Afsar, Bilal; Badir, Yuosre; Kiani, Umar Safdar (2016).

Linking spiritual leadership and employee pro-

environmental behavior: The influence of workplace spirituality, intrinsic motivation, and
environmental passion. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 45(), 79–
88. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.11.011

Linking spiritual leadership and employee pro-environmental behavior: The influence of workplace
spirituality, intrinsic motivation, and environmental passion

The study looks into the subject through a theoretical model that consists of spiritual leadership, and
customer-oriented boundary-spanning behavior (COBSB) as a total effect alongside person–
organization fit (POF) and workplace spirituality as mediating effects. Data were collected from hotel
employees across North Cyprus. Our results show that linkage between spiritual leadership and
COBSB is fully mediated when both variables are included in the equation. Also, self-esteem was
found to be an enhancer for spiritual leadership and COBSB linkage. Our study takes place within the
hotel industry of North Cyprus, with consideration of tourism being a significant industry on the
island. This article contributes to the literature of both BSB and leadership through expansion into
North Cyprus as well as the conduction of mediation analysis.

Background

Spiritual Leadership and Customer-Oriented Boundary-Spanning Behavior

Leadership has been noted to be of significant importance in terms of accommodating spirituality

within the firm as well as its values (Afsar et al., 2016; Madison & Kellermanns, 2013; Sani et al.,
2016). In an environment, which connectedness and sense of completeness are encouraged,
employees will function on a higher level that is due to the previously mentioned fact that most
people spend more time in their workplaces rather than in their communities (Afsar et al.,
2016; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003). Spiritual leaders can provide a higher degree of a personal
sense of spirituality as well as meaningfulness, connectivity, and purpose to their followers within the
workplace (Duchon & Plowman, 2005). A spiritual leader can further encourage his or her
subordinates toward higher levels of meaning and purpose by connecting members to each other
and their society and themselves (Hudson, 2014). This was noted in a study conducted by Kaya
(2015), through organizational citizenship behavior that a spiritual leader could connect employees
as colleagues. Furthermore, a spiritual leader can merge organizational values and objectives with
individuals through integration, which provides a better setting for employees and increases their
level of fit with the organization (Afsar et al., 2016; Benefiel, 2005). Similarly, spiritual leaders can
enhance connectedness and purposefulness for individuals, which create a relatively stable link
between organizational and personal spirituality (Benefiel, 2005; Chen et al., 2012). Thus, SL fosters
feelings of membership, which enhances well-being and consequently will have a positive impact on
overall work outcomes both in individual level and organizational level (Benefiel et al., 2014; Fry,
2003; Fry et al., 2005; Hill et al., 2013). This model is based on motivational leadership styles, such as
transformational and charismatic leadership (Anderson & Sun, 2015; Chen et al., 2012; Fry, 2003).
Spiritual survival and quality of life are endorsed increasingly through SL, which creates membership
and a sense of belongingness (Fry et al., 2005). Characteristics of a spiritual leader can be (a)
envisioning future as well as having reasons of why that future should be created and strived for by
people, which is by and for the organization (Kotter, 1995); (b) and harmonic sense alongside
liveliness, attention, completeness, and care for others and self (Fry, 2003; Fry & Cohen, 2009); and
(c) having faith that the vision will be met and the mission will be achieved, which gives further
confidence to others and sets an example to be followed regardless of obstacles or limitations (Fry,
2003; Fry & Cohen, 2009).

COBSB can be referred to as a type of prosocial behavior, which is to connect firms with their
customers (Bettencourt & Brown, 2003). COBSB has been categorized into three distinctive groups
that are namely, service delivery (response, courteousness, and flexibility of services to be delivered,
which significantly impacts customer satisfaction); internal influence (initiatives undertaken by
individuals when interacting with organization, or other staff in line with improvement of self and
others, leading to better service delivery); and external representation (promotion of the firm and its
image, services, and goods to other parties) (Bettencourt & Brown, 2003; Bettencourt et al., 2005; Ze
et al., 2018). Employees can play an essential role in terms of representing the firm and its legitimacy
to other external parties. While service delivery can be noted as a role-prescribed behavior as it is
noted within job specification or training, internal influence and external representation are taken
discretionary as they are added to the role a member of staff plays within the company (Duchon &
Plowman, 2005). As these factors are not officially given to employees, it is more of an individual
initiative and willingness to undertake such behaviors. These are firmly related to workplace
environment and leadership as well as fitness of the individual within the firm (Bayighomog & Araslı,
2019; Bettencourt et al., 2005; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005).

