MME211 – SCIENCE OF MATERIALS

Lecturer: Prof. David Esezobor

Engr. O. I. Lawal

Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Dept.

Email: [email protected]
SESSION • Course Outline
TOPIC
• Course Outline, Laboratory
Experiments,
WEEK 1 • Types of Materials
• Atomic Structure
– Mass Number
– Isotopy

• Physical Model of the Atom

WEEK 2 - Quantum Numbers
- Hund’s Rule
 • Valency Model of the Atom
• Valency and Inertness
WEEK 3 • Excitation and Ionization Energy

• Atomic Theory/Structure and

Properties of Atomic Nuclei
WEEK 4 - Dalton’s
- Thomson
- Bohr’s
Rutherford’s
•Radioactivity
 •Inter Atomic Bonding
WEEK 5 • Crystal Structure
• Stacking Sequence and Stacking
Faults
•
• Miller Indices
WEEK 7 • Interplanar Distance
•Crystal Imperfections
 •Atomic Movements
•Phase
•Equilibrium Diagrams and Alloys
WEEK 8

WEEK 9 •TEST 1
WEEK 10 •Solid State Transformations
• Survey of Occurrence and Extraction of
Metals
• Non Crystalline Solids
- Polymers
- Ceramics
 •Composites
•Ceramics
•Polymers
WEEK 11 •Thermoplastics and Thermosets

WEEK 12 •Materials Selection

WEEK 13 Review
WEEK 14 Review /TUTORIAL
WEEK 15 FINAL EXAM
LABORATORY PROGRAMS
•Laboratory 1: Introduction to
Laboratory Experiments
•Laboratory 2: Rockwell and Brinell
Hardness Tests
•Laboratory 3: Annealing
•Laboratory 4: Phase Diagram of Binary
Alloys
•Laboratory 5: Jominy End QuenchTest
•Materials Selection
•Laboratory 6: Nondestructive Testing
Methods
Review / Tutorial
FINAL EXAM
 • Grading
• Test 20 %
• Final Exam 60 %
• Lab reports 20 %
 REFERENCES
1. C. A. Loto. A Textbook of Materials Science &
Engineering
2. James P. Schaffer et al,. The Science and Design of
Engineering Materials. 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1999
3. J.C. Anderson et al. Materials Science. 2nd Edition,
E.L.B.S., 1974
4. John, Introduction to Engineering Materials.
Macmillan
5. D.J. Davies, L.A. Oelmann. The Structure, Properties
and Heat Treatment of Metals. Pitman, 1983
6. Atkins, Physical Chemistry
7. Khanna O.P. Materials Science & Metallurgy.
Dhanpat Rai Pub. Ltd. New Delhi, 2008
8. Rajput R.K. Materials Science & Engineering. S. K.
Kataria & Sons. Delhi, 2007
 Types of Materials

Metals:
good electrical and thermal conductivity,
high strength, high stiffness, and have good
ductility.
Some metals, such as Fe, Co and Ni are magnetic.
At extremely low temperatures, some metals and
intermetallic compounds become superconductors.

(5 categories of Engineering Materials): Metals, Polymers,

Ceramics, Semi-conductors & Composites.
 Pure metals:
• Pure metals are elements which come from a
particular area of the periodic table.
Examples of pure metals include copper in
electrical wires and aluminum in cooking foil
and beverage cans.
Metal Alloys:
• Metal Alloys contain more than one metallic
element. Their properties can be changed by
changing the elements present in the alloy.
Examples of metal alloys include stainless
steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and
chromium; and gold jewelry which usually
contains an alloy of gold and nickel.
• The most important properties of metals include
density, fracture toughness, strength and plastic
deformation. The atomic bonding of metals also
affects their properties. In metals, the outer
valence electrons are shared among all atoms,
and are free to travel everywhere. Since electrons
conduct heat and electricity, metals make good
cooking pans and electrical wires.
• Many metals and alloys have high densities and
are used in applications which require a high
mass-to-volume ratio.
• Some metal alloys, such as those based on
Aluminum, have low densities and are used in
aerospace applications for fuel economy.
• Many metal alloys also have high fracture
toughness, which means they can withstand
impact and are durable.
 POLYMERS
• Polymers are long – chain molecules composed of
many mers bonded together. The most common
commercial polymer is POLYETHYLENE –(C2H4)n-
where n can range from approximately 100 to 1000.
• An alternative name for this category is PLASTICS,
which describes the extensive formability of many
polymers during fabrication.
• A polymer has a repeating structure, usually based on
a carbon backbone. The repeating structure results in
large chainlike molecules. The ―mer‖ in a polymer is a
single hydrocarbon molecule such as ethylene (C2H4).
• Polymers are contained within animal (wool, leather),
insect (silk) and vegetable (wood, cotton) products.
• Polymers are useful because
they are lightweight, are
corrosion resistant, are easy to
process at low temperatures,
and are generally inexpensive.
• One of the distinct properties
of polymers is that they are
poor conductors of electricity
and heat, which makes them
good insulators.
Based on Thermal Behaviour
 TYPES OF POLYMER
• There are 2 types of polymers:
thermoplastics and the thermosets.
Rubber or elastomers form another group
of polymeric materials.
• Thermoplastic polymers, in which the long
molecular chains are not rigidly connected,
have good ductility and formability;
thermosetting polymers are stronger but
more brittle because the molecular chains
are tightly linked.
 CERAMICS
• Ceramics are compounds between metallic
and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The
wide range of materials that falls within this
classification includes ceramics that are
composed of clay minerals, cement, and
glass.
• These materials are typically insulative to the
passage of electricity and heat, and are more
resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers.
With regard to mechanical behavior,
ceramics are hard but very brittle.
 Composites
• Composites are formed from two or more types of
materials. Examples include polymer/ceramic and
metal/ceramic composites.
• Composites are used because overall properties of
the composites are superior to those of the
individual components. For example:
polymer/ceramic composites have a greater
modulus than the polymer component, but aren't as
brittle as ceramics.
• Three types of composites are:
• Particle-reinforced composites
• Fiber-reinforced composites
• Structural composites
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Semiconductors have electrical properties that
are intermediate between the electrical
conductors and insulators.
• Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of
these materials are extremely sensitive to the
presence of minute concentrations of impurity
atoms, which concentrations may be controlled
over very small spatial regions.
• The semiconductors have made possible the
advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer
industries (not to mention our lives) over the past
two decades.
 • BIOMATERIALS
• Biomaterials are employed in components
implanted into the human body for
replacement of diseased or damaged body
parts.
• These materials must not produce toxic
substances and must be compatible with
body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse
biological reactions).
• All of the above materials—metals,
ceramics, polymers, composites, and
semiconductors—may be used as
biomaterials.
 Material Structure
• All matter is considered to be composed of unit substances known as
chemical elements. These are the smallest units that are
distinguishable on the basis of their chemical activity and physical
properties. The elements are composed of atoms which have distinct
structure characteristic of each element.
• Element: The smallest part of a substance that retains the same
properties of that substance and can not be broken down any further.
Elements are composed of atoms which have a distinct structure
characteristic of each element.
• Atom: The smallest particle of an element which retains the distinct
structure characteristic of an element.
 Atomic Structure:
• The free atom is composed of electrons, protons,
and neutrons. Almost the entire mass of the atom
is concentrated in the nucleus, which contains
the protons (positive charges) and neutrons
(electrically neutral particles).
• The electrical charge q carried by each e and p is
1.60x10-19 coulombs. An atom consists of a
minute positively charged nucleus surrounded by
a sufficient number of electrons (negative
charges) to keep the atom as a whole neutral. The
nucleus is 10-14m in diameter.
• Since the electron and proton have equal but
opposite electrical charge, the neutral atom must
contain an equal number of electrons and
protons.
Figure 1. Atomic Model
 Atomic Mass Number:
• Atomic Mass Number, A = Number of electrons, e + Number of
neutrons, N or it can be equal to Number of Protons, p + Number of
Neutrons, N i.e.
A = e + N or A = p + N
• The mass of each proton and neutron is about 1.67x10-24 g which is
referred to a.m.u, but the mass of each electron is 9.11x10-28g which
makes a negligible contribute to the atomic mass of the element.
• Mp is greater than Me by 1876
• Mass Number has a mass very close to the atomic mass unit. The
mass number of an atom approximately expresses its ATOMIC
MASS.
• Mass Number is the mass of Avogadro number, NA= 6.02x1023 mol-1
is the number of atoms or molecule in a g mole. The unit of atomic
mass is g/g mole or a.m.u, which is the mass of carbon 12.
• Atomic Number:
• Atomic Number, Z = Number of electrons = Number of protons
• Z = e = p.
• The number of p in the nucleus of an atom is the characteristic of the
element in which that atom belongs and is called the ATOMIC
NUMBER of that element.
 Proton Neutron Electron
Symbol p N e
Mass , kg 1.67x10-27 1.67x10-27 9.11x10-31
Charge, C 1.6x10-19 0 1.6x10-19
Mass relative to e 1876 1876 1
Charge relative to p +1 0 -1

