UNIT – 3

Feedback Amplifier

 An amplifier circuit simply increases the signal strength. But while amplifying, it just increases the strength of
its input signal whether it contains information or some noise along with information.
 This noise or some disturbance is introduced in the amplifiers because of their strong tendency to introduce
hum due to sudden temperature changes or stray electric and magnetic fields.
 Therefore, every high gain amplifier tends to give noise along with signal in its output, which is very
undesirable.
 The noise level in the amplifier circuits can be considerably reduced by using negative feedback done by
injecting a fraction of output in phase opposition to the input signal.

Types of Feedback

1. Positive Feedback 2. Negative Feedback

1. Positive or regenerate feedback:

In positive feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or currents), is in phase with the input signal and thus aids it.
Positive feedback increases gain of the amplifier also increases distortion, noise and instability.

Because of these disadvantages, positive feedback is seldom employed in amplifiers

2. Negative or Degenerate feedback

 In negative feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or current), is out of phase with the input signal and thus
opposes it.
 Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier. It also reduce distortion, noise and instability.
 This feedback increases bandwidth and improves input and output impedances.
 Due to these advantages, the negative feedback is frequently used in amplifiers.
 Principle of Feedback amplifier

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts-

amplifier and the feedback circuit

 From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A.

 the gain of the amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. The feedback network
extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.
 This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the signal voltage Vs.

Vi= Vs+ Vf = Vs+ βVo

Vi= Vs− Vf = Vs− βV
The quantity β = Vf / Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction
the gain of the amplifier with feedback is given by –
Af =A/(1+Aβ)

Feedback Circuit
 The function of the feedback circuit is to return a fraction of the output voltage to the input of the amplifier.
Figure shows the feedback circuit of negative voltage feedback amplifier.
 It is essentially a potential divider consisting of resistances R1 and R2 .
 The output voltage of the amplifier is fed to this potential divider which gives the feedback voltage to the input.

*(mv – milli volt)

Importance of Negative feedback -

1. Gain Stability

An important advantage of negative voltage feedback is that the resultant gain of the amplifier can be made
independent of transistor parameters or the supply voltage variations

Af =A/(1+Aβ)

For negative voltage feedback in an amplifier to be effective, the designer deliberately makes the product Aβ much
greater than unity. Therefore, in the above relation, ‘1’ can be neglected as compared to Aβ and the expression
becomes –
Af = A/(1+Aβ) = 1/β
It may be seen that the gain now depends only upon feedback fraction, β, i.e., on the characteristics of feedback
circuit.

2. Distortion

A power amplifier will have non-linear distortion because of large signal variations. The negative feedback reduces
the nonlinear distortion.

Using following equation - Df = D/(1+Aβ)

D = distortion in amplifier without feedback
Df = distortion in amplifier with negative feedback
It is clear that by applying negative feedback, the distortion is reduced by a factor (1+Aβ)

3. Noise
“noise" refers to any unwanted or random electrical signals or disturbances that are added to the desired amplified
signal. These unwanted signals can degrade the quality of the amplified output

The noise N can be reduced by the factor of (1+Aβ), in a similar manner to non-linear distortion, so that the noise
with feedback is given by - Nf = N/(1+Aβ)

Feedback Amplifier Topologies

There are four basic amplifier topologies for connecting the feedback signal. Both the current as well as voltage can
be feedback toward the input in series otherwise in parallel.
1. Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier 2.Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier
3. Current Series Feedback Amplifier 4. Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier
1. Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier
In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage can be applied to the input voltage in series through the feedback
circuit.
When the feedback circuit is allied in shunt through the output, then the o/p impedance will be reduced and the i/p
impedance is enlarged because of the series connection with the input.

2. Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage can be applied to the input voltage in parallel with through the
feedback circuit.
the feedback circuit is located in shunt by means of the output as well as the input.
When the feedback circuit is allied in shunt through the o/p as well as the input, then both the o/p impedance & the
i/p impedance will be decreased

3. Current Series Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage is applied to the i/p voltage in series through the feedback
circuit.
The feedback circuit is located in series by means of the output as well as the input.

