MME211 Lectures First 2020 F
MME211 Lectures First 2020 F
MME211 Lectures First 2020 F
Email: [email protected]
SESSION • Course Outline
TOPIC
• Course Outline, Laboratory
Experiments,
WEEK 1 • Types of Materials
• Atomic Structure
– Mass Number
– Isotopy
WEEK 9 •TEST 1
WEEK 10 •Solid State Transformations
• Survey of Occurrence and Extraction of
Metals
• Non Crystalline Solids
- Polymers
- Ceramics
•Composites
•Ceramics
•Polymers
WEEK 11 •Thermoplastics and Thermosets
WEEK 13 Review
WEEK 14 Review /TUTORIAL
WEEK 15 FINAL EXAM
LABORATORY PROGRAMS
•Laboratory 1: Introduction to
Laboratory Experiments
•Laboratory 2: Rockwell and Brinell
Hardness Tests
•Laboratory 3: Annealing
•Laboratory 4: Phase Diagram of Binary
Alloys
•Laboratory 5: Jominy End QuenchTest
•Materials Selection
•Laboratory 6: Nondestructive Testing
Methods
Review / Tutorial
FINAL EXAM
• Grading
• Test 20 %
• Final Exam 60 %
• Lab reports 20 %
REFERENCES
1. C. A. Loto. A Textbook of Materials Science &
Engineering
2. James P. Schaffer et al,. The Science and Design of
Engineering Materials. 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1999
3. J.C. Anderson et al. Materials Science. 2nd Edition,
E.L.B.S., 1974
4. John, Introduction to Engineering Materials.
Macmillan
5. D.J. Davies, L.A. Oelmann. The Structure, Properties
and Heat Treatment of Metals. Pitman, 1983
6. Atkins, Physical Chemistry
7. Khanna O.P. Materials Science & Metallurgy.
Dhanpat Rai Pub. Ltd. New Delhi, 2008
8. Rajput R.K. Materials Science & Engineering. S. K.
Kataria & Sons. Delhi, 2007
Types of Materials
Metals:
good electrical and thermal conductivity,
high strength, high stiffness, and have good
ductility.
Some metals, such as Fe, Co and Ni are magnetic.
At extremely low temperatures, some metals and
intermetallic compounds become superconductors.
1S 2px 2py
X X
X
Z
The 3 p electron clouds are oriented along mutually
Y perpendicular direction, which are conventionally taken
2pz as the direction of the coordinate axes (x, y or z); the
X corresponding states of the electrons are designated
px, py, and pz
3dxy
3dyz
3dz²
3dxz 3dx² - y²
f ORBITALS
At the fourth and higher levels, there are seven f orbitals in
addition to the 4s, 4p, and 4d orbitals.
FOURTH QUANTUM NUMBER, (SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER)
• ms or simply the spin is used to determine the INTRINSIC
state of an electron. Unlike n, l , and ml, ms is not associated
with motion of the electron about the nucleus. It can be loosely
associated with the spin of the electron about its own axis.
This can have only 2 values + ½ or –½ depending on the
direction of rotation of the electron about its axis (ms = +½ or -
½ ). Two electrons in the same orbital having values of +½
and -½ are said to be paired; both of them would have the
same amount of energy.
• NOTE: The possible values of the spin quantum number differ
by UNITY.
• Four quantum numbers (n, l, ml, and ms) are required to
specify a particular electron.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
It specifies that no more than 2 electrons, each with oppositely
electronic spins, may be present in each orbital. The spin
quantum number is assigned values + ½ to reflect the different
spins .
Summary
Table 1.2 Maximum number of electrons in atom energy levels and sublevels
L (n=2) s(l=O) 0 1 2
p(l=1) -1, 0, +1 3 6 8
4
M (n=3) s(l=0) 0 1 2
p(l=1) -1, 0, +1 3 6 18
9
d(l=2) 5 10
-2,-1,0,+1,+2
N=(n=4) s(l=0) 0 1 2
p(l=1) -1, 0, +1 3 16 6
d(l=2) -2,-1,0,+1,+2 5 10 32
f(l=3) -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 7 14
CONCLUSION
• Each principal level of quantum number, n contains a total n sublevels
• Each sublevel of quantum No, l contains a total 2l + 1 orbitals
• Each orbital can hold two electrons
• The maximum number of e in each energy level is 2n2
• The shorthand notation frequently used to donate the electronic structure of
an atom combines the numerical value of the principal quantum No, n, the
lowercase letter rotation for the azimuthal quantum No and a superscript
showing the number of electrons in each orbital. Thus, the shorthand
notation for the electronic structure of bromine which has an atomic number
of 35 is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2 4p5
• The four quantum numbers: n = 1, 2, 3, …
• l = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. (n-1)
• ml = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … ±l
• ms = +1/2 or -1/2
NOTE
The energy state of the electrons depends not only on the principal
quantum number n, but also on the orbital quantum number. This is associated
with the circumstance that an electron in an atom is not only attracted by the
nucleus, but is also repelled by the electrons between the given electron and the
nucleus. The internal electron layers form a peculiar shield that weakens the
attraction to the nucleus
ORBITAL DIAGRAMS HUND’S RULE
• An atomic orbital diagram shows the electron distribution in an
atom by means of a diagram which accounts for the distribution
by all four quantum numbers.
• An orbital is shown by a box, circle or line.
• An electron is shown by an arrow.
• The arrows also show the spin of the electron so that when two
electrons are in the same orbital, the arrows point in opposite
directions to represent their opposing spins.
• Sublevels are shown by a designation under the appropriate
orbitals
• Orbital diagram indicates the number of electrons in each
orbital and their respective spins:
1s2 2s2 2p1
Electron configuration of boron
B
Definition (Hund’s Rule)
In an atom in which orbitals of equal energy are to be
filled by electrons, the order of filling is such that as
many electrons remain unpaired as possible
I: Ms are the same, while their spin are
I C antiparallel
2p
II: 2p electrons occupy different orbitals
(i.e. have different Ms and their spins
II C
are opposite)
2s
Among the 3 diagrams, the third is correct and it corresponds to the greatest value
of the total spin of an atom. (In I & II the sum of the spin of all electrons is zero
while, for the third diagram it is unity.