• The electrons, spinning on their own axes as they

rotate around the nucleus, are arranged in
definite shells. The maximum number of
electrons that can fit in each shell is 2n2 where n
is the shell number.
• The maximum number of electrons that can fit in
the first shell (K) is two, the second shell (L)
eight, the third shell (M) eighteen, the fourth shell
(N) thirty two, etc.
 ISOTOPES
• From the Greek words ―isos‖ which means same and ―topes‖ –
place.
• Atoms having an identical charge of their nucleus (and,
consequently, identical chemical properties) , but a different
numbers of neutron and (and, therefore, a different mass number)
are known as isotopes. Atomic mass = average (means) of the
proportion (abundances) isotopes.
35
17 Cl 17
37
Cl 17
35 .43
Cl
• All the elements in the periodic table exhibit isotopic character
i.e 75 .53 % of 35  2 .43 % of 37
except Be, Fe, Na, Al, P, Sc, Mn, Co, As, Y, Nb, Rh, I Cs, Pr, Ts,
Ho, Tm, Au.
• The chemical properties of isotopes are identical. This means that
if there does exist a certain difference between isotopes with
respect to their chemical properties, it is so small that it is virtually
not detected, only those involving mass effects would be noticed.
• An exception is the hydrogen isotopes 1H and 2H. Owing to the
enormous relative difference in their atomic masses (the mass of
an atom of one isotope is double that of an atom of the other
isotope) the properties of these isotopes differ quite appreciable.
The 2H is called Deuterium (D). The deuterium content in ordinary
hydrogen is about 0.015%.
 PHYSICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM
(ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE)
I. An e has the lowest energy when it is in the orbit
closest to the nucleus (i.e. normal or ground state of
an atom)
II. The energy of an e can take on only definite
―allowed‖ values, in other words it is quantized i.e.
electron occupy discrete energy levels within the
atom. Each e possesses a particular energy, with
no more than 2 e in each atom having the same
energy.
III. The energy level to which each e belongs is
determined by the 4 quantum numbers.
IV. The number of POSSIBLE ENERGY levels is
determined by the 1st 3 quantum number
FIRST (PRINCIPAL) QUANTUM number, n
• The possible energy states of an electron in an atom are determined
by the volume of the principal quantum number, n that can take
1,2,3…., etc. An e has the smallest energy at n=1. It grows with n
increases. At n=1, e is the 1st or ground energy level, at n=2, it is at
2nd level etc .

• n determines the dimension of the electron cloud. A greater value

of n corresponds to greater dimensions of the dimensions of the
electron cloud (layers or shells).
• A DISCRETE number of e is situated in every level and is equal to

• N = 2n2 where N – total number of e

• 1st level N = 2x12 =2 electrons
• 2nd level N = 2x22 = 8 electrons
• 3rd level N = 2x32 = 18 electrons and etc.

• Principal quantum number, n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• Designation of energy level K L M N O P Q
 2nd (ORBITAL) or AZIMUTHAL Quantum number, l
The shape of the e cloud is determined l
K Shell that can take the value of o to (n-1). It determines
(n=1) 2e the value of ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM of
an electron.
L Shell
(n=2)
N= 8:8e l =O when n=1 does not mean an electron at rest, but a motion
M Shell that does not give rise to a resultant angular momentum, L
(n=3) L=mvr
m is the mass of the particle, v is the velocity and r is the
position vector connecting the center of revolution to the
particle.
Figure 1. The atomic structure of sodium 2131 Na
The angular momentum of the electron
L
h
r Lm  ( q ( q  1) (1)
mv 2n

h-plank’s constant = 6.626x10-34Js

q – the charge of the electron.

• The azimuthal quantum numbers are customarily
called the ENERGY SUBLEVELS OR
SUBSHELLS of an electron in an atom. They are
designated by lowercase letters
Orbital q. no 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Designation of energy level s p d f g h i j
• s-sharp, p-principal, d-diffuse, f-fundamental.
• when n=2 we have either 0 or -1 i.e. 2 sublevels
• In general, in the nth level, there will be n sublevels
with equals to 0, 1, 2, 3,…, n-1
 THIRD (MAGNETIC) QUANTUM number, ml
• indicates the orientation of an electron. It gives the number
of energy levels or orbital for each azimuthal quantum
number. The total of ml for each is 2l+1. The values of ml are
given by whole numbers between n – e and +e. for
example 3 different values of (-1, 0, +1) are possible for p
electron (=1) and s for M, (-2,-1,0,+1,+2) for d electron (=2)
which is 2(2) +1=5.
• ml is called magnetic because of the interact of the
magnetic field set up by an electron with which the
external magnetic field depends on its value.
• All orbitals of equal in a given sublevel are energy (they
degenerate). In the presence of a magnetic field their different
orientations cause them to have different energies.
• Three quantum numbers (n, l, and ml) are required to specify a
particular orbital.
 SHAPE AND ARRANGEMENTOF ELECTRONS IN SPACE
Electron clouds of 1s, 2p and 3d electrons
i) Since ml = (0) =1 for ―s‖ state ii) p orbital l = 1; ml (-1, 0, 1) = 3, accordingly
l =0, then any possible they can be arranged in space in 3 ways
arrangement of an S electron
cloud in space are identical Z Y
Z Z Y
Y

1S 2px 2py
X X
X

Z
The 3 p electron clouds are oriented along mutually
Y perpendicular direction, which are conventionally taken
2pz as the direction of the coordinate axes (x, y or z); the
X corresponding states of the electrons are designated
px, py, and pz

iii) For d orbital l = 5; ml = (-2,-1,0,+1,+2) = 5 values of the magnetic quantum number

are possible and accordingly, 5 different orientations of the d electron clouds in space.
p - orbitals
 d - orbitals

3dxy
3dyz

3dz²

3dxz 3dx² - y²
f ORBITALS
At the fourth and higher levels, there are seven f orbitals in
addition to the 4s, 4p, and 4d orbitals.
 FOURTH QUANTUM NUMBER, (SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER)
• ms or simply the spin is used to determine the INTRINSIC
state of an electron. Unlike n, l , and ml, ms is not associated
with motion of the electron about the nucleus. It can be loosely
associated with the spin of the electron about its own axis.
This can have only 2 values + ½ or –½ depending on the
direction of rotation of the electron about its axis (ms = +½ or -
½ ). Two electrons in the same orbital having values of +½
and -½ are said to be paired; both of them would have the
same amount of energy.
• NOTE: The possible values of the spin quantum number differ
by UNITY.
• Four quantum numbers (n, l, ml, and ms) are required to
specify a particular electron.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
It specifies that no more than 2 electrons, each with oppositely
electronic spins, may be present in each orbital. The spin
quantum number is assigned values + ½ to reflect the different
spins .
 Summary
Table 1.2 Maximum number of electrons in atom energy levels and sublevels

Energy Energy Possible Values Number of Number of

Level, n sublevel, of Magnetic orbitals electrons
l (n-1) Quantum In In In In
Number, sublevel level sublevel level
ml (2l+ 1)
K (n=1) s(l=O) 0 1 1 2 2

L (n=2) s(l=O) 0 1 2
p(l=1) -1, 0, +1 3 6 8
4
M (n=3) s(l=0) 0 1 2
p(l=1) -1, 0, +1 3 6 18
9
d(l=2) 5 10
-2,-1,0,+1,+2
N=(n=4) s(l=0) 0 1 2
p(l=1) -1, 0, +1 3 16 6
d(l=2) -2,-1,0,+1,+2 5 10 32
f(l=3) -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 7 14
 CONCLUSION
• Each principal level of quantum number, n contains a total n sublevels
• Each sublevel of quantum No, l contains a total 2l + 1 orbitals
• Each orbital can hold two electrons
• The maximum number of e in each energy level is 2n2
• The shorthand notation frequently used to donate the electronic structure of
an atom combines the numerical value of the principal quantum No, n, the
lowercase letter rotation for the azimuthal quantum No and a superscript
showing the number of electrons in each orbital. Thus, the shorthand
notation for the electronic structure of bromine which has an atomic number
of 35 is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2 4p5
• The four quantum numbers: n = 1, 2, 3, …
• l = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. (n-1)
• ml = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … ±l
• ms = +1/2 or -1/2
NOTE
The energy state of the electrons depends not only on the principal
quantum number n, but also on the orbital quantum number. This is associated
with the circumstance that an electron in an atom is not only attracted by the
nucleus, but is also repelled by the electrons between the given electron and the
nucleus. The internal electron layers form a peculiar shield that weakens the
attraction to the nucleus
 ORBITAL DIAGRAMS HUND’S RULE
• An atomic orbital diagram shows the electron distribution in an
atom by means of a diagram which accounts for the distribution
by all four quantum numbers.
• An orbital is shown by a box, circle or line.
• An electron is shown by an arrow.
• The arrows also show the spin of the electron so that when two
electrons are in the same orbital, the arrows point in opposite
directions to represent their opposing spins.
• Sublevels are shown by a designation under the appropriate
orbitals
• Orbital diagram indicates the number of electrons in each
orbital and their respective spins:
1s2 2s2 2p1
Electron configuration of boron
B
 Definition (Hund’s Rule)
In an atom in which orbitals of equal energy are to be
filled by electrons, the order of filling is such that as
many electrons remain unpaired as possible
I: Ms are the same, while their spin are
I C antiparallel

2p
II: 2p electrons occupy different orbitals
(i.e. have different Ms and their spins
II C
are opposite)

