Chapter 6 : Economic Reforms Since 1991

Topics to study:
 6.1 Why were Economic Reforms
Introduced?
 6.2 Liberalisation
 6.3 Privatisation
 6.4 Globalisation
 6.5 Demonetisation
 6.6 Goods and Services Tax (GST)
 6.7 Impact of LPG policies

Mr. Nitin Choudhary

 6.1 Why were Economic Reforms
Introduced?
The government was not able to generate sufficient revenues from
internal sources such as taxation. The income from public sector
undertakings (PSUs) was also not very high. (In fact, many PSUs were
incurring losses.)

Even though the revenues were very low, the government had to spend
more to meet challenges like unemployment, poverty and population
explosion. The government was also spending a large share of its income
on areas which do not provide immediate returns such as the social
sector and nationaldefense.
At times, our foreign exchange*, borrowed from other countries and international
financial institutions, was spent on meeting consumption needs. In the late 1980s,
government expenditure began to exceed its revenue by such large margins that
meeting the expenditure through borrowings became unsustainable. Prices of many
essential goods rose sharply. Imports grew at a very high rate without matching
growth of exports. Foreign exchange reserves declined to a level that was not
adequate to finance imports for more than two weeks. There was also not sufficient
foreign exchange to pay the interest that needs to be paid to international lenders.
Also no country or international funder was willing to lend to India.
India approached the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD), popularly known as World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
and received $7 billion as loan to manage the crisis. For availing the loan, these
international agencies expected India to liberalise and open up the economy by
removing restrictions on the private sector, reduce the role of the government in many
areas and remove trade restrictions between India and other countries. India agreed
to the conditionality's of World Bank and IMF and announced the New Economic
Policy (NEP) in 1991. The NEP consisted of wide ranging economic reforms.

*Foreign exchange means any currency other than the domestic currency, e.g. dollars
The thrust of the policies was towards creating a more competitive environment in the
economy and removing the barriers to entry and growth of firms.
The set of policies can broadly be classified into two groups: the stabilisation measures
and the structural reform measures.
Stabilisation measures are short-term measures, intended to correct the balance of
payments* position and to bring inflation under control. In simple words, stabilisation
measures aimed at maintaining sufficient foreign exchange reserves and keeping the
rising prices undercontrol.
Structural reform policies are long-term measures, aimed at improving the efficiency of
the economy and increasing its international competitiveness by removing the rigidities
in various segments of the Indian economy. These include liberalisation, privatisation
and globalisation.
* Balance of payments is a country’s statement which shows the inflows and outflows
of foreign exchange during a fiscal year
 6.2 Liberalisation
Liberalisation means freeing the Indian businesses and industries from
unnecessary controls and restrictions.

Liberalisation was introduced to put an end to these controls and

restrictions, and open various sectors of the economy. Though a few
liberalisation measures were introduced in 1980s in areas of industrial
licensing, export- import policy, technology up gradation, fiscal policy
and foreign investment, reform policies initiated in 1991 were more
comprehensive covering some important areas, such as the industrial
sector, financial sector, tax reforms, foreign exchange markets and trade
and investment sectors.
 Prior to reforms, in India regulatory mechanisms were
enforced in variousways:
1. Industrial licensing under which every entrepreneur had to get
permission from government officials to start a firm, close a firm
or decide the amount of goods that could be produced.

2. Private sectorwas not allowed in many industries.

3. Some goods could be produced only in small- scale industries.

4. Controls on price fixation and distribution of selected industrial

products. The reform policies introduced in and after 1991
removed many of these restrictions.
(1) Industrial Sector Reforms
(i) Abolition of Industrial Licensing: In July 1991, a new industrial policy was
announced. It abolished the requirement of licensing except for the following
five industries: (a) liquor, (b) cigarette, (c) defence equipment's, (d) industrial
explosives, and (e) dangerous chemicals.

(ii) Contraction of Public Sector: Under the new industrial policy, number of
industries reserved for public sector was reduced from17 to 8. In 2010-11, the
number of these industries was reduced merely' to two: (1) Atomic energy, and
(2) Railways.

(iii) De-reservation of Production Areas: Many production areas which earlier

were reserved for SSI (small-scale industries) were de-reserved. Forces of the
market were allowed to determine allocation of resources (rather than the
directive policy of the government).
(iv) Expansion of production capacity: earlier production capacity was linked
with licensing. Now, freedom from licensing implied freedom from capacity
constraints. 'What to produce and how much to produce was now a matter
of producer's choice depending on market conditions.