• Therefore Hund’s rule states that the maximum value of the total spin of an
atom corresponds to the stable i.e. unexcited state in which the atom has the
smallest possible energy; at any other distribution of the electrons, the
energy of the atom will be higher, so that it will be in an excited, unstable
state. In other words the distribution of the electrons within the limits of an
energy sublevel at which the absolute value of the total spin of the atom is
maximum corresponds to the stable state of an atom.
1st Rule
• The sequence of filling of the atomic electron orbitals depends on the
values of the principal and orbital quantum number. And the energy of
an electron rises as the sum of these 2 quantum number increases, i.e.
with increasing n+l. With an increase in the charge of the nucleus of an
atom, the electron orbitals are filled consecutively from orbitals with a
smaller value of the sum of the principal and orbital quantum (n + l) to
orbitals with a greater value of this sum.
2nd Rule
• At identical values of the sum n+l the orbital are filled consecutively in
the direction of the growth in the value of the principal quantum
number, n
• Note:
• The chemical properties of the elements are
determined first of all by the structure of the outer
electron layer of their atom and depend only to a
smaller extent on the content of the structure of the
preceding (inner) electron layers.
• All the d (transition) elements are METALS whereas
the filling of the outer P sublevel result in a transit from
a metal to a typical non-metal and finally, to a noble
gas.
• The outer orbitals of d metals are filled in order of
energy stability and an increased energy stability is a
property of electrons configurations with exactly a
HALF-FILLED or TOTAL-FILLED sublevel (e.g.
structures containing 3 electrons in the outer layer,
five d electrons in the layer preceding the outer one, or
seven f electrons in a still deeper layer).
• Violation
• The violations of the ―normal‖ sequence of filling the energy states in
(lanthanum (Z =57) (the appearances of a 5d instead of a 4f electron) and
cesium (the simultaneous appearance of two 4f election). This can be
explained as follows: upon an increase in the charge of the nucleus the
electrostatic attraction to it of an electron in a given energy sublevel
becomes stronger and the energy of the electron diminishes. The energy of
the electron in different sublevels changes differently because the charge of
the nucleus is increased to a different extent with respect to these electrons.
In particular, the energy of 4f of electrons diminishes with a growth in the
charge of the nucleus more sharply than the energy of the 5d electrons.
E
4f
5d
Z
57 58
Dependence of the energy of the 4f and 5d electrons on the nuclear charge.
• Consequently in La (Z =57), the energy of the
5d electrons is found to be lower and in cesium
(Z=58) higher than that of the 4f electrons.
Accordingly, the electron that in La is in the
sublevel 5d in cesium passes to the sublevel 4f
• 57La 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2
5p6 5d1 6s2
• 58Ce 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f2
5s2 5p6 6s2
• The most stable state of an electron in an atom
corresponds to the minimum possible value of
its energy
Tutorial Questions
• Why does the ns orbital go before the (n−1)d orbital
when writing transition metal electron configurations?
• The valence shell of the element X contains 2
electrons in a 5s subshell. Element X also has a
partially filled 4d subshell. What type of element is X?
• How many electrons does H2SO4 have? How many
atoms does each element have?
• Oxygen reacts with fluorine to form only OF2, but
sulphur which is in the same group 16 as oxygen,
reacts with fluorine to form SF2, SF4 and SF6. Explain?
Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division
Periodic Table of the Elements
Group**
Period 1 18
IA VIIIA
1A 8A
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB ------- VIII ------- IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B ------- 8 ------- 1B 2B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.47 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 190.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116 118
7 Fr Ra Ac~ Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt --- --- --- --- --- ---
(223) (226) (227) (257) (260) (263) (262) (265) (266) () () () () () ()
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (147) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide Series~ Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 (231) (238) (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (249) (254) (253) (256) (254) (257)
Periodic Table
• VALENCE: The valence of an atom is the ability of
the atom to enter into chemical combination with
other elements and is often determined by the
number of electron in the outer most combined s p
level.
• O2-referred valence and
• H2-referred valence
• Mg- 2; Al- 3; Ge- 4; Na- 1;
• P- 3, 5; Mn- 2, 3, 4, 6, 7
An electron jumping
from orbit n=3 to
orbit n=2, emitting a
photon of red light
with an energy of
1.89 eV.
M
S
Se
C F
Thin gold
foil
• The fact that an electron has a wavelength does not necessarily mean that it is a
wave; it does mean that the motion of the electron is governed by the same
differential equations that describe wave motion
d 2 s 4 2
• s 0 ----------------------(9)
dx 2
2
n=1
2d
n
A
n
--------------(12)
λ2 =d =2d/2 n
By combining de Broglie’s equation
n n n
n=2 h 2d nh
-A or mv
λ4=d =2d/4 mv n 2d
n n Energy, E to certain allowed values
1 1
n=4 E mv 2 mv 2
2 2
d 2
1 nh h2
E n 2
----(13)
2m 2d 8md 2
Some wave functions of a particle in
one-dimensional box
• This equation tells us that a particle, of any kind confined to
move in a region of any length will have only certain energies
allowed to it.
• Those energies (from Eq. 13) depend on the mass, m of the
particle, the interval d through which it can move, and the
quantum number, n.
• It was thus established that the oxygen returned by plants to the atmosphere is taken
completely from water and not from carbon dioxide.
• 18O a stable isotope which is quite rare in nature (abundance = 0.20%). This isotope
is readily detected by using a mass spectrometer.
• Carbon-14 can be used also.
• In Medicine: The high-energy radiation given off by Radium is used in the treatment
of cancer.
ISOTOPIC INDICATIORS (TRACERS)
• Tracing food sources and diets
• The quantities of the different isotopes can be measured by mass spectrometry and
compared to a standard; the result (e.g. the delta of the 13C = δ13C) is expressed as
parts per thousand (‰):
Radioactive
sample
Gamma particles
No charge
Alpha particles
Negatively positive charge
charge plate 2He +2e
• Alpha Radiation which consists of a stream of
positively charge particles (alpha particles) that carry
a charge of +2 and have a mass of 4 on the atomic
mass scale. In alpha decay, the nucleus of an atom
emits 2 protons and 2 neutrons bound in a nucleus
of the helium atom 42He. The result is lowering of the
charge of the initial radioactive nucleus by 2, and of
its mass number by 4. Thus alpha decay results in
the formation of an atom of an element having an
atomic number two less than the original isotope.