III Different orbits correspond to the 2

III C s p electrons while their spins are
parallel

2s
Among the 3 diagrams, the third is correct and it corresponds to the greatest value
of the total spin of an atom. (In I & II the sum of the spin of all electrons is zero
while, for the third diagram it is unity.
• Therefore Hund’s rule states that the maximum value of the total spin of an
atom corresponds to the stable i.e. unexcited state in which the atom has the
smallest possible energy; at any other distribution of the electrons, the
energy of the atom will be higher, so that it will be in an excited, unstable
state. In other words the distribution of the electrons within the limits of an
energy sublevel at which the absolute value of the total spin of the atom is
maximum corresponds to the stable state of an atom.
1st Rule
• The sequence of filling of the atomic electron orbitals depends on the
values of the principal and orbital quantum number. And the energy of
an electron rises as the sum of these 2 quantum number increases, i.e.
with increasing n+l. With an increase in the charge of the nucleus of an
atom, the electron orbitals are filled consecutively from orbitals with a
smaller value of the sum of the principal and orbital quantum (n + l) to
orbitals with a greater value of this sum.
2nd Rule
• At identical values of the sum n+l the orbital are filled consecutively in
the direction of the growth in the value of the principal quantum
number, n
• Note:
• The chemical properties of the elements are
determined first of all by the structure of the outer
electron layer of their atom and depend only to a
smaller extent on the content of the structure of the
preceding (inner) electron layers.
• All the d (transition) elements are METALS whereas
the filling of the outer P sublevel result in a transit from
a metal to a typical non-metal and finally, to a noble
gas.
• The outer orbitals of d metals are filled in order of
energy stability and an increased energy stability is a
property of electrons configurations with exactly a
HALF-FILLED or TOTAL-FILLED sublevel (e.g.
structures containing 3 electrons in the outer layer,
five d electrons in the layer preceding the outer one, or
seven f electrons in a still deeper layer).
• Violation
• The violations of the ―normal‖ sequence of filling the energy states in
(lanthanum (Z =57) (the appearances of a 5d instead of a 4f electron) and
cesium (the simultaneous appearance of two 4f election). This can be
explained as follows: upon an increase in the charge of the nucleus the
electrostatic attraction to it of an electron in a given energy sublevel
becomes stronger and the energy of the electron diminishes. The energy of
the electron in different sublevels changes differently because the charge of
the nucleus is increased to a different extent with respect to these electrons.
In particular, the energy of 4f of electrons diminishes with a growth in the
charge of the nucleus more sharply than the energy of the 5d electrons.

E
4f

5d

Z
57 58
Dependence of the energy of the 4f and 5d electrons on the nuclear charge.
• Consequently in La (Z =57), the energy of the
5d electrons is found to be lower and in cesium
(Z=58) higher than that of the 4f electrons.
Accordingly, the electron that in La is in the
sublevel 5d in cesium passes to the sublevel 4f
• 57La 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2
5p6 5d1 6s2
• 58Ce 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f2
5s2 5p6 6s2
• The most stable state of an electron in an atom
corresponds to the minimum possible value of
its energy
 Tutorial Questions
• Why does the ns orbital go before the (n−1)d orbital
when writing transition metal electron configurations?
• The valence shell of the element X contains 2
electrons in a 5s subshell. Element X also has a
partially filled 4d subshell. What type of element is X?
• How many electrons does H2SO4 have? How many
atoms does each element have?
• Oxygen reacts with fluorine to form only OF2, but
sulphur which is in the same group 16 as oxygen,
reacts with fluorine to form SF2, SF4 and SF6. Explain?
 Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division
Periodic Table of the Elements
Group**

Period 1 18
IA VIIIA
1A 8A
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB ------- VIII ------- IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B ------- 8 ------- 1B 2B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.47 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 190.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116 118
7 Fr Ra Ac~ Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt --- --- --- --- --- ---
(223) (226) (227) (257) (260) (263) (262) (265) (266) () () () () () ()

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (147) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide Series~ Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 (231) (238) (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (249) (254) (253) (256) (254) (257)
 Periodic Table
• VALENCE: The valence of an atom is the ability of
the atom to enter into chemical combination with
other elements and is often determined by the
number of electron in the outer most combined s p
level.
• O2-referred valence and
• H2-referred valence
• Mg- 2; Al- 3; Ge- 4; Na- 1;
• P- 3, 5; Mn- 2, 3, 4, 6, 7

• ELECTRONEGATIVITY: Describes the tendency of

an atom to gain an electron. Atoms with almost
completely filled outer energy level, like Chlorine is
strongly electronegative and readily accepts
electron.
• EXCITATION, IONIZATION AND IONIZATION ENERGIES:

• When atoms are exposed to high energy high temperature or

exposed to fast-moving electrons from nearly any source,
they tend to become excited and to give off energy in the
form of radiation. The nature of the radiation emitted depends
on the excitation which is used.

• When atoms through collisions, absorb energy and become

excited, they move in the process to higher allowed electronic
energy levels. Once excited the atoms will be unstable and
will tend to return to lower electronic energy levels, ultimately
reaching the lower energy level, the ground state of the atom.
•
• Under excitation the atom will quickly reach a state of
dynamic equilibrium in which some atoms are releasing
energy at the same rate that it is being absorbed by other.
• In a process in which an excited atom makes a
transition to a lower energy level, a photon of
light may be emitted (A ray of light can be
considered to consist of photons which appear
to have some properties characteristic of
particles).
• The wavelength of the photon is related to the
magnitude of the change in energy (ΔE) of the
atom by
hc
DEatom  E Photon 

(2)

where h is a physical constant, called = Planck’s constant 6.626 x 10-34 J.S,

c is the speed of light = 2.998 x 108 m/s and  the wavelength of the photon in
meters.
 IONIZATION ENERGY and AFFINITY ELECRON
• The amount of energy needed to detach an electron from an
atom with conversion of the latter into a positive ion is called
ionization energy.
• The smallest voltage of the field at which the speed of the
electrons becomes sufficient for ionization of the atoms is the
ionization potential of the atoms and is expressed in volts.
• The energy of an electron is often expressed in electron volts
(eV)
• 1eV is the energy acquired by an electron in an accelerating
electric field with a potential difference of one volt
• 1eV = 1.6x10-19J = 96.5KJ/mol (1 kJ·mol−1 is equal to
0.239 kcal·mol−1 or 1.04×10−2 eV per particle)

• The ionization energy expressed in electron-volts numerically

equals the ionization potential expressed in volts.
• The first ionization energy, of an atom is the energy change of
the formation of positive ion from the gaseous atom;
• X(g) = X+(g) +e 1st E-ionization energy
• The magnitude of the E, can be a measure of the greater as
smaller ―metallicity‖ of an element the smaller the E, the easier
it is to detach an electron from the atom and the stronger
should the metallic properties of the element be expressed.

• An increase in the atomic number of element is attended by

diminishing of the ionization energy in the groups. This fronts to
an increase in the metallic properties and accordingly, a
decrease in the non-metallic properties of the relevant element.

• This regularity is associated with the growth in the atomic radii.

- the smaller the atom, the more tightly its electrons are held to
the nucleus and the more difficulty they are to be removed. In
addition, an increase in the number of intermediate electron
layers between the nucleus of an atom and the outer electrons
leads to greater screaming of the nucleus, i.e. diminishing its
effective charge. Both these factors (the growing of its effective
charge) lead to weakening of the bond of the outer electrons
with the nucleus and consequently, to lowering of the ionization
energy. Large atoms such as those of the alkali metals have
relatively low ionization energies because the outer electrons
are far away from the positive charge of the nucleus.
 Summary
• The properties of an atom are determined by
the following factors:
– The atomic number that corresponds to the
number of electrons or protons in a neutral atom
– The mass of the atom
– The spatial distribution of the electrons in orbits
around the nucleus
– The energy of the electrons in the atom and
– The ease of adding or removing one or more
electrons from the atom to create a charged ion.
 Tutorial
• Determine the electron configuration for a
sulfur atom, a selenium atom and a tellurium
atom. Explain why these three elements
display similar characteristics?
• Explain how an ―inert gas‖ like xenon (Xe) can
react with fluorine to form a stable compound.
Why does it not react with nitrogen?
• Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted
when an electron in the hydrogen atom jumps
from an excited n = 2 state to the n = 1.
 Atomic Theory
• John Dalton (1808)
• According to British chemist Dalton’s atomic theory,
all matter, whether an element, a compound or a
mixture is composed of small particles called atoms.
• The postulates of this theory may be stated as
follows:
• All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be
created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and
chemical properties
• Atoms of different elements have different
masses and chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole
numbers to form compounds
• The relative number and kinds of atoms are
constant in a given compound.
• Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols
for elements in a very specific sense. When he
used a symbol for an element he also meant a
definite quantity of that element, that is, one
atom of that element.
• Berzilius suggested that the symbols of elements be
made from 1 or 2 letters of the name of the element.
• In the beginning, the names of elements were derived
from the name of the place where they were found for
the first time. For example, the name copper was taken
from Cyprus.
• Some names were taken from specific colors. E.g, gold
was taken from the English word meaning yellow.
• Now-a-days, IUPAC (International Union Of Pure And
Applied Chemistry) approves names of elements.
• Many of the symbols are the first one or two letters of
the element’s name in English.
• The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital
letter (uppercase) and the second letter as a small letter
(lowercase).
• Thomson’s Theory
• The idea of an atom as indivisible particles proposed by Dalton
continued until the year 1897 when British Physicist J.J.
Thomson discovered negatively charged particles which were
later named electrons.
• Thomson’s Atomic Model- Postulates (1904)
• According to the postulates of Thomson’s atomic model, an
atom resembles a sphere of positive charge with electrons
(negatively charged particles) present inside the sphere.
• The positive and negative charge is equal in magnitude and
therefore an atom has no charge as a whole and is electrically
neutral.
• Thomson’s atomic model resembles a spherical plum pudding
as well as a watermelon. It resembles a plum pudding because
the electrons in the model look like the dry fruits embedded in a
sphere of positive charge just like a spherical plum pudding.
• The model has also been compared to a watermelon
because the red edible part of a watermelon was
compared to the sphere having a positive charge and
the black seeds filling the watermelon looked similar to
the electrons inside the sphere.
• Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model
• Thomson’s atomic model failed to explain how the
positive charge holds on the electrons inside the atom.
It also failed to explain an atom’s stability.
• The theory did not mention anything about the nucleus
of an atom.
• It was unable to explain the scattering experiment of
Rutherford.
• The energy lost by the electron in the abrupt transition
is precisely the same as the energy of the quantum of
emitted light.