When the feedback circuit is allied in series through the o/p as well as the input, then both the
o/p impedance & the i/p impedance will be increased.

4. Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage is applied to the i/p voltage in shunt through the feedback
circuit.
The feedback circuit is located in shunt by means of the output as well as the input.

When the feedback circuit is allied in series through the o/p however in parallel with the input, then the
o/p impedance will be increased & because of the parallel connection with the i/p, the i/p impedance will be
decreased.

Amplifier Characteristic

The amplifier characteristics which are affected by various negative feedback are listed in the following
table.

Feedback Topology Input Resistance Output Resistance

Voltage Series Increases Decreases
Rif = Ri*(1+A*β)
Rof=Ro/(1+A*β)
Current Series Increases Increases
Rif = Ri*(1+A*β)
Rof = Ro*(1+A*β)
Current Shunt Decreases Increases
Rif = Ri/(1+A*β)
Rof = Ro*(1+A*β)
Voltage Shunt Decreases Decreases
Rif = Ri*(1+A*β)
Rof=Ro/(1+A*β)
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 The amplifier’s gain can be stabilized by the negative feedback
 The particular feedback configurations can be increased by the input resistance.
 Output resistance will be decreased for particular feedback configurations.
 The operating point is stabilized.
 The disadvantage of this amplifier is a gain reduction.

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

 An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is known as a sin. oscillator.
 An oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic signal.
 If the oscillator produces sinusoidal oscillations, it is called as a sinusoidal oscillator.
 It converts the input energy from a DC source into an AC output energy of a periodic signal.
 This periodic signal will be having a specific frequency and amplitude.
 An oscillator generates output without any ac input signal
 It receives d.c. energy and changes it into a.c. energy of desired frequency.
 an alternator cannot produce high frequency oscillations whereas an oscillator can produce oscillations
ranging from a few Hz to several MHz

Advantages Although oscillations can be produced by mechanical devices (e.g. alternators), but electronic
oscillators have the following advantages :

 An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little wear and tear and hence longer life.
 Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is quite silent.
 An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely high frequencies (> 100 MHz).
 The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
 It has good frequency stability i.e. frequency once set remains constant for a considerable period of time.
 high efficiency.

Amplifier v/s Oscillator

 An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied, whereas an oscillator generates a signal
without that input signal, but it requires dc for its operation

 The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of a.c. power generated by an amplifier, is controlled by the a.c.
signal voltage applied at the input
 for an oscillator these are controlled by the components in the circuit itself, which means no external
controlling voltage is required.
 Oscillatory Circuit

 A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is known as an oscillatory circuit or tank
circuit
 A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and inductance coil (L) in parallel
 This electrical system can produce electrical oscillations of frequency determined by the values of L and C

Fig (i) the upper plate of capacitor has deficit of electrons and the lower plate has excess of electrons. Therefore,
there is a voltage across the capacitor and the capacitor has electrostatic energy.

Fig (ii) When switch S is closed, the capacitor will discharge through inductance and the electron flow will be in the
direction indicated by the arrow. the capacitor will discharge through inductance and the electron flow will be in the
direction indicated by the arrow. electrostatic energy across the capacitor is completely converted into magnetic
field energy around the coil.

Fig (iii) Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse and produce a counter e.m.f.
According to Lenz's law, the counter e.m.f. will keep the current flowing in the same direction. The result is
that the capacitor is now charged with opposite polarity, making upper plate of capacitor negative and lower
plate positive
Fig (iv) After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now begins to discharge; current now
flowing in the opposite direction

 The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons or an oscillating current. The
energy is alternately stored in the electric field of the capacitor (C) and the magnetic field of the inductance
coil (L). This interchange of energy between L and C is repeated over and again resulting in the production of
oscillations

Waveform

Damped Oscillations 
If there were no losses in the tank circuit to consume
the energy, the interchange of energy between L and C
would continue indefinitely. In a practical tank circuit,
there are resistive and radiation losses in the coil and
dielectric losses in the capacitor
 Frequency of Oscillation

The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is determined by the constants of the circuit viz L and C

 It is clear that frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is inversely proportional to L and C.
 If a large value of capacitor is used, it will take longer for the capacitor to charge fully and also longer to
discharge. This will lengthen the period of oscillations in the tank circuit, or equivalently lower its frequency.
 With a large value of inductance, the opposition to change in current flow is greater and hence the time
required to complete each cycle will be longer. Therefore, the greater the value of inductance, the longer is
the period or the lower is the frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit.