238
92 U He 4
2
234
90 Th
Beta Radiation (decay) which is made up of a stream
of negatively charged particles (beta particles) that
have all the properties of electrons. (mass charge ≈-1)
Beta particles results from the transformation of a
neutron (mass =l charge =o) at the surface of the
nucleus into a proton (mass=l, charge = +1).
Consequently beta-emission leaves the mass number
unchanged but increases the atomic number by one
unit 234
90Th 1 e
0 234
91 Pa
The process of beta decay can be written as
neutron →proton + electron or n → P+e-. The electron
appearing in this transformation flies out of the nucleus,
and the positive charge of the latter grows by unity.
A proton may also transform into a neutron as:
• Protons → neutron +Positron or P → n+e+
• A positron, whose symbol is e+, is an elementary particle with a mass equal
to that of an electron, but carrying a positive electric charge. The charges of
an electron and a positron are identical in absolute value.
• A proton may transform into a neutron with the formation of a positron when
the instability of the nucleus is due to an excess content of protons in it. One
of the protons in the nucleus transforms into a neutron, the positron that
appears flies out of the nucleus, and the charge of the nucleus diminishes by
unity. This kind of radioactive decay is called POSITRON BETA DECAY (+
decay) in contrast to the previously considered ELECTRON BETA DECAY
(- decay).
• As a result of beta decay the atom is transformed into a new element whose
atomic number is one greater (with - decay) or one less (with + decay)
than that of the original isotope.
• 30
15 P 30
14 Si 0
1e (+ decay)
• 28
13 Al 28
14 Si 0
1 e (- decay)
•
11
6 C 11
5 B 0
1e
(+ decay)
•
6
14
C 7 N 1 e
14 0 (- decay)
• GAMMA Radiation, electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength (λ=0.0005 to 0.1nm)
i.e. high –energy photons. The emission of gamma radiation accompanies virtually all
nuclear reaction as the result of an energy change within the nucleus, whereby an unstable,
excited nucleus remitting form alpha – or beta-emission given off a photon and drop to a
lower more stable energy state (no mass change, no change in Z).
INTERACTION OF RADIATION
• The commonly instrument used to detect and measure radiation is the Scintillation counter.
We have also Geiger Muller counter.
• The harmful effect of radiation upon human beings is caused by its ability to ionize and
ultimately destroy the organic molecules of which body cells are composed. The extent of
damage depends upon
• 1. the energy and the
• 2. types of radiation. The former is expressed in GRAYS. A gray corresponds to the
absorption of one joule per kilogram of tissue. The total biological effect of radiation is
expressed in rems.
• Number of Rems = n x (number of grays) where n is 100 for , , and x radiation and 1000
for radiation or high –energy neutrons.
• Effect of exposure to a single dose of radiation
• Dose (Rems) Probable effect
• 0 to 25 No observable effect
• 25 to 50 Small decrease in white blood cell count
• 50 to 100 Lesions, marked decrease in white blood cells
• 100 to 200 Nausea, vomiting, loss of hair
• 200 to 500 Hemorrhaging, ulcers, possible death
• 5000 + Fatal.
• Radiation can produce mutations in plants and animals by bringing about changes in
chromosomes. Federal research council has set an upper limit of 0.17 per year above
background as the max. dosage to which major population group can be exposed.
USE FULNESS
• In Medicine
• Treatment of cancer to destroy or arrest the growth of malignant tissue (Radium).
Even cheaper cobalt-60. Sodium iodine containing radioactive iodine (131I or 126I)
used to destroy the malignant cells (cancer of the thyroid) in human beings.
Kt
log 10 x log 10 x0
2.30
x0 Kt 2.30 x0
Since X = X0/2; log 10 or log 10 t
X0 = 2X; x 2.30 K x
X0/X = 2
2.30 0.693
t 0 .5 log 10 2 -----------(15)
K K
PROBLEM
1. The radioactive radium-192, which has a half life period of 74.4
days, is used as a source of material for industrial radiography.
Determine the source intensity, as a percentage of the initial
intensity, after
i) 25 days ii) 50 days and iii) 100 days
2.The radioactive isotope of Cobalt, Co–60, has a half – life period
of 5.62 years. Calculate the rate of constant for the isotope decay
How long will it take for Co–60 to reduce to 85 % of its original
value? If a hospital purchases 20 mg of this isotope, how much
will remain after 10 years?
3. The common radioactive isotope of radium has a half – life of
1620 years. Calculate
i) The first order rate constant for the decay of radium – 226
ii The fraction of a sample of this isotope which will remain after
100 years.
iii) Use your results to comment on the global attempt to protect
the environment
ATOMIC BONDING
• There are two types of bonds:
• Primary
• Secondary
• Primary Bonds:
• Primary bonds are the strongest bonds
which hold atoms together. The three types
of primary bonds are:
• Ionic Bonds
• Covalent Bonds
• Metallic Bonds
• bonding is achieved when atoms fill their outer s and p
levels.
Bonding Energies and Melting
Temperatures for Various Substances
Bonding Models
• Bonding holds atoms together to form solids materials
• In solids, atoms are held at preferred distances from each other
(equilibrium distances)
• Distances larger or smaller than equilibrium distances are not
preferred. Equilibrium spacing r0 is approximately 0.3nm
• Consequently, as atomic bonds are stretched, atoms tend to attract
each other, and as the bonds are compressed, atoms repel each other.
• Simple bonding models assume that the total bonding results from
the sum of two forces: an attractive force (FA ) and a repulsive (FR).
Interatomic separation r
Net energy EN
Adapted from Fig. 2.8(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Attractive energy EA
105
Examples: Ionic Bonding
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF2
CsCl
When a force is applied to NaCl crystal the electrical balance between the ions is
upset. Partly for this reason, ionically bonded materials behave in a brittle manner.
