers, according to them, face difficulties that extend past birth and are

at a greater risk of developing academic, linguistic, and socioemotional delays, resulting in

their schooling failing to meet the needs of their children in terms of growth and school

readiness. A descriptive survey research was used with an aim to determine the causes and

effects of teenage pregnancy among secondary school students in Local Government Area.

The population of the studies consists of all the female students in all the public secondary

schools in Local Government school Area. In total, there were 5174 of female students for

the 2019/2020 academic session.

Teenage pregnancy is associated with poor maternal and perinatal health

outcomes, and also has a major social and economic impact. Its magnitude and

determinants in Ethiopia are not well understood, therefore the aim of this study was to

assess the prevalence and associated factors of teenage pregnancy among teenagers in

northwest, Ethiopia, 2020. Due to the increased availability and awareness about birth

control measures, teen birth rates continued declining every year and have dropped from

17.4 per 1,000 females in 2018 to 16.7 per 1,000 females in 2019. The consequences of

teenage pregnancy on parents and individuals can have far-reaching effects on their lives,

including their education, career prospects, and overall well-being. Additionally, teenage
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pregnancy is linked to several apprehensions and objections. One of the reasons is that

teen pregnancy has some adverse effects on society, including increasing the burden on

various family members of the teen to raise the teen and their child. Hence, you should

follow practical measures to prevent teenage pregnancy by promoting sex education and

abstinence in the young generation, to reduce the educational and economic consequences

of teenage pregnancy. The teenage pregnancy rate in the Philippines was 10%in 2008,

down to 9% in 2017. Live births by teenage mothers (aged 10-19) in 2016 totaled

203,085, which slightly decreased to 196,478 in 2017 and 183,000 in 2018. Still, the

Philippines has one of the highest adolescent birth rates among the ASEAN Member

States. The 2015 Baseline Study on Violence Against Children also reinforced this and

further highlighted that verbal insistence and emotional blackmail are the usual forms of

sexual coercion in dating relationships. UNFPA supports the core commitments of the

2019 Declaration on Addressing the Education, Health and Development Issues of Early

Pregnancy in the Philippines during the Kapit Kamay Teen Summit organized by DepEd,

DOH, and NEDA in August 2019. A whole-of-government approach is required to

actualize the commitments of Kapit Kamay to ensure that all young Filipinos and Filipinas

are empowered to make informed and responsible decisions. Face to face in-depth semi-

structured interviews were conducted with 16 Iranian teenage mothers in the Kerman

province of Iran from March to December 2016. Role Conflict had appeared in numerous

forms in adolescent mothers. They were wandering between two worlds. One of these was

the conflict between motherhood and being a student. School rules were in conflict with
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the tasks of motherhood that created a conflict between childcare and meet the

expectations of school. Barmao-Kiptanui et al (2015) stated that childcare will prevent

teenagers from going to school and sometimes they are forced to drop out of school.

Participant of this study also faced with the conflict between the roles of mothering and

adolescence. They were interested in independence and self-centeredness but in order to

meet the child's needs they had to rely on others. They, although were became a mother

but tended to take risk and were not interested in caution. Bah (2016) showed that teenage

mothers experience serious conflicts between motherhood- image and Self-image. Many

teenage mothers do not pay attention to prenatal care and refer less to health centers. This

can cause low birth weight, iron deficiency anemia and dystocia. High-risk behaviors such

as substance abuse and smoking are higher among adolescents.

Pregnant Student Experiences

Brons (2015) defines othering as ‘the simultaneous construction of the self, or in-

group, and the other, or out-group, in mutual and unequal opposition. This is achieved

through the identification of some desirable characteristic that the in-group has, and the

other/out-group lacks, and some undesirable characteristic that the other/out-group has and

the in-group lacks (Brons 2015: 70). In this case, young mothers interviewed act as the in-

group, through their perception that it is desirable to have planned a pregnancy whilst

considering vital aspects such as housing, education, and employment before embarking

on parenthood. They cast the other/outgroup, as undesirable, having embarked on

parenthood in an unplanned, reckless and irresponsible manner. This is particularly