The current research is conducted in the context of Northern Cyprus. The culture element of the
island and particularly, businesses active in this location are more familiar with the concept of faith
and vision than inner-life, proposed by Fry (2003). It is important to note that prior to the conduct of
this research, researchers noted all aspects of SL. However, as vision, harmonic sense and positive
energy have been found to be more familiar and understandable for employees working in hotel
industry of Northern Cyprus. Therefore, our study takes these characteristics (vision, harmonic sense
and positive energy) as indicators of SL. Following our hypothesized model, POF and WS are acting as
mediators for the relationship between SL and BSB.

There have been studies in which SL has shown to have a significant relationship with prosocial
behaviors. A study revealed significant effectiveness of SL through self-concept, managerial position,
and culture (Chen & Li, 2013). It was noted that SL and organizational citizenship behavior are in
significant relationship for family businesses, while no significance was noted for nonfamily firms
(Madison & Kellermanns, 2013). This was further tested and reported significant by Kaya (2015).
Similarly, SL was found to have significant linkage with performance in the job as well as productivity
(Salehzadeh et al., 2015). This is derived from Social Exchange Theory, from which positive and
beneficial behaviors are triggered through mutual exchanges and interactions between two parties
that tend to advance the quality of that relationship (Blau, 1964; Mitchell et al., 2012). Hence, the
current research aims to develop current understanding of SL in an empirical manner through
inclusion of POF and WS as mediators and self-esteem as moderator. This will enable current
research to expand the underlying effects of SL, particularly on COBSB.

In addition, Social Identity Theory addresses the extent to which an individual defines oneself with
social categories and feels belongingness to a group. This, in turn, will lead to embracing the values
of that group and, thus, sharing the feelings regarding success or failure (Ashforth & Mael,
1989; Korschun, 2015). As the extent of research on the relationship between SL and COBSB is not
abundant, our study deems appropriate to analyze this linkage with the existence of mediating
variables that are POF and WS. As SL can affect prosocial behaviors, the following hypothesis can be
merged:

Hypothesis 1: SL has a positive relationship with COBSB that is vivid in hotel context.
Mediating Effect of Workplace Spirituality

The extent of attention paid to WS has faced a rise from the early 1990s (Bayighomog & Araslı,
2019; A. A. K. Gupta, 2017; Madison & Kellermanns, 2013). This increasing importance of spirituality
is intact with several influential factors that can be, namely, terrorist attacks, demoralization, and
economic downsizing, which affect all sorts of employees. This adds to the point that a workplace
should or can act as a source of spirituality for employees as well as employers based on what was
previously mentioned (Fairholm, 1998; Fry, 2003; Geh & Tan, 2009; Madison & Kellermanns, 2013).
Connection, understanding, meaning, and support are feelings that can be provided through the
definition of spirituality (Smith & Rayment, 2007).

Spirituality can be a driving force for an individual, who goes beyond their interactions with the
environment surrounding them and is meta-cognitive and meta-physical (Bayighomog & Araslı,
2019). Complex nature of spirituality obstacles the approach toward the topic from a scholar
perspective in comparison with the sectarian perspective (Hill & Smith, 2003). Existence of sense of
meaning, belongingness, and altruistic behavior can be referred to as a mutual notion between
science and spirituality of leader in this case (Fry, 2003; Hill et al., 2013; Hill & Smith, 2003). This does
not fall within the boundaries of current research (See Bayighomog & Araslı, 2019; Benefiel et al.,
2014; Dalai Lama, 1999). SL is also studied in the hospital context regarding work engagement, which
has been reported to have significant linkage with meaning, and membership of staff (Saripudin &
Rosari, 2019).