Electrical conductivity is also poor; when a voltage is applied the electrical charge is
transferred by the movement of entire ion which does not move as easily as
electrons.
Ionic bond does not have saturability. The oppositely attracted charge ions retain
their ability to interact electrostatically with other ions.
The forces of attraction of oppositely charged ions must predominate over the force
of mutual repulsion exerted between ions of the same sign.
The absence of directionality and saturability in an ionic bond is the reason why ionic
molecules tends to associate i.e. to combine with one another.
COVALENT BOND
• Covalent bonding requires that electron be shared
between atoms in such a way that each atom has its
outer sp orbital filled. For example, a silicon atom,
which has a valence of 4 obtains 8 electrons in its
outer energy shell by sharing its electrons with 4
surrounding silicon atoms. Therefore in Si 4 covalent
bonds must be formed.
• In order for the covalent bonds to occur the Si atoms
must be arranged as the bonds have a fixed
DIRECTIONAL relationship with one another. In Si, C
the arrangement produces a tetrahedron with angles
of about 109o between the covalent
Si Si
Si Si
o o o
Si Si Si
1090
o o o
• If p-electron clouds are oriented along the bond axis, they can also participate in
the formation of a sigma bond. Overlapping of the 2p-electron cloud of the
fluorine atom and the Is-electron cloud of the hydrogen atom in the
formation of a sigma bond in the molecule HF
• Note: In the formation of a chemical bond energy is always evolved as a result
of the decrease in the potential energy of the system of interacting electrons and
nuclei this is why the potential energy of a particle formed a (a molecule or
crystal) is always less than the total potential energy of the initial free atom.
• The chemical bond in the molecule F2 is also sigma bond, it is formed by the 2p-
electron clouds of the F atoms.
- Bond
+ x
(b) -
-
z
z
+ +
π - Bond π - Bond
- -
y
y
Overlapping of the 2p-electron clouds in the molecule N2 a – sigma bond and 2-pi bonds
HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ELECTRON
ORBITALS
• The method of hybridization of atomic orbital proceeds from the
assumption that in the formation of a molecule, instead of the
initial atomic s-, p-, and d-electron clouds, equivalent ―blended‖
or hybrid electron clouds are formed that are stretched out in a
direction towards the neighboring atoms, the result being their
more complete overlapping with the electron clouds of these
atoms. The more complete overlapping of the valence electron
clouds the stronger the chemical bond formed and
consequently to additional gain in energy. If this gain in energy
is sufficient to more than compensate the expenditure of energy
for the deformation of initial atomic electron clouds, such
hybridization in the long run leads to diminishing of potential
energy of the molecule formed and consequently to an increase
in its stability.
sp-hybridization – Hybridization of 1s and 2p
- + + orbital leading to the formation of two sp orbital
BeF2 linear orientation
F 2p Be Overlapping of the 2p electron clouds of the
fluorine atoms with the 2s and 2p electron
clouds of Beryllium atom.
- + + -
F Be F BeF2 straight line 180o
F
sp3-hybridization
B
F F
equilateral triangle 120o BF3 CH4 Tetrahedron 109.5o
i) 4 pairs of electrons around the central atom are all shared, the
molecule is tetrahedral
ii) when one pair is unshared, the structure is that of a pyramid
with an equilateral triangle as large
iii) 2 unshared pairs lead to a bent.
METALLIC BOND
• The metallic bond involves sharing of delocalized electron given
a non-directional bond high electrical conductivity. The metallic
bond forms when atom give up their valence electron, which
then form an electron sea (or gas) leaving behind a core
consisting of the nucleus and inner electron and the core
becomes an ion with a positive charge. The positively charge
atom cores are bonded by mutual attraction to the negatively
charged electron.
• Metallic bonds are non directional; the electron holding he
atoms together are not fixed in one position. This properly
permit metals to have good ductility and to be deformed into
useful shapes since when the former is bent and the atoms
attempt to change their relationships to one another, the
direction of the bond merely shifts rather then the bond
breaking.
• Since the electrons are free to move, they lead to good thermal
and electrical conductivity.
Metallic bond.
c a0√3
Cd
c a CN=8 C Zn
2
b Mg
α b 4r
a0 ( BCC ) Co
a 3 Zr
a0√2 Ti
Fe-α, V, Cr, Mo, Na, W, SiF4, Mg(OH)2 Be
a0√2 CN=12 Al2O3,
4r ZnS,
a 0 ( FCC ) NiAs,
c 2 CdI2
c a
b CN=12
α b
a 4
a0√2 MgO, CH4
c( ) a0 ( HCP ) 1.633 a0 3.266 r
Al, Ni, Ag, Fe-ɣ, Cu, Au, CH4, NaCl, LiF 6
Miller Indices
• Indices of Directions
– Determine the coordinates of 2 pts that lie in the direction of
interest – h1, k1, l1 and h2, k2, l2
– Subtract the coordinates of the 2nd pt from those of the 1st
pt: h’ = h2 - h1, k’ = k2 - k1 and l’ = l2 - l1,
– Clear fractions from the differences – h’, k’ and l’ – to give
indices in lowest integer values, h, k, l
– Write the indices in square brackets without commas: [h k l]
– If h < 0, we write [ĥ k l]
z Directions Indices [h k l ] To determine the angle
between directions
OA [1 0 0]
OB [1 1 0] If A = ui + vj + wk and B =
F
u’I + v’j +w’k, then,
C OC [1 1 1]
D A . B = A B cos φ where
OD [2 0 1]
E y φ is the angle between
0 OE [0 1 0] the 2 vectors
A
B OF [1 1 2] 1
uu 1 vv 1 ww 1
x cos 2 2 12 1 2
CB [0 0 1] ( u v w 2 12
) ( u 12
v 12
w )
Indices of Planes
•Identify the coordinates intercepts of the plane. If the plane is
parallel to one of the axes, the intercept is taken as infinity
•Take the reciprocal of the intercepts
•Clear fractions, but do not reduce to lowest integers
•Cite planes in parentheses – (h k l).