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relevant in a climate of austerity, where formal support is being ‘rolled back’ and

informal, friendship networks are being mobilized to support young mothers (Ellis-Sloan

and Tamplin 2018). The evidence here suggests that it is not appropriate to rely simply on

informal networks; friendship groups can offer valuable support, however it is the quality

of the friendships (rather than quantity) that is important here. In addition, it is important

to note that skilled formal support can bring with it a critical awareness of the prejudice’s

young mothers face from broader social structures; in other words, supporting young

mothers also requires, in addition to informal networks, professional and formal support,

information and advice. What is needed therefore, is a broad mixture of both informal and

formal support; in addition to spaces and opportunities to develop and engage with

informal networks (Ellis-Sloan and Tamplin 2018), on-going investment is needed to

provide young mothers with access to skilled, formal support.

Educational Attainment

Feelings of responsibility among teachers and parents in the context of health,

early pregnancy among middle school students is a public health problem and a concern of

everyone, including parents, teachers, and students (Sciacca et al., 2021). Students’ risk

behaviors like an early debut and unsafe sex are practiced at school and out of school (i.e.,

in homes), so the consequences of these risky behaviors are experienced (i.e., poor

academic performance; Cohen-Gilbert et al., 2015). However, similar to other student

behavior forms, literature has suggested that teachers and parents do not always feel
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automatically responsible for changing the situation (Dobson and Ringrose, 2016; Green

et al., 2017). Some teachers may feel they have full responsibility (Mura et al., 2014),

while others feel being concerned about students’ behaviors outside of school would mean

overstepping the school authority (Young et al., 2017). In some cases, the schools blame

the victims of risky behavior or early pregnancy (Jørgensen et al., 2019). With this

approach, teachers may avoid working with the victim or students’ parents toward solving

the problem. We may hypothesize from this theoretical background that teachers’ feelings

of responsibility toward pregnancy among middle school students are different from that

of parents (H1). Mental health disorders are very common in adolescent with one in four

or five teenagers suffering from a disorder. Low social economic status is associated with

the development of mental disorders in children and adolescents. For those living in

poverty they are more exposed to stressful circumstances such as indulging in sexual

immorality. Overtime as children mature, children mature the effects really become more

deleterious. For the adolescents, impaired mental health early sexual activity and teenage

pregnancy are associated with living in poor neighborhood (Grant and Hallman, 2018).

Psychology Effects

According to literature, choices in resolving issues of adolescent pregnancy

revolve around three options: parenthood, abortion, and adoption (Derlan et al., 2018;

Gama Ibiapina et al., 2016; Gomez-Scott & Cooney, 2014; Lohan et al., 2013; Mann et

al., 2015; Mokwena et al., 2016;). These options are guided by personal, religious, filial,
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and educational orientation (Bell et al., 2013; Biney & Nyarko, 2017; Challa et al., 2017;

Chi Watts et al., 2015; Loke & Lam, 2014; Ndjukendi et al., 2017; Shahabuddin et al.,

2017).

There are several implications to early pregnancy. Physically, it affects the

adolescent mother because the pregnancy stresses both her body and the growing baby

(Jeha et al., 2015; KansuCelice et al., 2017; Loto et al., 2009; Pauli et al., 2013; Pires et

al., 2014; Sokulmez & Ozenoglu, 2013; Xavier et al., 2018). Socially, adolescent

pregnancy results in significant changes to family roles and to community functioning

(Annang et al., 2014; Aparicio et al., 2016; Dalton, 2015; Epstein et al., 2018; Hindin,

2014; Kleine, 2005; Shpiegel & Cascardi, 2018; Yussif et al., 2017). Educationally,

teenage pregnancy poses difficulties to students as parenting roles can sometimes come

into conflict with academic tasks (Almeida & Aquino, 2011; Glynn et al., 2018; Kleine,

2005). Ultimately, social stigma arises, further complicating the already complex

circumstances the adolescent mother has to deal with (Banerjee et al., 2009; The National

Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2002). Interspersing the literature, the findings of

this research were understood in the lens of Parson’s theory of Adaptation, Goal

Attainment, Integration, and Latency or the AGIL model (1970). The majority of research

cited was quantitative in nature and failed to explain the whole phenomenon of adolescent

pregnancy. The interplay of the many factors and stories leading to young motherhood

were not documented properly and adequately. The meaning of the teenage pregnancy
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experience was reduced in richness because of the quantitative understanding of it. This is

the reason why a more nuanced exploration of this issue is needed moving forward.