Undamped Oscillations

In order to make the oscillations in the tank circuit undamped, it is necessary to supply correct amount of energy to
the tank circuit at the proper time intervals to meet the losses

Therefore, in order to make the oscillations in the tank circuit undamped, the following conditions must be fulfilled :

i. The amount of energy supplied should be such so as to meet the losses in the tank circuit and the a.c. energy
removed from the circuit by the load. For instance, if losses in LC circuit amount to 5 mW and a.c. output being
taken is 100 mW, then power of 105 mW should be continuously supplied to the circuit.
ii. The applied energy should have the same frequency as that of the oscillations in the tank circuit.
iii. The applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations set up in the tank circuit (aid the tank ct oscillations)

Types of Oscillators
1. Tuned Collector Oscillator / RC oscillator 2. Colpitts Oscillator 3. Hartley Oscillator
4. RC phase shift oscillator 5. Wien Bridge oscillator 6. Crystal oscillator

1. Tuned Collector Oscillator / RC oscillator

It contains tuned circuit L1-C1 in the collector and hence the name. The frequency of oscillations depends upon the
values of L1 and C1 and is given by :

Circuit operation.

 When switch S is closed, collector current starts increasing and charges the capacitor C1. When this capacitor is
fully charged, it discharges through coil L1, setting up oscillations of frequency
 These oscillations induce some voltage in coil L2 by mutual induction.
 The frequency of voltage in coil L2 is the same as that of tank circuit but its magnitude depends upon the number
of turns of L2 and coupling between L1 and L2
 The voltage across L2 is applied between base and emitter and appears in the amplified form in the collector
circuit, thus overcoming the losses occurring in the tank circuit
 The number of turns of L2 and coupling between L1 and L2 are so adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified
to a level just sufficient to supply losses to the tank circuit

2. Colpitts Oscillator

It uses two capacitors and placed across a common inductor L and the centre of the two capacitors is tapped. The
tank circuit is made up of C1, C2 and L. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of C1, C2 and L and
is given by

Circuit operation  When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors C1 and C2 are charged. The capacitors discharge
through L, setting up oscillations of frequency (given by the formula)

 The output voltage of the amplifier appears across C1 and

feedback voltage is developed across C2
 The voltage across it is 180° out of phase with the voltage
developed across C1 (Vout)
 voltage fedback (voltage across C2 ) to the transistor
provides positive feedback
  Positive feedback in terms of a transistor refers to a situation where the output of the transistor amplifies the
input signal and reinforces it, creating a regenerative loop. In positive feedback, a portion of the output signal
is fed back to the input in a way that causes an increase in the magnitude of the output

3. Hartley Oscillator

 The Hartley oscillator is similar to Colpitt’s oscillator with minor modifications. Instead of using tapped
capacitors, two inductors L1 and L2 are placed across a common capacitor C and the centre of the inductors is
tapped
 The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2 and C. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L1, L2
and C and is given by :

Circuit operation

 When the circuit is turned on, the capacitor is charged. When this
capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through coils L1 and L2 setting
up oscillations of frequency (by formula)
 The output voltage of the amplifier appears across L1 and feedback
voltage across L2
 The voltage across L2 is 180° out of phase with the voltage developed
across L1 (Vout)
 voltage fedback (i.e., voltage across L2) to the transistor provides
positive feedback
 A phase shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and a further phase shift of 180° is produced by L1 − L2

Feedback fraction - the feedback voltage is across L2 and output voltage is across L1.
 Phase Shift Oscillators / RC Oscillators

Introduction

 Good frequency stability and waveform can be obtained from oscillators employing resistive and capacitive
elements. Such amplifiers are called R-C or phase shift oscillators and have the additional advantage that
they can be used for very low frequencies.