A
Plane Intercepts Indices
A ∞,∞,1 (0 0 1)
B
B 1,1,1 (1 1 1)
C 1,1,∞ (1 1 0)
C D ½,⅔,1 (3 4 6)
D
Linear density, ρL is the ratio of the
C
number of atoms centered along direction
within one unit to the length of the line
contained within one unit
Planar density, ρP is the ratio of the
number of atoms centered on a plane
within one unit to the area of the plane
contained within one unit
Volumetric density, ρV is the number of
a3
atoms per unit volume
Atomic Packing Factor, APF is the ratio of
the volume of atoms in a unit cell to the
a1 volume of unit cell; or APF is the product
of atoms in cell and volume of an atom per
a2 a1, a2, a3, C unit volume of the cell; or
I = -(h + k) 4 3 DCS, Perovskite Structure
(h k i l) APF V r SC, Crystobalite Structure
3
• Significance of local packing arrangement
• A coordination polyhedron behaves as a tightly bound
unit when the valence of the central atom is more than
half the total valence of the atoms bonded to it. If the
valence of the central atom equals the total valence of
the surrounding atoms, the subunit is really a molecule
• When polyhedral subunits are discrete atomic groups
bonded to one another by secondary bonds than
when they are bonded together with primary bonds,
the melting or softening temperature will be lower. For
example in SiF4 each silicon is tetrahedrally
coordinated by 4 fluorine atoms and in SiO2 each
silicon is tetrahedrally coordinated by 4 oxygen atoms
yet SiF4 melts at -90oC and SiO2 melts at 1710oC
• Polyethylene melts at about 125oC. But if adjacent
polyethylene chains are bonded together by some C-C
bonds produced by irradiation, the polymer may keep
its shape and thermal stability up to 300oC
Influence of bond type on structure and properties
The non-directionality of metallic and ionic bond allows metal atoms to be
packed closely together in a regular crystalline array. The major of them
have ligancy of either 12 (CPH or FCC systems) or 8 (BCC systems). The
CN of ionic crystals is frequency of 4, 6, or 8 and so, on average, ionic
crystals possess lower packing densities than metals. This is due to the fact
that ionic compound contains at least 2 types of ion which may be of
different sizes, compared to a pure metal where all atoms are identical, and
secondly the ions possess opposing charges.
Metals and ceramics are fully crystalline but polymers and glasses are either
partially crystalline or completely amorphous. In amorphous structures, the
atoms or molecules are not packed in a regular and symmetrical pattern and
the amount of void space is greater than within a crystal.
As the atomic number of the element increases and the distance of the outer
shell or valence, electrons from the nucleus becomes greater, the bond
strength of covalently bonded crystals reduces.
The melting pt of C, Si, Ge, Sn are 3800, 1420, 937 and 232oC respectively.
The melting pt of ceramics materials mainly oxides, carbides and nitrides of the
lower atomic number elements such as Al, B, Mg, Si are all high being in the
order of 1000 – 3000oC. The presence of weak van der waals bond within
the covalently bonded molecules influences the melting temperatures.
The polymides (nylons) have higher m.p than other polymers such as
polyethylene because of the presence of hydrogen bonds.
The close packing of atoms in metals leads towards relatively high m.p. the
strength of bond may be less compare to that of ionic and covalent bonds
• FCC & HCP
• SIMILARITIES:
• Both FCC & HCP Structures have atomic packing factors of 0.74. The two
structures are each regular stacking of close-packed planes. In the case of
fcc metals, the (111) planes are closed packed. These are identical to the
(0002) planes of the hcp structure
•
DIFFERENCES
• The fundamental difference between Al (FCC) and Mg(HCP) relates
directly to the different crystal structures for Al and Mg in their sequence of
packing of layers. Al structure follows a cubic packing arrangement - fcc
stacking as an ABCABC---- sequence, and the Mg a hexagonal one – hcp
stacking as ABAB---- Sequence. This subtle difference leads to significant
differences in their properties – ductility which depends on mechanical
deformation. This, is turn, is related to planes and directions of high atomic
density in the metals crystal structure. There are 12 plane/ direction
combinations for Al and only 3 for Mg. There are, therefore, 4 times as
many combinations for mechanical deformation in the Al crystal structure
as in Mg. This is equivalent to having 4 times, the number of avenues
available for ductility in aluminum based alloys as in Mg – based alloys.
• NOTE: The mechanical behavior of a given type of metal alloy can
be affected by heat treatment.
DIAMOND CUBIC (DC) CRYSTAL STRUCUTRE
• The diamond cubic crystal structure is a fcc lattice with
2 atoms per lattice pt., some spheres are tetrahedrally
coordinated by other spheres inside the cell.
• These are 8 atoms per unit cell for an average of 2
atoms per fcc position . Experiments show that the
C – C interatomic difference is 0.154nm in this
structure. The body diagonal is 4 times this value.
Thus
• (b.d) Diamond = 4 (C-C) = adiamond
• adiamond=4 (0.154nm) /√3 = 0.356nm
Differences between Diamond and Graphite
Diamond
Cdiamond, Gallium arsenide
(GaAs), Ge and grey Sn
Graphite
• DIFFERENCES
• Two crystalline forms (allotropes) of the element carbon – graphite and diamond.
Both allotropes are macromolecular, which explains why both graphite and
diamond have very high melting points above 35000c.
• The graphite crystal is PLANAR with the carbon atoms arranged in a HEXAGONAL
pattern. Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 others, forming one double bond and 2
single bonds. The forces between the layers in graphite are of the dispersion type
and are quite weak. Consequently, the layers can readily slide past one another so
that graphite is soft and slippery to the touch. When you write with a ―lead‖ pencil;
which is really made of graphite, than layers of graphite rub off onto the paper.
• In diamond, each carbon atom forms single bonds with four other carbon atoms
arranged tetrahedrally around it. The bonds are strong enough (bond energy C – C
= 347 KJ mol-1) to produce a rugged three dimensional lattice. Diamond is one of
the very hardest of substances, and is used industrially in cutting tools and quality
grindstones.
• The light elements in group IV have crystal structures in which all the bonds that
hold the crystal together are covalent. The bonds are the results of overlapping sp3
hybrid orbitals and the structure that results is the diamond cubic (DC) crystal
structure of diamond, Si, Ge and Grey Sn.