An electron jumping
from orbit n=3 to
orbit n=2, emitting a
photon of red light
with an energy of
1.89 eV.

• In the Bohr model of the atom, electrons travel in

defined circular orbits around the nucleus. The orbits
are labeled by an integer, the quantum number n.
Electrons can jump from one orbit to another by
emitting or absorbing energy.
• Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom
• Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman
Effect (effect of magnetic field on the spectra of
atoms).
• It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of
electric field on the spectra of atoms).
• It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (dual
nature of matter and waves)
• It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger
atoms.
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF ATOMIC
NUCLEI. RADIOACTIVITY
• Radioactivity: This is a phenomenon of the
emission of radiation by certain element capable of
penetrating through a substance, ionizing air, and
of causing photographic plates to darkened.
• Radioactivity defined as the spontaneous emission
of particles (alpha, beta, neutron) or radiation
(gamma, K capture), or both at the same time, from
the decay of certain nuclides that these particles
are, due to an adjustment of their internal structure.
• Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay
or radioactivity) is the process by which an
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy (in terms of
mass in its rest frame) by emitting particles or
radiation, or both.
• Radioactivity can be natural or artificial. In natural
radioactivity, the substance already has
radioactivity in the natural state. In artificial
radioactivity, the radioactivity has been induced by
irradiation
 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF ATOMIC
NUCLEI. RADIOACTIVITY
• This phenomenon (Radioactivity) was first discovered in uranium
compounds by the French physicist A. BECQUEREL.
• Investigation of the Curies (Pierre) and of the British physicist
RUTHERFORD showed that radioactive radiation is not homogeneous: a
magnetic field causes it to divide into three beams, one of which does not
change its original direction, while the other 2 deviate in opposite
directions.
• The rays that do no deviate in a magnetic field and, consequently, have
no electric charge, were called GRAMMA RAYS. They are
electromagnetic radiation similar to X-rays and having a very high
penetrability.
• The deflection of the other outer 2 teams under the action of magnetic
field indicates that these beams consist of electrically charged particles.
The opposite direction of the observed deflecting witness that one beam
contains negatively charged particles (BETA RAYS), while the other
(ALPHA RAYS) CONTAINS POSITIVELY CHARGED PARTICLES. The
beta rays were found to be a stream of rapidly moving electrons.
• The positively charged alpha rays were found to consist of particles
whose mass equals that of a helium atom and whose charge is absolute
value is double that of an electron.
• Rutherford proved by direct experiments that these
particles are charged helium atoms. The results of
the experiment proved that Radium atoms in the
process of radioactive mission disintegrate (decay),
transforming into atom of other elements, particularly
into helium atoms
 4
226
88 Ra 
 He  86
2
222
Rn
NUCLEAR MODEL OF THE ATOM

According to the model proposed in 1903/1904 by J.J

Thomson, an atom consists of a positive charge uniformly
distributed over the entire volume of the atom and electron
migrating inside this charge.
To verify Thomson’s hypothesis and establish more
accurately the internal structure of an atom, E-Rutherford
performed series of experiments involving scattering of alpha
particles by thin metal plates (gold foil) in 1911
 A

M
S
Se
C F
Thin gold
foil

Set-up of alpha particle scattering experiment

• Source S of alpha rays was placed in lead capsule C with a borehole drilled in it in
order to obtain a pencil of alpha particles flying in a definite direction. Upon reaching
screen being coated with zinc sulphide, the alpha particles cause to grow the gold foil
F placed between the radiation source and the screen. The flashes on the screen
allowed the experimentalist to assess the deflection of the particles from the original
direction, although the thickness of the foil was hundredths of thousands of atomic
diameters. But a certain fraction of the particles was nevertheless deflected through
small angles while from time to time the particles sharply changed the direction of
their motion, and some of them even rebounded from the foil as if they had
encountered a massive obstacle.
• If followed from these results that the predominating part of the space occupied by an
atom of a metal contains no heavy particles only electrons can be there. And the
mass of main alpha particles is almost 7,500 times greater than that of an electron,
so that a collision with the latter cannot virtually affect the direction of the motion.
Cases of where deflection and even rebounding of the alpha particles however
signify that an atom contains heavy particles in which the predominating part of the
entire mass of the atom is concentrated. This nucleus occupies a very small volume
and must have a positive charge. This is why that nucleus repels the positively
charged alpha particles.
• On the basis of these considerations, Rutherford in 1911
proposed the following model of the structure of an atom
which is known as the structure of an atom also regarded as
the nuclear model of the atom. An atom consists of a
positively charged nucleus in which the predominating part of
the atom’s mass is concentrated, and of electrons orbiting
around it. The positive charged of the nucleus is neutralized
by the total negative charge of the electrons, so that the atom
as a whole is electrically neutral. The centrifugal force
produced owing to rotation of the electrons around the
nucleus is balanced by the force or electrostatic attraction of
the electrons to the oppositive charged nucleus. The size of
the nucleus is very small in comparison with that of an atom
is of the order of 10-8cm, whereas the diameter of the nucleus
is of the order of 10-13 to 10-12 cm.
• This experiment made it possible not only to detect an atomic
nucleus, but also to determine its charge. It followed that the
charge of a nucleus (expressed in units of electron charge)
numerically equals the atomic number) of the element in the
periodic table.
• The physical meaning of the atomic number of an element in
the periodic table was found to be a very important constant
of an element expressing the positive charge of its atom’s
nucleus. It can be seen that from their electrons orbiting about
the nucleus also equal to the atomic number of the element.
• This discovery eliminated an apparent contradiction in the
periodic table the position of some of the elements with a
greater atomic mass ahead of elements with a smaller atomic
mass
127.6
52 Fe  and 126
53
.9
I ,.. 39.9
18 Ar  and  39
19 K ,.. 58.9
27 Co  and  58.7
28 Ni 
• There is no contradiction here because the placement of an
element in the table is determined by the charge of the atomic
nucleus. The charge of a Fe atom is 52, and that of an iodine
atom 53-established experimentally.
• Thus, the charge of the atomic nucleus is the basic quantity
determining the properties of an element and its position in
the periodic table.
• The determination of the atomic number of the element
according to the charges of the nuclei of their atoms made it
possible to establish the total number of position in the
periodic table.
 CONTRADICTIONS IN RUTHERFORD’S THEORY
• The theory could not explain the stability of the atom. An
electron orbiting about a positively charged nucleus ought to
emit electromagnetic energy in the form of high waves. And by
so doing, the electron lose part of its energy which would result
in the violation of equilibrium between the centrifugal force
associated with the rotation of the electron and the force of
electrostatic attraction of the electron to the nucleus. To restore
equilibrium, the electron must move closer to the nucleus.
Thus, an electron continuously emitting electromagnetic energy
and moving along spiral will approach the nucleus. After
exhausting all its energy, it should ―fall‖ onto the nucleus, and
the atom will stop existing. This conclusion contradicts the real
properties of atomic, without decay for an exceedingly long
time.
• The model led to improper conclusions on the nature of atomic
spectra. The radiation of a glowing solid or liquid body consists
of electromagnetic waves of every possible frequency
continuous spectrum.
• An appreciable step in the development of the atomic structure concept was
made by NEILS BOHR who proposed a theory combining the nuclear model
of the atom with the quantum theory of light.
 QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT
• MAX PLANCK showed that radiant energy is emitted and
absorbed by bodies not continuously, but discretely i.e. in
separate portions (quanta).
• Frequency of the energy emitted or absorbed, ϑ is given by the
Einstein equation (Planck)
• ΔE = E2 – E1 = hϑ .--------------------------- (3)
• The proportionality constant h-the Planck constant, E2 -the final
energy of the atom after the jump, E1 - the initial energy of the
atom before the jump, a negative Δ E means that energy is
emitted.
• EINSTEIN concluded that electromagnetic (radiant) energy
exists only in the form of quanta and that consequently
radiation is a stream of indivisible material ―particles‖ (photons)
whose energy is determined by the Planck equation.
• It follows from the quantum theory of light that a photon
behaves like a particle i.e. displays corpuscular properties. It
however, also has wave properties. It has wave - particle
duality
• Bohr theory failed to predict properly the energy levels of some other simple
systems such as vibrating or rotating diatomic molecules.
 WAVE MECHANICS QUANTUM MECHANICS
AND WAVE FUNCTION
The particle properties of the photon are expressed by
the Planck equation
E = hϑ ------------------------(4)
according to which the photon is indivisible and exists
as a discrete formation. The wave properties of the
photon, on the other hand are expressed in the
equation.
λϑ = c -------------------------(5)
• Relating the wavelength of electromagnetic oscillation
to its frequency ϑ and the speed of propagation, c
• Thus hc
E  -----------------------(6)

• But a photon having the energy, E also possesses a certain mass in accordance
with the Einstein equation
E = mc2 -------------------------------------------(7)
• but hc
mc 2 

• Whence h
 
mc
• The product mc is called the momentum of the body
• 
h -----------------------------------------(8)
p
• Eq. 8 was first derived by de Broglie by assuming that a photon has both wave
and particle properties.
• He assumed that wave-particle duality is a property of electrons in addition to
photons. Consequently, an electron must display wave properties and like a
photon, it must obey the last equation, which is often called de BROGLIE
EQUATION

• The fact that an electron has a wavelength does not necessarily mean that it is a
wave; it does mean that the motion of the electron is governed by the same
differential equations that describe wave motion
d 2 s 4 2
•  s  0 ----------------------(9)
dx 2
2