Phase Shift Circuit

 consists of an R-C network

 voltage V′1 across R leads the applied voltage V1 by φº
 value of φ depends upon the values of R and C
 R is varied to such a value thatcmakes V′1 to lead V1 by 60º.
 Diagram shows 3 sections of RC, Each section produces a phase shift of 60º. Consequently, a total phase
shift of 180º is produced i.e. voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180º

Phase Shift Oscillator Circuit

 It consists of a conventional single transistor amplifier and a RC phase shift network. The phase shift network
consists of three sections R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3. At some particular frequency f0, the phase shift in each RC
section is 60º so that the total phase-shift produced by the RC network is 180º
 The frequency of oscillations is given by –
Circuit Operation

 When the circuit is switched on, it produces oscillations of frequency determined by the formula
 The output E0 of the amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of
180º and a voltage Ei appears at its output which is applied to the transistor amplifier
 A phase shift of 180º is produced by the transistor amplifier. A further phase shift of 180º is produced by the
RC network.
 As a result, the phase shift around the entire loop is 360º.

Wien Bridge Oscillator

 standard oscillator circuit for all frequencies in the range of 10 Hz to about 1 MHz.
 most frequently used type of audio oscillator as the output is free from circuit fluctuations & temperature
 It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with R-C bridge circuit
 The bridge circuit has the arms R1C1, R3, R2C2 and tungsten lamp Lp.
 The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier while the other transistor T2 serves as an inverter (i.e.
to produce a phase shift of 180º
 The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks.
 The positive feedback is through R1C1, C2R2 to the transistor T1.
 The negative feedback is through the voltage divider to the input of transistor T2.
 frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R1C1 and parallel element R2C2 of the bridge

 If the oscillator's output frequency starts to drift due to changes in temperature, the lamp responds
by altering its resistance. This change in resistance modifies the balance in the feedback network. As
a result, the circuit adjusts itself to bring the frequency back to the desired value.
  The lamp's resistance changes in response to temperature changes, which, in turn, adjusts the phase
and gain characteristics of the feedback network. This adjustment ensures that the oscillator
remains at its desired frequency.

 Piezoelectric Crystals / Quartz Crystal

 when we apply an a.c. voltage across them, they vibrate at the frequency
of the applied voltage
 Each crystal has a natural frequency like a pendulum. The natural
frequency f of a crystal is given by
f = K/t

K is a constant that depends upon the cut and t is the thickness of the crystal

 frequencies between 25 kHz to 5 MHz have been obtained with crystals.

Crystal Oscillator

 it is a Collpit’s oscillator modified to act as a crystal oscillator.

 The only change is the addition of the crystal (Y) in the feedback network.
 The crystal will act as a parallel-tuned circuit.

Power Amplifier

 power amplifier is required to deliver a large amount of power and as such it has to handle large current.
 power amplifiers handle large signals
 input signal is so large that collector current is either cut-off or is in the saturation region during a large
portion of the input cycle.
 Therefore, such amplifiers are generally classified according to their mode of operation i.e. the portion of the
input cycle during which the collector current is expected to flow
 Classification of Power Amplifiers

(i) class A power amplifier (ii) class B power amplifier (iii) class C power amplifier

(i) class A power amplifier

If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of the signal, the power amplifier is known as class A
power amplifier.

(ii) class B power amplifier

 If the collector current flows only during the positive

half-cycle of the input signal, it is called a class B power
amplifier
 During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the input
circuit is forward biased and hence collector current
flows. However, during the negative half-cycle of the
signal, the input circuit is reverse biased and no collector
current flows.
 In a class B amplifier, the negative half-cycle of the signal
is cut off and hence a severe distortion occurs.

(ii) class C power amplifier

 If the collector current flows for less than half-cycle of the input signal, it is called class C power amplifier.
 In class C amplifier, the base is given some negative bias so that collector current does not flowcjust when
the positive half-cycle of the signal starts.
 Used for special purpose
Push-Pull Amplifier

 push-pull amplifier is a power amplifier

 It is used whenever high output power at high efficiency is required
 Two transistors Tr1 and Tr2 placed back to back are employed
 Both transistors are operated in class B operation