• Some of the group – IV elements can also have structures in which all the bonds
that hold the crystal together are not covalent. Graphite crystal structures; as earlier
stated, in it the atom are covalently bonded in planar hexagonal arrays with weak
secondary bonds between the planes. The primary covalent bonds are between the
sp2 orbital; the weaker bonds between the planes are much more metallic in
characters with the result that graphite conducts electricity and heat much more
easily parallel to the planes than perpendicular to them.
• POLYMORPHISM
• Diamond Graphite
• Diamond and graphite are the two polymorphs of carbon.
Diamond is hard, transparent, and an electrical insulator.
Graphite has lubricating characteristics and conducts an
electric current. These contracts arise from differences in
bonding, and therefore differences in structure. Diamond has a
3 – dimensional structure of covalent bonds. Graphite has π –
element that possesses mobility in the crystal layers of a 2-
dimensional structure.
• Diamond will change to graphite if it is heated sufficiently for the
thermal energy to break the bonds and coordinate the atoms
with new neighbors. The reaction is reversible.
• 15000C
• Cdiamond C graphite
• 20000C 10,000atm
Crystal Imperfections
• Point Defects
Point defects are localized disruption of the lattice involving one
as possibly several atoms
. Consider a hypothetical crystal structure.
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
VACANCIES
•A vacancy is produced when an atom is missing from a lattice
point (i.e. from a normal rite)
O O O O
O O O O vacancy
O O O
O O O O
Crystal Imperfections
A vacancy is produced into the crystal during
solidification at high temperature or as a result of
radiation change volume, Ոv is expressed as
Q
nV n exp nV T
RT
Crystal Imperfections
• INTERSTITIAL
• An interstitial defect is formed when an extra
atom is placed into the lattice at a rite that is
normally not a lattice point.
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
• interstitial impurity
Crystal Imperfections
• SUBSTITUTIONAL
• A point defect produced when an atom is
removed from a regular point and replaced with
a different atom, usually of a different size.
O O O O
O O O O
O O O
O O O O
Substitutional (smaller or
bigger than the regular
Crystal Imperfections
O O O O
O O O
O O O Schottky defect
O O O O
If a vacancy should occur on two adjacent ion and cation we have a schottky
defect
Crystal Imperfections
FRENKEL DEFECT
Frenkel defect
O O O O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O
Vacancy
Schottky defect formed in order to
maintain neutral charge
An edge dislocation moves (in its slip plane) in the direction of the
Burger’s vector (slip direction)
An edge dislocation involves an extra row of atoms, either above
(positive sign) or below (negative sign) the slip plane.
The presence of this extra row means that adjacent atoms are displaced
elastically, and consequently from both sides elastic forces are exerted
on the dislocation
SHEAR Stress = +ve dislocation moves to the right, -ve to the left
SCREW DISLOCATIONS
A screw dislocation lies parallel to its Burger’s vector.
P
SCHMID’S LAW
• A resolved shear stress
may be produced on a slip
system, causing the dislocation to move on the slip plane in
the slip direction.
Cos Cos
• where
Fr
Resolved shear stress in the slip direction;
A
• Fr = F Cos λ – resolved shear force; σ = F/Ao – unidirectional stress
applied; F – unidirectional force
Φ
λ
Slip direction
A Shear stress
λ is the angle between the slip direction and the applied force and Φ is
the angle between the normal to the slip plane and the applied force
The critical resolved shear stress crss is the shear stress required to
break enough metallic bonds in order for slip to occur. Thus slip occurs
causing the metal to deform, when the applied stress produces a resolved
shear stress that equals the critical resolved shear stress
r crss
Note When the slip plane is perpendicular to the applied stress σ. Then Φ
= O0 , λ = 900 and Cos λ = 0, therefore =0
That is, even if σ is great, no resolved shear stress develop along the slip
direction and the dislocation cannot move.
We can use Schmid’s law to compare the properties of metals having Bcc,
Fcc and Hcp crystal structures. (see table below)
Schmid’s law : slip in a metal crystal begins when the stress resolved on
the slip plane in the slip direction reaches a certain value termed the
critical resolved shear stress
C
BC =a√2
B AC = a√3
[101] Ф (111)
α
a [001]
O A
α = = sin-1(2/3)½
Schmid’s law : Slip in a metal crystal begins when the stress
resolved on the slip plane in the slip direction reaches a certain value
termed the critical resolved shear stress factors affecting slip in perfect
S/N metallic structures
FACTOR BCC FCC HCP
1 Critical resolved shear 35-70 0.35-0.70 0.35-0.70
stress (MPa)
2 Number of slip Systems 48 12 3
3 Cross-slip` Can occur Can occur Cannot occur
4 Properties Strong Ductile Relatively
Less dense Brittle
packed than FC
5 Slip Direction [111] [110] (100)(010)(ī10)
6 No Slip Planes 6 4 1
7 No of slip directions per 2 3 3
plane
r crss
• Cross-slip: A change in the slip system of a dislocation – when
dislocation shift to a second intersecting slip system, also
properly oriented and continue to move.
• In many Hcp metals cross-slip cannot occur since the plane are
parallel, not intersecting. Therefore the Hcp metals tend to
remain brittle. Cross –slip is possible in both Fcc and Bcc
metals because a number of intersecting slip system is present.
Cross-slip consequently helps maintain ductility in these metals.
• Note
• Dislocations are more difficult to move in ionic and covalent
materials. In covalent materials of Si, the directionality of the
bonds prevents easy movement of dislocations – behaves in a
rather brittle manner.
• In ionic materials including most ceramics, dislocations are
present and are observed to move , however movement of a
dislocation disrupts the charge balance around the anions and
cations, requiring that bonds between anions and cations be
broken. Slip is much more difficult and ceramic materials
normally display bristle behavior.
• Cross-slip: A change in the slip system of a dislocation – when
dislocation shift to a second intersecting slip system, also
properly oriented and continue to move.
• In many Hcp metals cross-slip cannot occur since the plane are
parallel, not intersecting. Therefore the Hcp metals tend to
remain brittle. Cross –slip is possible in both Fcc and Bcc
metals because a number of intersecting slip system is present.
Cross-slip consequently helps maintain ductility in these metals.