• Eq 9 Schrodinger standing waves equation. Where s is the max. transverse displacement,

or amplitude, of a segment of string dx, x is the distance along the string, and λ is the wavelength.
 WAVE FUNCTION
• Based on the concept of Schrödinger that the state of an electron moving in an
atom must be described by the equation of a standing electromagnetic wave.
• By substituting the wave function ψ for the amplitude s, the de Broglie wavelength,
h/(mv) = h/p, for λ, and E-V for the kinetic energy ½ mv2. The result is
d 2 8 2 m
•
2
 2
( E  V )  0 -------------------------------(10)
dx h
• where E-represents total energy and V represents potential energy.
• The three - dimensional form will be
d 2 d 2 d 2 8 2 m
• 2
 2
 2
 2
( E  V )  0 -----------------------------(11)
dx dy dz h
• wave functions are sinusoidal for the particle in the given system.
• The wave function ψ is of special significance for characterizing the state of an
electron. Like the amplitude of any wave process, it can take on both positive and
negative values.
• The quantity ψ2 however, is always positive. The higher the values ψ2 in a given
region, the greater is the probability of an electron displaying its action here i.e. if its
existence being detected in a physical process.
• To be more precisely, the probability of detecting an electron in a certain small
volume is expressed by ψ2 ΔV. Thus, the quantity ψ2 itself expresses the DENSITY
OF THE PROBABILITY of finding an electron in the corresponding region of space
The density of an electron cloud is proportional to the square of the wave function.
• From the properties of waves, the latter can have finite amplitudes only inside the
system, the amplitude at the walls must the zero.
 Antinodes – maximum amplitude
Nodes n – amplitude of the oscillation vanishes
If the length of a one-dimensional atom (the distance
λ1 =2d =2d/1 between the walls is d and n is an integer equal to 1,2,3,…
A
The wavelength, λ of the allowed waves

n=1
2d
n
A
n
  --------------(12)
λ2 =d =2d/2 n
By combining de Broglie’s equation
n n n
n=2 h 2d nh
-A   or mv 
λ4=d =2d/4 mv n 2d
n n Energy, E to certain allowed values
1 1
n=4 E    mv 2  mv 2
2 2
d 2
1  nh  h2
E     n 2
----(13)
2m  2d  8md 2
Some wave functions of a particle in
one-dimensional box
• This equation tells us that a particle, of any kind confined to
move in a region of any length will have only certain energies
allowed to it.
• Those energies (from Eq. 13) depend on the mass, m of the
particle, the interval d through which it can move, and the
quantum number, n.

Implications of de Broglie relation

1. A confined particle cannot have zero energy since n cannot be
zero if a wave is to be present. Since n can equal 1,2,3.. the
particles may take on many energies, the lowest value will be
when n=l
2. The lowest energy available to a particle depends markedly on
its mass and on the size of the space to which it is confined.
This energy varies inversely with the mass every time the
mass is decreased by a factor of 2 the energy is doubled. The
minimum energy also varies inversely with the square of the
length through which the particle can move.
 RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
• Radioactive hydrogen isotope 3H-Tritium (T) (with half-life of about 12 years)
prepared only artificially. Tritium is unstable. The elements of higher Z contain at
least as many neutrons as protons, but because of the shielding effect of the
innermost electrons this does not affect the material properties. In the atoms of
higher Z, the number of neutrons considerable exceeds the number of protons, and
heavy elements. E.g. 92U  99 %
238
these elements are often referred
235
to as the
233
of natural uranium 0.7% 92 U and 92U which is artificially produced by
neutron bombardment of thorium.
• The nucleus itself eventually becomes unstable and the addition of a further
neutron may cause nuclear ―fission‖. The atom then disintegrates with the
production of two new atoms and a debris of elementary particles and radiations.
 ISOTOPIC INDICATIORS (TRACERS)
• Isotopic indicators or ―labeled atoms‖ (tracer atom) are widely used in studying the
mechanism of chemical and biological processes. This use is based on the possibility
of tracing the ways of transition of an element in chemical transformation by
measuring the concentration of one of its isotopes in one of the substances taken for
a reaction. Since all the isotopes of the same element behave virtually identically in
chemical reactions, by determining the change in the composition of the isotopes of a
given element in the various products, we can trace its path.
• For example, the use of the heavy oxygen isotope 18O in studying how carbon
dioxide is assimilated by plants. (Carbon dioxide and water enriched with 18O were
used for the experiments) showed that the process occurs according to the following
reaction, in which the isotope 18O is marked with an asterisk.
•
6CO2 + 12H2O* = C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2*
•
6CO2* + 12H2O = C6H12O6* + 6H2O* + 6O2

• It was thus established that the oxygen returned by plants to the atmosphere is taken
completely from water and not from carbon dioxide.
• 18O a stable isotope which is quite rare in nature (abundance = 0.20%). This isotope
is readily detected by using a mass spectrometer.
• Carbon-14 can be used also.
• In Medicine: The high-energy radiation given off by Radium is used in the treatment
of cancer.
 ISOTOPIC INDICATIORS (TRACERS)
• Tracing food sources and diets
• The quantities of the different isotopes can be measured by mass spectrometry and
compared to a standard; the result (e.g. the delta of the 13C = δ13C) is expressed as
parts per thousand (‰):

• Stable carbon isotopes in carbon dioxide are utilized differentially by plants

during photosynthesis.
 RADIOACTIVITY NUCLEAR REACTIONS
• Nuclear reactions differ form ordinary chemical reactions.
1. In ordinary reactions, the different isotopes of an element show virtually
identical chemical properties; in nuclear reactions they behave quite
differently.
12
• The chemical properties of 6 C and 146C are very similar but the 126C nucleus is
extremely stable while the 146Cnucleus decomposes spontaneously.
2. The nuclear reactivity of an element is essentially independent of its state of
chemical combination. E.g. Ra2+ ion in RaCl2 and elementary Radium
behave similarly from a nuclear stand point. In ordinary chemical reaction on
the other hand, the radium atom and the Ra2+ ion behave quite differently
since they have different outer electronic structures.
3. Nuclear reaction frequently involve the conversion of one element to another
(with a change in the number of protons in the nucleus. Elements in ordinary
chemical reaction retain their identity.

226
88Ra 
 He  4
2
222
Rn
86
4. Nuclear reactions are accompanied by energy changes which exceed by
several orders of magnitude, those associated with ordinary chemical
reaction. The energy evolved when a gram of radium undergo radioactive
decay is about 500,000 times as great as that given off when an equal
amount of radium reacts with chlorine to form radium chloride.
 RADIOACTIVITY
• By radioactivity is meant the spontaneous transformation of an
unstable isotope of one chemical element into an isotope of
another element attended by the emission of elementary
particles or nuclei (for instance alpha particles).
• The rate of radioactive transformations is characterized by the
radioactive decay constant which shows part of the total
number of atom of a radioactive isotopes decays in one
second. The greater the radioactive decays, the more rapidly
does an isotope decay.
• The number of atoms of a radioactive isotope decaying in unit
time is propositional to the total number of atom of this isotope
present at the given moment.
• The time needed for half of the original amount of a radioactive
element to decay is called the HALF-LIFE. This quantity
characterizes the lifetime of an element. It ranges from fraction
of a second to hundreds of millions of years. E.g., the half-life of
Radon is 3.85 days, of Radium is 1620 years, of Carbon 5,700
years, of uranium 4500 million years.
• The main kinds of radioactive radiation include alpha, beta and
gamma radiation.
 Beta particles
Positively negatively
charge charged
plate

Radioactive
sample
Gamma particles
No charge

Alpha particles
Negatively positive charge
charge plate 2He +2e
• Alpha Radiation which consists of a stream of
positively charge particles (alpha particles) that carry
a charge of +2 and have a mass of 4 on the atomic
mass scale. In alpha decay, the nucleus of an atom
emits 2 protons and 2 neutrons bound in a nucleus
of the helium atom 42He. The result is lowering of the
charge of the initial radioactive nucleus by 2, and of
its mass number by 4. Thus alpha decay results in
the formation of an atom of an element having an
atomic number two less than the original isotope.

238
92 U  He 4
2
234
90 Th
Beta Radiation (decay) which is made up of a stream
of negatively charged particles (beta particles) that
have all the properties of electrons. (mass charge ≈-1)
Beta particles results from the transformation of a
neutron (mass =l charge =o) at the surface of the
nucleus into a proton (mass=l, charge = +1).
Consequently beta-emission leaves the mass number
unchanged but increases the atomic number by one
unit 234
90Th  1 e
0 234
91 Pa
The process of beta decay can be written as
neutron →proton + electron or n → P+e-. The electron
appearing in this transformation flies out of the nucleus,
and the positive charge of the latter grows by unity.
A proton may also transform into a neutron as:
• Protons → neutron +Positron or P → n+e+
• A positron, whose symbol is e+, is an elementary particle with a mass equal
to that of an electron, but carrying a positive electric charge. The charges of
an electron and a positron are identical in absolute value.
• A proton may transform into a neutron with the formation of a positron when
the instability of the nucleus is due to an excess content of protons in it. One
of the protons in the nucleus transforms into a neutron, the positron that
appears flies out of the nucleus, and the charge of the nucleus diminishes by
unity. This kind of radioactive decay is called POSITRON BETA DECAY (+
decay) in contrast to the previously considered ELECTRON BETA DECAY
(- decay).
• As a result of beta decay the atom is transformed into a new element whose
atomic number is one greater (with - decay) or one less (with + decay)
than that of the original isotope.
• 30
15 P  30
14 Si  0
1e (+ decay)
• 28
13 Al  28
14 Si  0
1 e (- decay)
•
11
6 C  11
5 B  0
1e
(+ decay)
•
6
14
C  7 N  1 e
14 0 (- decay)
• GAMMA Radiation, electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength (λ=0.0005 to 0.1nm)
i.e. high –energy photons. The emission of gamma radiation accompanies virtually all
nuclear reaction as the result of an energy change within the nucleus, whereby an unstable,
excited nucleus remitting form alpha – or beta-emission given off a photon and drop to a
lower more stable energy state (no mass change, no change in Z).