(v) Freedom to Import Capital Goods: Liberalisation also implied freedom for
the industrialists to import capital goods with a view to upgrading their
technology. Permission was no longer required from the government to
enter into international agreements for the import of technology
2. Financial Sector Reforms
Financial sector includes financial institutions, such as commercial banks,
investment banks, stock exchange operations and foreign exchangemarket.
The financial sector in India is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
The RBI decides the Cash Reserve Ratio (the fraction of deposits that
commercial banks must keep as cash reserves with the RBI), Statutory Liquidity
Ratio ( the fraction of deposits that commercial banks must keep with
themselves), Bank Rate (the rate of interest at which commercial banks can
borrow from RBI),etc.
One of the major aims of financial sector reforms is to reduce the role of RBI
from regulator to facilitator of financial sector. This means that the financial
sector may be allowed to take decisions on many matters without consulting
the RBI.
However, certain managerial aspects have been retained with the RBI to
safeguard the interests of the account-holders and the nation.

1. The reform policies led to the establishment of private sector banks

— both Indian as well as foreign banks.
2. Foreign investment limit in banks was raised to around 50 per
cent.
3. Those banks which fulfil certain conditions have been given
freedom to set up new branches without the approval of the RBI
and rationalise their existing branch networks.
4. Banks have been given permission to generate resources from India
and abroad.
5. Foreign Institutional Investors (FII), such as merchant bankers,
mutual funds and pension funds, are now allowed to invest in
Indian financial markets.
3. Fiscal/Tax Reforms
Tax reforms are concerned with the reforms in the government’s taxation and public
expenditure policies, which are collectively known as its fiscalpolicy.
Reduction in taxes
Since 1991, there has been a continuous reduction in the taxes on individual
incomes as it was felt that high rates of income tax were an important reason for
tax evasion. It is now widely accepted that moderate rates of income tax encourage
savings and voluntary disclosure of income.
Similarly, the rate of corporation tax, which was very high earlier, has been gradually
reduced.

Simplification of Indirect taxes: In order to encourage better compliance on the

part of taxpayers many procedures have been simplified and the rates also
substantially lowered. Recently, the Parliament passed a law, Goods and Services
Tax Act 2016, to simplify and introduce a unified indirect tax system in India. This
law came into effect from July 2017. This is expected to generate additional revenue
for the government, reduce tax evasion and create ‘one nation, one tax and one
market’.
On the Basis of Incidence and Impact of Taxes:

> Direct Taxes: The individuals directly pay these taxes to the respective
governments. In this case the both Incidence and Impact will fall in a
single person, i.e. an assesse. The most notable examples include
Income tax, Capital gains tax, Corporate tax, Wealth Tax and Securities
transaction tax.

> Indirect Taxes: These taxes are not directly paid to the governments
but are collected by the intermediaries who sell or arrange products
and services. In this case, the Incidence and impact of taxes will fall on
two different persons. GST (Goods and Service Tax), Service tax, sales
tax, customs duty, value-added tax, and excise duty, customs duty, are
some of the top examples
4. External sector reforms:
a. Foreign Exchange Reforms:
Devaluation of rupee: In 1991, as an immediate measure to resolve the
balance of payments crisis, the rupee was devalued against foreign
currencies.
Devaluation of rupee means deliberate increase in foreign exchange rate by
the government, making the domestic currency (rupee) cheaper.
Devaluation led to an increase in exports and thus, the inflow of foreign
exchange.
Foreign exchange deregulation: It means freeing the determination of
foreign exchange rate from government control.
Foreign exchange rate means the price of one currency in terms of another.
Now, more often, exchange rates are determined in the foreign exchange
market based on the demand and supply of foreign exchange. However, RBI
may intervene to control high exchange ratefluctuations.
b. Trade and Investment Policy Reforms
In order to protect domestic industries, India was following a regime of
quantitative restrictions on imports. This was encouraged through tight
control over imports and by keeping the tariffs very high. These policies
reduced efficiency and competitiveness which led to slow growth of
the manufacturingsector.
The trade policyreforms aimed at
(i) dismantling of quantitative restrictions on imports and exports,
(ii) reduction of tariff rates and
(iii) removal of licensing procedures for imports.
 6.3 Privatisation
Privatisation means giving greater role to the private sector in the nation
building process and a reduced role to the public sector.
Privatisation implies shedding of the ownership or management of a
government ownedenterprise.

Government companies are convertedinto private companies in twoways:

(i) by withdrawal of the government from ownership and management of
public sector undertakings (PSUs) and or
(ii) by outright sale ofPSUs.