Psychological impact of Pregnancy

Most of the girls affected drop out of school. According to Güneş (2016, p.260),

early pregnancies have a psychological impact on teenage girls. Failure to implement

corrective measures for dealing with the same has in the past contributed to the rise of the

cases worldwide. Effects of the vice on an educational system include the segregation of

victims, a decline in academic performance, and an increase in dropouts. Compared to

advanced nations that schools in developing countries are worst affected by issues of

teenage pregnancy. There are many reasons to rise in cases of early pregnancy. Firstly, the

high poverty rates are to blame for the rapid rise in cases of early pregnancy. Schools

provide an effective environment that can help in addressing the issue. However, obstacles

such as culture and lack of adequate resources limit the educational facilities in most of

the developing economies from mitigating the social vice.

Psychological Factor

Anderson (2017) stated that children are sexually un-educated and the mothers in

their view have just not done their job, such that we need professionals to do the right

things. He further stated that teaching sex education to young children and adolescents

will reduce the number of teenage pregnancies. Teenage parents often seem not to have
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financial resources to take care of their babies. And owing to this fiscal constraint, teen

mothers appear to be at high risk. According to Igba (2015), “the financial strain and

psychological trauma to which some single parents are subjected to could impede their

capabilities to cater for their children's well-being adequately”. Furthermore, both parents

and business people seem to give more attention to acquiring wealth than they do to their

parental duties towards moral upbringing of their children. And as a result of this, many

female teenagers have been led astray by the influence of the peers at school, and the

resultant effect is the pregnancy that is not important. Egbo (2019) observed that the get-

rich-quick syndrome had affected the all-important need by youths to get through the

tripartite education system.

In his view, Okolie (2015) emphasized that sex education should not be paid lip-

service to make headway against this ugly situation and lessen the rate of teenage

pregnancy. According to him, Sex-educated teens often appear to be safe from the

consequences of early pregnancy and other marathon adolescent complications. According

to Efiong (2016) asserted that most teenage abortion is intentional. When abortion is

intentional, it can cause a problem for the woman and if a couple is unable to have a child,

and then abortion can cause unhappiness. Reports revealed cases of maternal morbidity

and mortality during such years are due primarily to unsafe abortion because of infections

and illnesses. The Pedagogic emphasis as could be deducted from the citation is that both

induced and intentional abortion is detrimental to health. According to the United Nations

Population Fund (UNFPA) rural teenage girls are at a higher risk of getting pregnant than
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their urban counterparts and this is attributed to the fact that rural teenage girls only have

primary-level education, while girls in urban areas are better educated. Apart from the

academic factor, the report also said some girls do not know how to avoid falling

pregnant, while others feel shy or are ashamed to access contraceptives.

Synthesis

The experiences of pregnant college students involve a delicate balance of

academic pursuits, emotional challenges, and adjustments to their plans and goals. Each

student's journey is unique, and their ability to navigate these challenges depends on their

individual circumstances and support systems.

As long as education is applied inclusively and does not contribute to the collective

collapse of states and societies, it is the engine driving force behind the shifting social

conditions of our day (UNESCO-MGIEP [Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for

Peace and Sustainable Development], 2017; United Nations, 2015). Access to education

should be guaranteed to all individuals, irrespective of their gender or vulnerabilities.

Simplifying curricula and incorporating inclusive educational policies for female students

are two ways to make this inclusivity a reality (Bericat & Sánchez Bermejo, 2016; Hsiao-

Chin & Shu-Ching, 2014; Karam, 2014).