INTERACTION OF RADIATION
• The commonly instrument used to detect and measure radiation is the Scintillation counter.
We have also Geiger Muller counter.
• The harmful effect of radiation upon human beings is caused by its ability to ionize and
ultimately destroy the organic molecules of which body cells are composed. The extent of
damage depends upon
• 1. the energy and the
• 2. types of radiation. The former is expressed in GRAYS. A gray corresponds to the
absorption of one joule per kilogram of tissue. The total biological effect of radiation is
expressed in rems.
• Number of Rems = n x (number of grays) where n is 100 for , , and x radiation and 1000
for  radiation or high –energy neutrons.
• Effect of exposure to a single dose of radiation
• Dose (Rems) Probable effect
• 0 to 25 No observable effect
• 25 to 50 Small decrease in white blood cell count
• 50 to 100 Lesions, marked decrease in white blood cells
• 100 to 200 Nausea, vomiting, loss of hair
• 200 to 500 Hemorrhaging, ulcers, possible death
• 5000 + Fatal.
• Radiation can produce mutations in plants and animals by bringing about changes in
chromosomes. Federal research council has set an upper limit of 0.17 per year above
background as the max. dosage to which major population group can be exposed.
 USE FULNESS
• In Medicine
• Treatment of cancer to destroy or arrest the growth of malignant tissue (Radium).
Even cheaper cobalt-60. Sodium iodine containing radioactive iodine (131I or 126I)
used to destroy the malignant cells (cancer of the thyroid) in human beings.

RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

• FIRST ORDER RATE LAW
• The first order equation reaction
• X- products; rate =  Dconc.x =k(conc. X)
 Dconc.x Dt
  kD t
conc.x
• log10 conc. X = log10 (conc. X)o – Kt / 2.30
• (ΔConc x = conc of x at t – conc of x at t = zero; conc x – (conc x)0
• (Δt = t – 0 = t)
• where (conc. X)o is the initial concentration and t is the elapsed time (Xo is the
amount of radioactive substance at zero time (when the counting process starts )
and X is the amount remaining after time t. The first order rate constant K, is the
characteristic of the isotope undergoing radioactive decay.
(conc. x ) o kt
log 10  ----------------------------------(14)
Conc. x ) 2.30
 • Derivation of Eq. 14 is as follows:
dx
Rate    kx
dt
dx
  k dt
x x t
dx
• Integrating from t = 0 to t and from x0 to x  x
  K  dt
x0 0
ln x – ln x0 = - Kt and ln X = 2.30 log10X

Kt
log 10 x  log 10 x0  
2.30
x0 Kt 2.30 x0
Since X = X0/2; log 10  or log 10 t
X0 = 2X; x 2.30 K x
X0/X = 2
2.30 0.693
t 0 .5  log 10 2  -----------(15)
K K
PROBLEM
1. The radioactive radium-192, which has a half life period of 74.4
days, is used as a source of material for industrial radiography.
Determine the source intensity, as a percentage of the initial
intensity, after
i) 25 days ii) 50 days and iii) 100 days
2.The radioactive isotope of Cobalt, Co–60, has a half – life period
of 5.62 years. Calculate the rate of constant for the isotope decay
How long will it take for Co–60 to reduce to 85 % of its original
value? If a hospital purchases 20 mg of this isotope, how much
will remain after 10 years?
3. The common radioactive isotope of radium has a half – life of
1620 years. Calculate
i) The first order rate constant for the decay of radium – 226
ii The fraction of a sample of this isotope which will remain after
100 years.
iii) Use your results to comment on the global attempt to protect
the environment
 ATOMIC BONDING
• There are two types of bonds:
• Primary
• Secondary
• Primary Bonds:
• Primary bonds are the strongest bonds
which hold atoms together. The three types
of primary bonds are:
• Ionic Bonds
• Covalent Bonds
• Metallic Bonds
• bonding is achieved when atoms fill their outer s and p
levels.
 Bonding Energies and Melting
Temperatures for Various Substances
 Bonding Models
• Bonding holds atoms together to form solids materials
• In solids, atoms are held at preferred distances from each other
(equilibrium distances)
• Distances larger or smaller than equilibrium distances are not
preferred. Equilibrium spacing r0 is approximately 0.3nm
• Consequently, as atomic bonds are stretched, atoms tend to attract
each other, and as the bonds are compressed, atoms repel each other.
• Simple bonding models assume that the total bonding results from
the sum of two forces: an attractive force (FA ) and a repulsive (FR).

The net force F N = F A + F R

• The repulsive force dominates at small distances, and the attractive
force dominates at larger distances. At equilibrium they are just equal
• Bonding Forces and Energies
• It is convenient to work with energy than forces.
• Bonding energy (also called interaction energy or potential energy) between
two isolated atoms at separation r is related to the force by

The total energy has a minimum at the point of equilibrium separation.

Bonding energy E0 corresponds to the energy at ro– the energy that would be
required to separate these two atoms to an infinite separation.
•Interpretation: holding one atom at the origin, a second atom would repel that
atom at separation r < ro and attract it when ro< r.
 Bonding energy between two atoms
• The interaction energy at equilibrium is called the
bonding energy between the two atoms.
• To break the bond, this energy must be supplied
from outside.
• Breaking the bond means that the two atoms
become infinitely separated.
• In real materials, containing many atoms, bonding is
studied by expressing the bonding energy of the entire
materials in terms of the separation distances
between all atoms.
 THE IONIC BOND
• Lost and gain of electrons
• Ionic bond is created between 2 unlike atoms with
different electronegativities i.e. one atom donate its
valence electrons to a different atom. Both atoms now
have filled (or empty) outer energy levels but both have
acquired an electrical charge and as ions.
• The donor of the electron is left with a positive charge
and is a cation while the electron accepter acquires a net
negative charge and is an anion. The oppositely charged
ions are then attracted to one another to produce the
ionic bond.
THE IONIC BOND
 Ionic Bonding
• Energy – minimum energy most stable
– Energy balance of attractive and repulsive terms

A 
B
EN = EA + ER =
r rn
Repulsive energy ER

Interatomic separation r

Net energy EN
Adapted from Fig. 2.8(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Attractive energy EA
105
 Examples: Ionic Bonding
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

NaCl
MgO
CaF2
CsCl

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
106
 The ionic bond is non-directional. A positively charged Na+
Cl- Na+ Cl-
will attract any adjacent Cl- equally in all directions.
The more electropositive the metal and the more
Na+ Cl- Na+ electronegative the non-metal, the greater the ionic
contribution to bonding. LiF is almost completely ionic
MgO has a little covalent character in its bond sand
Cl- Na + Cl -
SiO2 is about half conic half covalent.
The non-directional of ionic bond is due to the
spherically symmetry of the electric field of an iron, i.e.
The ionic bond between diminishes with the distance according to the same
Na and Cl way regardless of directions.

When a force is applied to NaCl crystal the electrical balance between the ions is
upset. Partly for this reason, ionically bonded materials behave in a brittle manner.
Electrical conductivity is also poor; when a voltage is applied the electrical charge is
transferred by the movement of entire ion which does not move as easily as
electrons.
Ionic bond does not have saturability. The oppositely attracted charge ions retain
their ability to interact electrostatically with other ions.
The forces of attraction of oppositely charged ions must predominate over the force
of mutual repulsion exerted between ions of the same sign.
The absence of directionality and saturability in an ionic bond is the reason why ionic
molecules tends to associate i.e. to combine with one another.
 COVALENT BOND
• Covalent bonding requires that electron be shared
between atoms in such a way that each atom has its
outer sp orbital filled. For example, a silicon atom,
which has a valence of 4 obtains 8 electrons in its
outer energy shell by sharing its electrons with 4
surrounding silicon atoms. Therefore in Si 4 covalent
bonds must be formed.
• In order for the covalent bonds to occur the Si atoms
must be arranged as the bonds have a fixed
DIRECTIONAL relationship with one another. In Si, C
the arrangement produces a tetrahedron with angles
of about 109o between the covalent
 Si Si
Si Si

o o o

Si Si Si
1090

o o o

In Si, C a tetrahedral structure is formed with angles of about 109o

required between ach covalent bond.
A covalent chemical bond is formed by 2 electrons with anti parallel spins , this
electron pair belonging to 2 atoms. The strength of a covalent bond grows with an
increasing degree of overlapping of the interaction electron clouds.
The ability of atoms to participate in the formation of a restricted number of covalent
bonds is called SATURABILITY of covalent bond.
The formation of a covalent bond is a result of overlapping of the valence electron
clouds of the interaction atoms. But such overlapping is possible only with a definite
mutual orientation of the electron cloud; here the overlap region is arranged in a
definite direction with respect to the interacting atoms. In other words, a covalent
bond is DIRECTIONAL.
• DIRECTION OF A COVALENT BOND
• The properties of a molecule, its ability to enter into chemical reactions with
other molecules (its reactivity) depend not only on the strength of the chemical
bonds in the molecule, but to a considerable extent on its dimensional structure
too.
• In a hydrogen molecule, the atomic S-electron clouds overlaps near the
imaginary straight line joining the nuclei of the interacting atoms (i.e. the bond
axis). A covalent bond formed in such a way is known as a  (sigma) bonds.
•
•overlapping of atomic electron
clouds in a hydrogen molecule.