Privatisation of PSUs by selling off part of the equity of PSUs to the public is
known as disinvestment. The purpose of disinvestment was mainly to
improve financial discipline and facilitate modernisation
Advantages of Privatisation and Disinvestment

• It was envisaged that private capital and managerial capabilities could

be effectively utilised to improve the performance of the PSUs.
• The government envisaged that privatisation could provide strong
impetus to the inflow ofFDI.
Navratnas and Public Enterprise Policies
In order to improve efficiency, infuse professionalism and enable them to
compete more effectively in the liberalised global environment, the government
identifies PSUs and declare them as maharatnas, navratnas and mininavratnas.
They were given greater managerial and operational autonomy, in taking various
decisions to run the company efficiently and thus increase their profits. Greater
operational, financial and managerial autonomy has also been granted to profit-
making enterprises referred to as mininavratnas
In 2011, about 90 public enterprises were designated with different status.
A few examples of public enterprises with their status are as follows
• Maharatnas
• Indian Oil Corporation Limited
• Steel Authority of India Limited
• Navratnas
• Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
• Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited
• Mininavratnas
• Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
• Airport Authority of India
 6.4 Globalisation
Globalisation is the outcome of the policies of liberalisation and
privatisation.
Globalisation means an integration of the economy of the country
with the world economy. However, globalisation is a complex
phenomenon.
• It is an outcome of the set of various policies that are aimed at
transforming the world towards greater interdependence and
integration.
• It involves creation of networks and activities transcending
economic, social and geographical boundaries.
• It is turning the world into one whole or creating a borderless world.
Policy strategies promoting globalisation of Indian economy:
1. Increase in equity limit of foreign investment: equity limit of foreign capital investment has been
raised from initial 40%, it now ranges between 51 to 100 percent.
export trading houses have also been allowed foreign capital investment up to 100%. However
foreign exchange management act (FEMA) has been enforced.

2. Partial convertibility of Rupee: it refers to sale and purchase of foreign currency at market prices,
it was allowed for following transactions:
I. Import and export of goods and services
II. Payment of interest or dividend on investment
III. Remittances to meet family expenses.

3. Long term trade policy: foreign trade policy e was enforced for a longer duration of nearly five
years implying it is a liberal policy. All the restrictions relating to foreign trade were removed to
encourage for open competition.

4. Reduction in tariff: to promote competition tariff barriers have been withdrawn on most goods
traded between India and rest of the world.

5. Withdrawal of quantitative restrictions: after 2001 quantitative restrictions on all import items
have been totally withdrawn as per India's commitment to World Trade organisation
Positive effects ofglobalisation:
1. Greater access to globalmarkets
2. High technology
3. Increased possibility of large industries of developing countries to become
important players in the international arena.

Negative effects ofglobalisation:

1. Globalisation is a strategy of the developed countries to expand their markets in
other countries. It has compromised the welfare and identity of people
belonging to poorcountries.
2. Market-driven globalisation has widened the economic disparities among
nations andpeople.
3. It has increased the income and quality of consumption of only high-income
groups and the growth has been concentrated only in some select areas in the
services sector such as telecommunication, information technology, finance,
entertainment, travel and hospitality services, real estate and trade, rather than
vital sectors such as agriculture and industry which provide livelihoods to
millionsof people in the country.
 Outsourcing:
Outsourcing is one of the important outcomes of the globalisation process.
In outsourcing, a company hires regular service from external sources, mostly
from other countries, which was previously provided internally or from within
the country (like legal advice, computer service, advertisement, security, etc.).
As a form of economic activity, outsourcing has intensified, in recent times,
because of the growth of fast modes of communication, particularly the growth
of Information Technology (IT).
Many of the services such as voice-based business processes (popularly known
as BPO or call centres), record keeping, accountancy, banking services, music
recording, film editing, book transcription, clinical advice or even teaching are
being outsourced by multi- national companies to India, where they can be
availed at a cheaper cost with reasonable degree of skill and accuracy.
The low wage rates and availability of skilled manpower in India have made it a
destination for global outsourcing in the post-reform period.
With the help of modern telecommunication links including the Internet, the
text, voice and visual data in respect of these services is digitised and
transmitted in real time over continents and nationalboundaries.
• Information Technology (IT): • BPO: voice-based business
Major Companies processes services
 World Trade Organisation (WTO)