Spirituality has its nexus in the characteristics and features of an individual in an internal manner.
These qualities can be named, the capability of love, harmony, and responsibility. Spiritual leaders
endeavor to be aware, self-initiated, and come from ones’ feelings of connection (Ayoun et al.,
2015; Ayranci & Semercioz, 2011; Dalai Lama, 1999). Spirituality is thus, subjective, individual, and
oriented in terms of emotion. In addition, it is systematic and strategic and is harmonious rather than
doctrine (Hill & Smith, 2003).

Main aspects of WS include inner life and meaningful work, feeling of community, and consensus of
values with the firm (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Houghton et al., 2016; Milliman et al., 2003).
Respectively, the degree of an employees’ spirituality that is brought to his or her work based on
their needs is referred to as inner life (Houghton et al., 2016); the extent of which a job can
contribute to personal meaning and overall values of an individual is the meaningfulness of job
(Bayighomog & Araslı, 2019; Houghton et al., 2016; Milliman et al., 2003); feeling of community can
be described as individuals seeking companionship and social interactions with colleagues through
commitment and sharing (Bayighomog & Araslı, 2019); consensus of values with the firm is the
degree of which an employee can identify one’s self with organizational goals and values (M. Gupta
et al., 2014; Milliman et al., 2003). In light of what was mentioned, WS can be referred to as
endeavor of an individual in the path toward seeking the purpose of life, establishing connections
with other members of the firm as well as those stakeholders that can be relevant. In addition, ones’
opinion and values should also comply with the organization’s values (Milliman et al., 2003). It was
argued that SL encourages a sense of meaningfulness for the employees, which in turn leads to the
workplace with a caring atmosphere. This yields in belongingness that further embodies dimensions
of WS (Bayighomog & Araslı, 2019). Consequently, this is intact with employees’ tendency toward
engaging in BSB as they feel personal linkage with their leaders, or the extent of identification with
the firm is perceived higher. As COBSB and its dimensions (service delivery, internalized influence,
and external representation) are consistent with a sense of meaningfulness and sense of
appropriation with the firm (in terms of provision of customer satisfaction, quality services,
interaction within firm, and promotion), the following hypothesis is merged:
Hypothesis 2: WS mediates SL and COBSB linkage in a manner that it is better explained and is
significant in a hotel format.

Mediating Role of POF

Through reviewing the literature of hospitality as an industry, it was noted that POF requires more
extensive research as it has not been thoroughly discussed (Karatepe, 2012). It is noteworthy that
POF has been reported to be of significance in the hospitality context as it affects several
organizational outcomes (Kim & Lee, 2013). Ethical values of an individual and their perception upon
it can significantly impact the extent of their POF. The degree of involvement with the job,
satisfactions regarding rewards from the job, and identification with the firm are among the factors
under the influence of WS (Saks, 2011). Personal interests regarding meaning, fulfillment, and values
are among the traits that an employee can seek (Rego & Pina e Cunha, 2008). While creativity
requires the brain to be stimulated, spirituality addresses “souls,” which follows the path of purpose
and goals. The concept of POF has been noted as both subjective, where perception of values being
aligned with the firm is individual, and objective, where the match with organization in terms of
value is perceived by others (e.g., Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Van Vianen et al.,
2007; Verquer et al., 2003). It has been mentioned that POF has significant linkage with outcomes
such as job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and turnover intentions (negatively)
(Arthur et al., 2006; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). In addition, SL has been found to be influential on
affective commitment, through calling and membership (Rosa & Ancok, 2020). This shows that the
assumption that SL is influential on organizational positive behaviors has solid nexus within the
extant literature.