• Note
• Dislocations are more difficult to move in ionic and covalent
materials. In covalent materials of Si, the directionality of the
bonds prevents easy movement of dislocations – behaves in a
rather brittle manner.
• In ionic materials including most ceramics, dislocations are
present and are observed to move , however movement of a
dislocation disrupts the charge balance around the anions and
cations, requiring that bonds between anions and cations be
broken. Slip is much more difficult and ceramic materials
normally display bristle behavior.
• Critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) depends
on
– Composition: The value of CRSS increases with
increasing alloy content
– Purity: CRSS increases with increasing impurity
content (soluble impurity being more effective than
insoluble ones)
– Extent of prior deformation: CRSS increases with
increasing amount of prior deformation
– Temperature: CRSS generally decreases with
increasing temperature and drops abruptly to zero
at the melting point or the solidus temperature in
alloys
• SURFACE DEFECTS
• Surface imperfections of a structural nature arise
from a change in the stacking of atomic planes
across a boundary.
• STACKING FAULTS
• A surface defect in Fcc materials caused by the
improper stacking sequence of close-packed planes.
Normally, a stacking sequence ABCABCABC… is
produced in a perfect Fcc lattice. But suppose the
following sequence is produced ABCABABABC. The
small region ABAB which has an Hcp stacking
sequence instead of the Fcc stacking sequence
represents a stacking fault. Stacking faults interfere
with the slip process.
STACKING SEQUENCE
• The manner in which close-packed
planes are stacked on top of one another
in a particular structure; planes stacked
so their atoms are directly above one
another are represented by the same
letter, for example ABABABA…
represents HCP stacking and
ABCABCABC… represents FCC stacking
(0001)
(111)
A
B
C
(0002)
A
B A
A A Stacking of
C (111) planes
A B B
A A
C C
B
A A
A A
B B
A A
B Stacking of
A A (0002) planes
• TWIN BOUNDARIES
• A twin boundary is a surface defect across
which there is a mirror image misorientation of
the lattice. It can also move and cause
deformation of the material. The twin
boundaries interfere of the metal.
Crystal Formation
Crystallization
• Crystallization is the transition from the liquid to the solid state
and occurs in two stages:
• 1. Nucleus formation
• 2. Crystal growth
• Atomic motion in the liquid state of a metal is almost completely
disordered. Although the atoms in the liquid state do not have
any definite arrangement, it is possible that some atoms at any
given instant are in positions exactly corresponding to the
space lattice they assume when solidified. As the energy in the
liquid system decreases, the movement of the atoms decreases
and the probability increases for the arrangement of a number
of atoms into a characteristic lattice for that material. The
energy level at which these isolated lattices form is called the
freezing point.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Mechanism of solidification (square grids represent the unit cells)
(a) Nucleus formation; (b), (c) Growth of the crystallites; (d) Grain boundaries
Now consider a pure metal at its freezing point where both the liquid and solid states
are at the same temperature. The kinetic energy of the atoms in the liquid and the solid
must be the same, but there is a significant difference in potential energy. Kinetic
energy is related to the speed at which the atoms move and is strictly a function of
temperature. The higher the temperature, the more active are the atoms and the
greater is their kinetic energy. Potential energy, on the other hand, is related to the
distance between atoms. The greater the average distance between the atoms, the
greater is their potential energy. The atoms in the solid are much closer together, so
that solidification occurs with a release of energy. This difference in potential energy
between the liquid and solid states is known as the latent heat of fusion.
When the temperature of the liquid metal has dropped sufficiently below its freezing
point, stable aggregates or nuclei appear spontaneously at various points in the liquid.
These nuclei, which have now solidified, act as centers for further crystallization. As
cooling continues, more atoms tend to freeze, and they may attach themselves to
already existing nuclei or form new nuclei of their own. Each nucleus grows by the
attraction of atoms from the liquid into its space lattice.
• Crystal growth continues in three dimensions, the atoms
attaching themselves in certain preferred directions,
usually along the axes of a crystal. This gives rise to a
characteristic treelike structure which is called dendrite.
Crystal growth continues in three dimensions, the atoms
attaching themselves in certain preferred directions,
usually along the axes of a crystal. This gives rise to a
characteristic treelike structure which is called dendrite.
Once the external load is removed from an When a body is plastically deformed, it retains its
elastically deformed body, it regains its original deformed shape even after the removal of external
shape. load.
In elastic deformation, atoms of the material are In plastic deformation, atoms of the solid are
displaced temporarily from their original lattice displaced permanently from their original lattice
site. They return back to their original position site. They don’t return back to the original
after the removal of external load. position even after the removal of external load.
Amount of elastic deformation is very small. Amount of plastic deformation is quite large.
External force required for elastic deformation of Force required for plastic deformation is also
solid is quite small. higher.
Energy absorbed by the material during elastic Total energy absorbed by the material during
deformation is called module of resilience. elastic and plastic deformation region is called
module of toughness.
Hooke’s Law of elasticity is applicable within this Hooke’s Law is not applicable if the material is
elastic region. plastically deformed.
Most solid materials display a linear stress-strain Stress-strain curve is non-linear in plastic region.
behavior within this elastic region.
Material first undergo elastic deformation under Plastic deformation occurs after it is elastically
the application of external loading. deformed due to the application of external
loading.
Mechanical and metallurgical properties of the Many properties of the solid material change
solid material remain unaltered when it is considerably for plastic deformation.
elastically deformed.
• Plastic deformation may take place by :
» Slip
» Twinning
» Combination of slip and twinning
• Deformation by Slip:
When the plastic deformation is due to slip, the atoms
move a whole interatomic space (moving from one
corner to another corner of the unit cell). This means
that overall lattice structure remains the same. Slip is
observed as thin lines under the microscopes and
these lines can be removed by polishing.
• Recovery:
• This is primarily a low temperature process, and the property changes
produced do not cause appreciable change in microstructure or the
properties, such as tensile strength, yield strength, hardness and
ductility. The principal effect of recovery is the relief of internal
stresses due to cold working.