The WTO was founded in 1995 as the successor organisation to the

General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT). GATT was established in
1948 with 23 countries as the global trade organisation to administer all
multilateral trade agreements by providing equal opportunities to all
countries in the international market for trading purposes.
 6.5 Demonetisation
Demonetisation was a new initiative taken by the Government of India in 8
November 2016 to tackle the problem of corruption, black money, terrorism and
circulation of fake currency in theeconomy.
Old currency notes of `500, and `1000 were no longer legal tender. New currency
notes in the denomination of `500 and `2000 were launched.
The public were advised to deposit old currency notes in their bank account till 31
December 2016 without any declaration and up to 31 March 2017 with the RBI
with declaration.
Further to avoid a complete breakdown and cash crunch, notes government had
allowed exchange of `4000 old currency the by new currency per person and per
day. Further till 12 December 2016, old currency notes were acceptable as legal
tender at petrol pumps, government hospitals and for payment of government dues,
like taxes, power bills,etc.
This move received both appreciation and criticism. There were long queues
outside banks and ATM booths. The shortage of currency in circulation had an
adverse impact on the economic activities. However, things improved with time and
normalcy returned.
 6.6 Goods and Services Tax (GST)
The Parliament passed a law, Goods and Services Tax Act, 2016, to simplify
and introduce a unified indirect tax system in India. This law came into
effect from 1 July 2017. Aim:
• To generate additional revenue for the government;
• To reduce tax evasion;and
• To create ‘one nation, one tax and one market’.
GST is applicable throughout the country with one rate for one type of
goods/service. Under GST, there are 5 (five) standard rates applied, i.e. 0%, 5%,
12%, 18% and 28% on supply of all goods and services across thecountry.
Five petroleum products have been kept out of GST for the time being but with the
passage of time, they will get subsumed in GST. State Government will continue to
levy VAT on alcoholic liquor for human consumption. Tobacco and tobacco
products will attract both GST and Central Excise Duty.
 6.7 Impact of LPG policies:
• Positive Impact of the LPG Policies: • Negative Impact of the LPG Policies:
(i) Virbrant economy, (i) Neglect of agriculture,
(ii) Stimulant to industrial production, (ii) Urban concentration of growth
(iii) A check on fiscal deficit, process,
(iv) A check on inflation, (iii) Economic colonialism,
(v) Spread of consumer's sovereignty, (iv) Spread of consumerism,
(vi) A substantial increase in foreign (v) Lopsided growth process,
exchange reserves, (vi) Cultural erosion.
(vii)Flow of private foreign investment,
(viii)Recognition of India as an emerging
economic power,
(ix) A shift from monopoly market to
competitive market.
CONCLUSION: The process of globalisation through liberalisation & privatisation policies has
produced positive, as well as negative results both for India & other countries. Some scholars
argue that globalisation should be seen as an opportunity in terms of greater access to
global markets, high technology and increased possibility of large industries of developing
countries to become important players in the internationalarena.
On the contrary, the critics argue that globalisation is a strategy of the developed countries to
expand their markets in other countries. According to them, it has compromised the welfare
and identity of people belonging to poor countries. It has further been pointed out that
market-driven globalisation has widened the economic disparities among nations & people.
Viewed from the Indian context, some studies have stated that the crisis that erupted in the
early 1990s was basically an outcome of the deep-rooted inequalities in Indian society and
the economic reform policies initiated as a response to the crisis by the government, with
externally advised policy package, further aggravated the inequalities. Further, it has
increased the income and quality of consumption of only high-income groups and the
growth has been concentrated only in some select areas in the services sector such as
telecommunication, information technology, finance, entertainment, travel and hospitality
services, real estate and trade, rather than vital sectors such as agriculture and industry
which provide livelihoods to millions of people in the country.
Sequence of Events
Sequence Event Year Purpose/Objective
I Establishment of General 1948 To administer all multilateral trade agreements by
Agreement onTrade and Tariff providing equal opportunities to all countries in
(GATT) with 23 countries as the international market for trading purposes.
the global trade organisation

II New Economic Policy To liberalise and open up the economy by

(NEP) – Liberalisation, 1991 removing restrictions on the private sector,
Privatisation and reduce the role of the government in many areas
Globlisation was and remove trade restrictions between India and
announced by the other countries.
Government of India
III World Trade Organisation 1995 • To enlarge production and trade of services, to
(WTO) was founded as the ensure optimum utilisation of world resources
successor organisation to the and to protect the environment.
GATT. • To facilitate internati- onal trade (bilateral and
multilateral) through removal of tariff as well
as non- tariff barriers and providing greater
market access to all member countries.
IV Government of India fully removed To increase the competitive
quantitative restrictions on position of Indian goods in the
imports of manufactured April international market.
consumer goods and agricultural 2001
products.

V Demonetisation of To tackle the problemof

Currency by the Government corruption, black mon- ey,
8 Nov.
of India terrorism and circu- lation of fake
2016
currency in the economy.

VI The Parliament passed a law, Goods • To simplify and intro- duce a

and Services Tax (GST) Act 2016, unified indirect tax system in
which came into effect in India India.
from: • To generate additional revenue
1 July for the gover- nment; reduce
2017 tax evasion and create ‘one
nation, one tax and one market’.
 Thank you

Any Questions?