Expectations that an individual may hold against a company can be comprehended on a higher level
when the person has higher degrees of POF. This is followed by modifications in attitudes or behavior
to incorporate specific feelings (Gregory et al., 2010). If the values of an employee agree with the
organization they work in, the level of POF is then relatively higher. POF has been noted to have
mediation effects in terms of leadership and employee outcomes (e.g., Chi & Pan, 2012; Raja et al.,
2018; Shamir et al., 1993). SL allows staff to feel a higher degree of belongingness, which in turn
urges them to align their actions with the firm further. POF can relatively create a unity between the
individual and the company. Hence, when unity is recognized, WS is increased and thus, it will aid the
process of being aligned with the firm as both individuals and the firm shares a common value, which
can be integrated (Van Vianen et al., 2007). This, in turn, will lead to the potential of increasing the
degree of POF. Contradictory to what was mentioned, low perception of WS leads to lower degrees
of POF perception. This can yield in disengagement and collision of values. The higher the level of
perception on WS, the higher the level of POF as a linkage between employee and organization can
be better felt. This subsequently affects their performance, which will impact their work outcomes
(Afsar & Badir, 2016; Hamstra et al., 2019). Thus, the following hypothesis has emerged:

Hypothesis 3: POF mediates SL and COBSB linkage, providing stronger explanation in hotel context.

Moderating Role of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem can be referred to as the evaluation of oneself as an individual (Barelds et al., 2018). This
is a reflection of self-evaluation in terms of competencies and skills (Rosenberg, 1965). People with
higher self-esteem are more likely to “like who they are” and vice versa (Barelds et al., 2018; Pelham
& Swann, 1989). Self-Esteem has been shown to have a vital impact on employees’ degree of
motivation, attitude toward work, behavior, social identity, and BSB (Chen et al., 2012; Korschun,
2015; Schierjott et al., 2018). Individuals who possess higher degrees of self-esteem tend to see
themselves as crucial, meaningful, and worthy members in their respective firms. Similarly, it was
shown that the rise of self-esteem could lead to higher levels of organizational commitment as well
as satisfaction (T. A. Howell et al., 1998; Pierce et al., 1989). In addition, it was noted that self-esteem
is significantly linked to performance level (Bono & Judge, 2003). Furthermore, a negative linkage
was found for self-esteem and the degree of turnover and turnover intentions (Pierce & Gardner,
2004). Total outcomes of employees with a higher level of self-esteem were shown to be significantly
more positive, when compared with those with lower degrees of self-esteem (Chen et al.,
2012; Gecas, 1989; Locke et al., 1984; Ozer & Bandura, 1990; Schierjott et al., 2018).

While the mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between SL and productivity was
measured in a study conducted by Chen et al. (2012), its moderation effect remains a mystery.
Individuals who possess lower levels of self-esteem tend to be attracted to those individuals, whom
can direct them to have “progress” or be “better,” and enhance their sense of worth as well as
belonging (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005; Padilla et al., 2007; Thoroughgood et al., 2012). Thus, the
role of leaders becomes vital as such people tend to turn to the leaders for approval and
development (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005). The moderating role of self-esteem was noted in several
studies in regard to leadership and employee outcomes (e.g., Babalola et al., 2014; Barelds et al.,
2018; Yang et al., 2019). Thus, the current model includes self-esteem (SE) within the model to test
its moderating effect (enhancer) on the relationship between SL and COBSB. This is while the
mediation effects of self-esteem have been noted before this research in terms of its linkage with SL
(J. Y. Wu & Li, 2015). Thus, the current study looks into the effects of self-esteem on SL and COBSB
regarding its moderating effects. Hence, the following hypothesis is merged:

Hypothesis 4: Self-esteem moderates the relationship between SL and COBSB, such that the linkage
is enhanced, when self-esteem is high.

Referring to the literature of the subject at hand and considering all variables included in the model
above, it is assumed that both spirituality in workplace and POF can be mediating factors as
individual mediating effects have been supported in the extant literature. In addition, with regard to
the context of current research, these elements can enhance the linkage between leaders’ activities
in a spiritual manner and overall COBSB notion of the firm. This is due to the assumption that
employees that are aligned with the firm (e.g., tasks, values, and goals) and have spiritual-orientation
in their workplace can further positively affect provision of COBSB services. This is in accord with the
fact that employees are vital for service industry as they reflect the company to customers. This
becomes more vivid in hotel industry as employees have interaction with customers
(directly/indirectly). Such behaviors are not mandatory for staff of hotels. However, through an SL
and elements of spirituality and fit, staff are more likely to move toward COBSB, which can explain
the linkage between SL and COBSB on a more profound manner. This is shown in figure 1, following
the work of Bayighomog & Araslı (2019).