• When the load which causes plastic deformation is released, all the
elastic deformation does not disappear. This is due to the different
orientation of crystals, which will not allow some of them to move back
when the load is released. As the temperature is increased, there is
some spring back of these elastically displaced atoms which relieve
most of the internal stresses. Electrical conductivity is also increased
appreciably during the recovery stage.
• Since the mechanical properties of the metal are essentially
unchanged, the main purpose of heating in the recovery range is
stress relieving cold worked alloys to prevent stress corrosion
cracking or to minimize the distortion produced by residual stresses.
Commercially, this low temperature treatment in the recovery range is
known as stress relief annealing or process annealing.
• Recrystallization:
• As the temperature of the recovery range is reached,
minute new crystals appear in the microstructure. These
new crystals have the same composition and lattice
structure as the original undeformed grains and are not
elongated but are uniform in dimensions. The new crystals
generally appear at the most drastically deformed portions
of the grain, usually the grain boundaries and slip planes.
The cluster of atoms from which the new grains are formed
is called a nucleus. Recrystallization takes place by a
combination of nucleation of strain free grains and the
growth of these nuclei to absorb the entire cold worked
material.
• The term recrystallization temperature does not refer to a
definite temperature below which recrystallization will not
occur, but refers to the approximate temperature at which
a highly cold worked material completely recrystallizes in
one hour.
Material Recrystallization
Temperature (oF)
Copper ( 99.99 %) 250
Copper (5 % Zinc) 600
Aluminum (99.99 %) 175
Aluminum alloys 600
Low carbon steel 1000
Zinc 50
Tin 25
Lead 25
Recrystallization temperatures for various metals and alloys.
Material Recrystallization
Temperature (oF)
Copper ( 99.99 %) 250
Copper (5 % Zinc) 600
Aluminum (99.99 %) 175
Aluminum alloys 600
Low carbon steel 1000
Zinc 50
Tin 25
Lead 25
• The greater the prior deformation, the lower the
temperature for the start of recrystallization.
• Increasing the annealing time decreases the
recrystallization temperature for the start of
recrystallization.
• During recrystallization stage, there is a
significant drop in tensile strength, hardness and
a large increase in the ductility of the material.
• Grain Growth:
• In this stage the tensile strength and hardness
continue to decrease but at a much less rate than
the recrystallization stage. The major change
observed during this stage is the growth of the
grain boundaries and reaching the original grain
size (See Figure below).
Effect of annealing on tensile strength, hardness, ductility and grain size.
Phase Diagrams
Part 1
The properties of a material depend on the type,
number, amount, and form of the phases present, and
can be changed by altering these quantities. In order to
make these changes, it is essential to know the
conditions under which these quantities exist and the
conditions under which a change in phase will occur.
The best method to record the data related to phase
changes in many alloy systems is in the form of phase Sample Phase Diagram
diagrams, also known as equilibrium diagrams or
constitutional diagrams.
In order to specify completely the state of a system in equilibrium, it is necessary to specify
three independent variables. These variables, which are externally controllable, are
temperature, pressure and composition. With pressure assumed to be constant at
atmospheric value, the equilibrium diagram indicates the structural changes due to variation
of temperature and composition. Phase diagrams show the phase relationships under
equilibrium conditions, that is, under conditions in which there will be no change with time.
Equilibrium conditions may be approached by extremely slow heating and cooling, so that if
a phase change is to occur, sufficient time is allowed.
Phase diagrams are usually plotted with temperature as the ordinate, and the alloy
composition as the abscissa as shown in the Figure above.
Phase Diagrams
Part 2
• Inverse Lever Rule:
• Inverse lever rule is used to determine the percentage of each
phase that is present at various temperatures.
• The length of line XY represents the sum of the two phases as
100 percent. The inverse lever rule states that liquid phase can
be calculated by taking the length of the line XZ and dividing
this by XY.
• The solid phase can be calculated by taking the length of the
line ZY and dividing it by XY. To get the percentages, the
values are multiplied by 100.
Austenite crystals.
Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram
AUSTENITE ( iron):
It is also known as ( ) gamma-iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of
carbon dissolved in iron with a face centered cubic crystal (F.C.C) structure.
Average properties of austenite are:
Table 1. Properties of Austenite
FERRITE ( iron):
It is also known as ( ) alpha -iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of a
small amount of carbon dissolved in iron with a Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C.)
crystal structure. It is the softest structure on the iron-iron carbide diagram.
Average properties are:
Table 2. Properties of Ferrite.
Tensile Strength 40,000 psi
• Figure 1. Effect of carbon on hardness, tensile strength and yield strength of steels.
• Silica refractory 96 - - - - 4
• Fireclay 50-70 45-25 5
• Mullite 28 72 -
• Electrical porcelain 61 32 6 1
• Steatite porcelain 64 5 30 1
• Portland cement 25 9 64 2
• Some nonsilicate oxides and nonoxide ceramic
Polyethylene Alathon, Petrothene, Chemically resistant, and electrically Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery
Hi-fax insulating; tough and relatively low parts, ice trays, film wrapping
coefficient of friction; low strength materials
and poor resistance to weathering
Polypropylene Pro-fax, Tenite, Resistant to heat distortion; excellent Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV
Moplen electrical properties and fatigue cabinets, luggage
strength; chemically inert; relatively
inexpensive; poor resistance to UV
light
Poylstyrene Dtyron, Lustrex, Excellent electrical properties and optical Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor
Rexolite clarity; good thermal and lighting panels, appliance housings
dimensional stability; relatively
inexpensive
Vinyls PVC, Pliovic, Saran, Good low cost, general purpose materials; Floor coverings, pipe, electrical wire
Tygon ordinarily rigid, but may be made insulation, garden hose
flexible with plasticizers; often
copolymerized; susceptible to heat
distortion
Polyester (PET) Mylar, Dacron, One of the toughest of plastic films; Magnetic recording tapes, clothing,
Celanar excellent fatigue and tear strength, auomotove tire cords
and resistance to humidity, acids,
MATERIALS SELECTION
Design
Selection
Manufacture
Materials
MATERIALS SELECTION
Material Properties:
The expected level of performance from the material
Material Cost and Availability
Material must be priced appropriately (not cheap but right)
Material must be available (better to have multiple sources)
Processing
Must consider how to make the part, for example: