Ceg 413-Lecture 2
Ceg 413-Lecture 2
Ceg 413-Lecture 2
2.1 FORMATION
The formation is a very important constituent of the track. Its function is to distribute the very
intense bearing pressure of the wheels on the rails, over a sufficient area of the comparatively
soft natural ground underneath in order to ensure that there will be no continual deformation.
Fig. 2.1 –
Schematics
of a
railway
cross-
section
2.2 BALLAST
Track ballast is a key structural element of the railroad permanent way. Its prime function is to
transmit and distribute the wheel loadings from the base of the sleepers to the subgrade at
pressures that will not cause subgrade failure. In addition, ballast also serves to:
a. anchor the track, preventing longitudinal and transverse track movements under
dynamic train loadings,
Materials that can perform satisfactorily the required functions of ballast include open graded
materials such as crushed stone, washed river or pit run gravel, and furnace slags. Material grain
sizes vary from 38 to 45mm.
Ballast Ballast
SUB-BALLAST
Where ballast material is expensive or in short supply, or where subgrade strength is sufficiently
low that excessive depths of ballast would be required, a layer of sub-ballast frequently is used.
Material for the sub-ballast layer of the permanent way can be a less openly graded material
meeting less stringent quality requirements.
The depth of ballast may vary from 150 to 750mm or more depending on:
(1) wheel loads, (2) traffic density; (3) speed, and (4) the type and condition of the foundation.
Sleepers or cross-ties
In the Nigerian railway system, the wooden (timber), steel trough and concrete sleepers are the
types of sleepers in use.
Fig. 2.4a: Timber sleepers before laying Fig. 2.4b: Timber sleeper laid on track
NOTE: Wooden sleeper should ideally be treated with both preservatives and coating materials
for protection against weathering and splitting (from cracks) while in service.
Disadvantages
1) It is unsuitable for track circuited area
2) It cracks at rail seat during maintenance
3) It is liable to corrode and rust, and sometimes get cracked.
Disadvantages
1) Because of its heavy weight, handling and transportation are difficult
2) It has no scrap value
3) It suffers heavy damage during derailment
2.4 RAILS
Rails are continuous girders which carry the axle loads and they are made of high carbon steel.
Functions of Rails
i) They provide a smooth and uniform surface to bear the heavy wagon loads transmitted
through the axles.
ii) They can withstand lateral stresses due to (train) braking operations and thermal
stresses.
iii) They transmit the load to the formation through sleepers and the ballast.
Rail Sections
• Rail sections come in standard lengths of 11.7m, although continuous welded rail can
also be used.
• Rail section is designated by its standard classification number as well as by its weight
per meter length (e.g. 40 kg/m (80.6 lb/yd).
Example
If the axle load of locomotive is 23 tonnes, the corresponding rail section would be
2300/510 kg/m = 45 kg/m. This should be the minimum weight per metre length. This value is
now multiplied by factor of safety, usually 1.22 – 1.33. Using a factor of safety of 1.33, the
required rail section weight per meter length = 45 x 1.33 = 59.85 (say 60 kg/m).
Rail Cross-Section
The common cross-sections of rails are
i) Bull-head rail section
ii) Flat-footed rail section
In the bull-head cross-section, the top and bottom sections are kept identical. The rationale
behind it was that the life of rails could be increased by inverting the rail and re-using it.
In the flat-footed (or flat-bottom) cross-section, the rail has a characteristic inverted T-shape.
Flat-bottom (FB) track uses heavier rail similar to an inverted T-section. It is supported on
baseplates and held down with clips or spikes which bear on the rail foot (see Fig. 2.5b).
Bullhead is the traditional "steam era" track used in the UK until the early 1950s. From that time,
main running lines have been progressively replaced with flat-bottom track, but a lot of bullhead
track still remains in loops, sidings and yards.
Here are some close-ups:
2.6 FASTENINGS
The devices used to connect rails and sleepers together to form the track are known as fastenings.
Where wooden sleepers are used, fastenings are used to firmly anchor the tie plates to the sleeper
to prevent destructive abrasion from plate movement.
Several types of fastenings may be used including common cut spikes, spring spikes, screw
spikes, compression clips and clamps. See the figures below.
The rail anchor usually is attached to the base of the rail with one of its vertical surfaces bearing
against the side of the tie or tie plate, or both. Creeping pressures of the rail are transmitted to
the sleeper and ultimately to the ballast.
2.9 TURNOUTS
Turnouts are curved sections of track that permit the diversion of trains from one track (main-
line track) to another (branch lines). Where the turnout provides an intersection with another
continuous parallel or non-parallel track, it is called a crossover.
At crossings, tracks intersect permitting movement of the train on one track across the alignment
of the other. Figure below shows schematic arrangements for the various types of railroad
intersections to be discussed.
B) Switches
The device, which determines the diversion of train movement through a turnout, is known as a
switch. A switch is designated as a left-hand or right-hand switch depending on the direction of
diversion of the train into the turnout.
Switches are relatively simple devices principally composed of switch rails, rods which hold the
points in their proper position and relationship, gauge and switch plates which support the switch
rails at their proper elevation, and heel blocks which effect a rigid joint at the head of the switch.
Some of the various types of switches in use include Stub switches, Tongue switches (used in
paved street locations and designed for slow-moving traffic), Spring switches and Split switches
(designed for high-speed movements).
C) Frogs
The turnout frog is a device, which permits train wheels on one rail to cross the rail of a
diverging track. It performs two functions:
Frog
Sidetracks Sidings
Railroad yards provide shops and facilities for maintenance and repair of locomotives and cars,
housing for idle locomotives, storage tracks for temporarily idle cars, and facilities for receiving
and dispatching of passenger and freight trains.
A railroad freight terminal facility usually contains at least three components:
1. A receiving yard, where incoming trains are directed from the main line and stored
temporarily before being sorted and classified.
General track arrangement should be such that main-line tracks do not pass through the yard.
Connections to the main tracks from forwarding and receiving tracks should be as simple and
direct as practicable. Curvature of tracks should not, in general, exceed about 12o30’. Tracks in
the yards should be spaced not less than 18 ft (6m) center to center.
Figure below shows a general scheme of yard layout.