• If p-electron clouds are oriented along the bond axis, they can also participate in
the formation of a sigma bond. Overlapping of the 2p-electron cloud of the
fluorine atom and the Is-electron cloud of the hydrogen atom in the
formation of a sigma bond in the molecule HF
• Note: In the formation of a chemical bond energy is always evolved as a result
of the decrease in the potential energy of the system of interacting electrons and
nuclei this is why the potential energy of a particle formed a (a molecule or
crystal) is always less than the total potential energy of the initial free atom.
• The chemical bond in the molecule F2 is also sigma bond, it is formed by the 2p-
electron clouds of the F atoms.

Overlapping of the 2p-electron cloud of the

fluorine atom and the Is-electron cloud of the
hydrogen atom in the formation of a sigma
bond in the molecule HF
• When P- electron clouds oriented
perpendicularly to the bond axis interact, two
overlaps regions are formed at both rides of this
axis instead of a single region. Such a covalent
bond is called a π (pi) (Bond)
z

 - Bond
+ x
(b) -
-

z
z

+ +
π - Bond π - Bond

- -
y
y
Overlapping of the 2p-electron clouds in the molecule N2 a – sigma bond and 2-pi bonds
 HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ELECTRON
ORBITALS
• The method of hybridization of atomic orbital proceeds from the
assumption that in the formation of a molecule, instead of the
initial atomic s-, p-, and d-electron clouds, equivalent ―blended‖
or hybrid electron clouds are formed that are stretched out in a
direction towards the neighboring atoms, the result being their
more complete overlapping with the electron clouds of these
atoms. The more complete overlapping of the valence electron
clouds the stronger the chemical bond formed and
consequently to additional gain in energy. If this gain in energy
is sufficient to more than compensate the expenditure of energy
for the deformation of initial atomic electron clouds, such
hybridization in the long run leads to diminishing of potential
energy of the molecule formed and consequently to an increase
in its stability.
 sp-hybridization – Hybridization of 1s and 2p
- + + orbital leading to the formation of two sp orbital
BeF2 linear orientation
F 2p Be Overlapping of the 2p electron clouds of the
fluorine atoms with the 2s and 2p electron
clouds of Beryllium atom.
- + + -
F Be F BeF2 straight line 180o
F
sp3-hybridization

B
F F
equilateral triangle 120o BF3 CH4 Tetrahedron 109.5o
i) 4 pairs of electrons around the central atom are all shared, the
molecule is tetrahedral
ii) when one pair is unshared, the structure is that of a pyramid
with an equilateral triangle as large
iii) 2 unshared pairs lead to a bent.
 METALLIC BOND
• The metallic bond involves sharing of delocalized electron given
a non-directional bond high electrical conductivity. The metallic
bond forms when atom give up their valence electron, which
then form an electron sea (or gas) leaving behind a core
consisting of the nucleus and inner electron and the core
becomes an ion with a positive charge. The positively charge
atom cores are bonded by mutual attraction to the negatively
charged electron.
• Metallic bonds are non directional; the electron holding he
atoms together are not fixed in one position. This properly
permit metals to have good ductility and to be deformed into
useful shapes since when the former is bent and the atoms
attempt to change their relationships to one another, the
direction of the bond merely shifts rather then the bond
breaking.
• Since the electrons are free to move, they lead to good thermal
and electrical conductivity.
Metallic bond.

Metallic bond and electron cloud

 Secondary Bonds:
• Secondary bonds are much weaker than primary bonds. They often provide
a "weak link" for deformation or fracture. Example for secondary bonds are:
Hydrogen Bonds and Van der Waals Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bonds are common in covalently bonded

molecules which contain hydrogen, such as water
(H2O). Since the bonds are primarily covalent, the
electrons are shared between the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. However, the electrons tend to spend
more time around the oxygen atom. This leads to a
small positive charge around the hydrogen atoms,
and a negative charge around the oxygen atom.
When other molecules with this type of charge
Hydrogen bonds. transfer are nearby, the negatively charged end of
one molecule will be weakly attracted to the
positively charged end of the other molecule. The
attraction is weak because the charge transfer is
small.
 Van der Waals Bonds

Van der Waals bonds are very weak compared to other

types of bonds. These bonds are especially important in
noble gases which are cooled to very low temperatures.
The electrons surrounding an atom are always moving.
At any given point in time, the electrons may be slightly
shifted to one side of an atom, giving that side a very
small negative charge. This may cause an attraction to a
slightly positively charged atom nearby, creating a very
weak bond. At most temperatures, thermal energy
overwhelms the effects of Van der Waals bonds.
Van Der Waals bonding is a secondary bonding, which exists between virtually all atoms
or molecules, but its presence may be obscured if any of the three primary bonding
types is present. Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles. In
essence, an electron dipole exists whenever there is some separation of positive and
negative portions of an atom or molecule. When an electron cloud density occurs at one
side of an atom or molecule during the electron flight about the nucleus, Van Der Waals
forces are generated. This creates a dipole wherein one side of the atom becomes
electrically charged and the other side has deficiency of electrons and is considerably
charged positive.
123
124
 Crystal Lattice Structures
• Atoms are the building blocks of all materials.
• They are bonded or "held together" by cohesive forces in a manner
characteristic of a particular material.
• In a liquid state the atoms of metal are of random arrangement, having
short-range order. At times several unlike atoms will arrange themselves in
the characteristic pattern of a particular metal.
• There is the phenomenon of random grouping, scattering, and regrouping for
short periods of time is characteristic of the liquid state. As the random
grouping mechanism becomes less frequent and the atomic movement of
unlike atoms become more agitated, the material may become a gas.
• As the energy input decreases, the random movement of the unlike atoms
becomes less frequent, the bonding becomes stronger, and ordered arrays
of atoms form lattices.

• A crystal is a repeating array. In describing this structure we must

distinguish between the pattern of repetition (the lattice type) and what is
repeated (the unit cell). The most fundamental property of a crystal lattice is
its symmetry. In three-dimensions, unit cells stack like boxes, filling the
space, making the crystal. A Crystal: A repetitive, three dimensional
arrangement of atoms or ions in a solid. It possess a periodicity that
produces long-range order i.e. the local atomic (ionic) arrangement is
repeated at regular intervals millions of times in the 3 dimensions of
space.
• The most stable arrangement of atoms in
a crystal will be that which minimizes the
energy per unit volume or in other words,
the one that
– Preserves electrical neutrality
– Satisfies the directionality and discreteness of
all covalent bonds
– Minimizes strong-ion-ion repulsion
– Packs the atoms as closely as possible
consistent with (1), (2) and (3)
 Orientation of the unit cells in a lattice.
Cubic Lattice Structure

Hexagonal Lattice Structure

Unit Cell: When a solid has a crystalline structure, the

atoms are arranged in repeating structures called unit
cells, which are the smallest units that show the full
symmetry of a crystal.

Lattice: The three dimensional array formed by the unit

cells of a crystal is called lattice.
• Face-centered cubic (F.C.C.)
• Body-centered cubic (B.C.C.
• Hexagonal-close-packed (H.C.P.)
 Crystal Systems
7 systems (7 unique unit cell shapes) to describe crystal
structures. Lattice pts can be arranged in only 14
different arrays called Bravais lattices
• Lattice pt: The vertices of the unit cell
• Lattice parameter: The length of the unit
cell edges
• The angles and lengths within the repeat
unit determine the class to which the
lattice cell belongs
Basis: “group of things” located on a lattice

Lattice + Basis = Crystal Structure

 The fourteen Bravais lattices
Triclinic
a≠b≠c Triclinic
α≠β≠γ
Monoclinic
a≠b≠c
Monoclinic simple Monoclinic Base centered
α ≠ 90°
β = γ= 90°
Orthorhombic
a≠b≠c Orthorhombic simple Base centered Face centered Body centered
α = β = γ = 90°
Tetragonal
a=b≠c Simple Body centered
α = β = γ = 90°
Trigonal
a=b=c Trigonal
α = β = γ ≠ 90°
Hexagonal
a=b≠c Hexagonal
α = 120°, β = γ = 90°
Cubic
a=b=c Simple Face centered Body centered
α = β = γ = 90°
 Cl-1 Cl-1
Cl-1 Cl-1
Simple Cubic (S.C)
c
c Cs+1 CN = 8
a
b Cl-1
α b Cl-1
a Cl-1
Cl-1

Brass – SC r/R >0.73

CaTiO3 – SC
Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C)
Lattice Structure
aSC = 2(rCs+ +RCl-)/√3
Face Centered Cubic (F.C.C) Lattice Structure

Closed Packed Hexagonal (C.P.H)

Lattice Structure
 Relationship between the radius, r and
lattice parameters
a0√3

c a0√3
Cd
c a CN=8 C Zn
2
b Mg
α b 4r
a0 ( BCC )  Co
a 3 Zr
a0√2 Ti
Fe-α, V, Cr, Mo, Na, W, SiF4, Mg(OH)2 Be
a0√2 CN=12 Al2O3,
4r ZnS,
a 0 ( FCC )  NiAs,
c 2 CdI2
c a
b CN=12
α b
a 4
a0√2 MgO, CH4
c( ) a0 ( HCP )  1.633 a0  3.266 r
Al, Ni, Ag, Fe-ɣ, Cu, Au, CH4, NaCl, LiF 6
 Miller Indices
• Indices of Directions
– Determine the coordinates of 2 pts that lie in the direction of
interest – h1, k1, l1 and h2, k2, l2
– Subtract the coordinates of the 2nd pt from those of the 1st
pt: h’ = h2 - h1, k’ = k2 - k1 and l’ = l2 - l1,
– Clear fractions from the differences – h’, k’ and l’ – to give
indices in lowest integer values, h, k, l
– Write the indices in square brackets without commas: [h k l]
– If h < 0, we write [ĥ k l]
z Directions Indices [h k l ] To determine the angle
between directions
OA [1 0 0]
OB [1 1 0] If A = ui + vj + wk and B =
F
u’I + v’j +w’k, then,
C OC [1 1 1]
D A . B = A B cos φ where
OD [2 0 1]
E y φ is the angle between
0 OE [0 1 0] the 2 vectors
A
B OF [1 1 2] 1
 uu 1  vv 1  ww 1 
x   cos  2 2 12 1 2 
CB [0 0 1]  ( u  v  w 2 12
) ( u 12
 v 12
 w ) 
Indices of Planes
•Identify the coordinates intercepts of the plane. If the plane is
parallel to one of the axes, the intercept is taken as infinity
•Take the reciprocal of the intercepts
•Clear fractions, but do not reduce to lowest integers
•Cite planes in parentheses – (h k l).
A
Plane Intercepts Indices

A ∞,∞,1 (0 0 1)
B
B 1,1,1 (1 1 1)
C 1,1,∞ (1 1 0)
C D ½,⅔,1 (3 4 6)
D
 Linear density, ρL is the ratio of the
C
number of atoms centered along direction
within one unit to the length of the line
contained within one unit
Planar density, ρP is the ratio of the
number of atoms centered on a plane
within one unit to the area of the plane
contained within one unit
Volumetric density, ρV is the number of
a3
atoms per unit volume
Atomic Packing Factor, APF is the ratio of
the volume of atoms in a unit cell to the
a1 volume of unit cell; or APF is the product
of atoms in cell and volume of an atom per
a2 a1, a2, a3, C unit volume of the cell; or
I = -(h + k)  4  3  DCS, Perovskite Structure
(h k i l) APF  V  r  SC, Crystobalite Structure
 3  
• Significance of local packing arrangement
• A coordination polyhedron behaves as a tightly bound
unit when the valence of the central atom is more than
half the total valence of the atoms bonded to it. If the
valence of the central atom equals the total valence of
the surrounding atoms, the subunit is really a molecule
• When polyhedral subunits are discrete atomic groups
bonded to one another by secondary bonds than
when they are bonded together with primary bonds,
the melting or softening temperature will be lower. For
example in SiF4 each silicon is tetrahedrally
coordinated by 4 fluorine atoms and in SiO2 each
silicon is tetrahedrally coordinated by 4 oxygen atoms
yet SiF4 melts at -90oC and SiO2 melts at 1710oC
• Polyethylene melts at about 125oC. But if adjacent
polyethylene chains are bonded together by some C-C
bonds produced by irradiation, the polymer may keep
its shape and thermal stability up to 300oC
Influence of bond type on structure and properties
The non-directionality of metallic and ionic bond allows metal atoms to be
packed closely together in a regular crystalline array. The major of them
have ligancy of either 12 (CPH or FCC systems) or 8 (BCC systems). The
CN of ionic crystals is frequency of 4, 6, or 8 and so, on average, ionic
crystals possess lower packing densities than metals. This is due to the fact
that ionic compound contains at least 2 types of ion which may be of
different sizes, compared to a pure metal where all atoms are identical, and
secondly the ions possess opposing charges.
Metals and ceramics are fully crystalline but polymers and glasses are either
partially crystalline or completely amorphous. In amorphous structures, the
atoms or molecules are not packed in a regular and symmetrical pattern and
the amount of void space is greater than within a crystal.
As the atomic number of the element increases and the distance of the outer
shell or valence, electrons from the nucleus becomes greater, the bond
strength of covalently bonded crystals reduces.
The melting pt of C, Si, Ge, Sn are 3800, 1420, 937 and 232oC respectively.
The melting pt of ceramics materials mainly oxides, carbides and nitrides of the
lower atomic number elements such as Al, B, Mg, Si are all high being in the
order of 1000 – 3000oC. The presence of weak van der waals bond within
the covalently bonded molecules influences the melting temperatures.
The polymides (nylons) have higher m.p than other polymers such as
polyethylene because of the presence of hydrogen bonds.
The close packing of atoms in metals leads towards relatively high m.p. the
strength of bond may be less compare to that of ionic and covalent bonds
 • FCC & HCP
• SIMILARITIES:
• Both FCC & HCP Structures have atomic packing factors of 0.74. The two
structures are each regular stacking of close-packed planes. In the case of
fcc metals, the (111) planes are closed packed. These are identical to the
(0002) planes of the hcp structure
•
DIFFERENCES
• The fundamental difference between Al (FCC) and Mg(HCP) relates
directly to the different crystal structures for Al and Mg in their sequence of
packing of layers. Al structure follows a cubic packing arrangement - fcc
stacking as an ABCABC---- sequence, and the Mg a hexagonal one – hcp
stacking as ABAB---- Sequence. This subtle difference leads to significant
differences in their properties – ductility which depends on mechanical
deformation. This, is turn, is related to planes and directions of high atomic
density in the metals crystal structure. There are 12 plane/ direction
combinations for Al and only 3 for Mg. There are, therefore, 4 times as
many combinations for mechanical deformation in the Al crystal structure
as in Mg. This is equivalent to having 4 times, the number of avenues
available for ductility in aluminum based alloys as in Mg – based alloys.
• NOTE: The mechanical behavior of a given type of metal alloy can
be affected by heat treatment.
 DIAMOND CUBIC (DC) CRYSTAL STRUCUTRE
• The diamond cubic crystal structure is a fcc lattice with
2 atoms per lattice pt., some spheres are tetrahedrally
coordinated by other spheres inside the cell.
• These are 8 atoms per unit cell for an average of 2
atoms per fcc position . Experiments show that the
C – C interatomic difference is 0.154nm in this
structure. The body diagonal is 4 times this value.
Thus
• (b.d) Diamond = 4 (C-C) = adiamond
• adiamond=4 (0.154nm) /√3 = 0.356nm
Differences between Diamond and Graphite
Diamond
Cdiamond, Gallium arsenide
(GaAs), Ge and grey Sn

Graphite
 • DIFFERENCES
• Two crystalline forms (allotropes) of the element carbon – graphite and diamond.
Both allotropes are macromolecular, which explains why both graphite and
diamond have very high melting points above 35000c.
• The graphite crystal is PLANAR with the carbon atoms arranged in a HEXAGONAL
pattern. Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 others, forming one double bond and 2
single bonds. The forces between the layers in graphite are of the dispersion type
and are quite weak. Consequently, the layers can readily slide past one another so
that graphite is soft and slippery to the touch. When you write with a ―lead‖ pencil;
which is really made of graphite, than layers of graphite rub off onto the paper.
• In diamond, each carbon atom forms single bonds with four other carbon atoms
arranged tetrahedrally around it. The bonds are strong enough (bond energy C – C
= 347 KJ mol-1) to produce a rugged three dimensional lattice. Diamond is one of
the very hardest of substances, and is used industrially in cutting tools and quality
grindstones.
• The light elements in group IV have crystal structures in which all the bonds that
hold the crystal together are covalent. The bonds are the results of overlapping sp3
hybrid orbitals and the structure that results is the diamond cubic (DC) crystal
structure of diamond, Si, Ge and Grey Sn.
• Some of the group – IV elements can also have structures in which all the bonds
that hold the crystal together are not covalent. Graphite crystal structures; as earlier
stated, in it the atom are covalently bonded in planar hexagonal arrays with weak
secondary bonds between the planes. The primary covalent bonds are between the
sp2 orbital; the weaker bonds between the planes are much more metallic in
characters with the result that graphite conducts electricity and heat much more
easily parallel to the planes than perpendicular to them.
 • POLYMORPHISM
• Diamond Graphite
• Diamond and graphite are the two polymorphs of carbon.
Diamond is hard, transparent, and an electrical insulator.
Graphite has lubricating characteristics and conducts an
electric current. These contracts arise from differences in
bonding, and therefore differences in structure. Diamond has a
3 – dimensional structure of covalent bonds. Graphite has π –
element that possesses mobility in the crystal layers of a 2-
dimensional structure.
• Diamond will change to graphite if it is heated sufficiently for the
thermal energy to break the bonds and coordinate the atoms
with new neighbors. The reaction is reversible.
• 15000C
• Cdiamond C graphite
• 20000C 10,000atm
 Crystal Imperfections
• Point Defects
Point defects are localized disruption of the lattice involving one
as possibly several atoms
. Consider a hypothetical crystal structure.
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O

VACANCIES
•A vacancy is produced when an atom is missing from a lattice
point (i.e. from a normal rite)
O O O O
O O O O vacancy
O O O
O O O O
 Crystal Imperfections
A vacancy is produced into the crystal during
solidification at high temperature or as a result of
radiation change volume, Ոv is expressed as
 Q 
nV  n exp    nV  T
 RT 
 Crystal Imperfections
• INTERSTITIAL
• An interstitial defect is formed when an extra
atom is placed into the lattice at a rite that is
normally not a lattice point.
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
• interstitial impurity
 Crystal Imperfections
• SUBSTITUTIONAL
• A point defect produced when an atom is
removed from a regular point and replaced with
a different atom, usually of a different size.

O O O O
O O O O
O O O
O O O O

Substitutional (smaller or
bigger than the regular
 Crystal Imperfections

• The interstitial and substitutional defects

are present in materials as impurities and
may also be internationally introduced as
alloying elements. The number of these
defects are independent of temperature
 Crystal Imperfections
SCHOTTKY DEFECT

A Schottky defect is a pair of vacancies in an ionically

bonded material.

Consider crystal structure below

O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O

O O O O
O O O
O O O Schottky defect
O O O O
If a vacancy should occur on two adjacent ion and cation we have a schottky
defect
 Crystal Imperfections
FRENKEL DEFECT

A Frenkel defect is a vacancy – interstitial pair formed

when an ion jumps from a normal lattice point to an
interstitial site, leaving behind a vacancy.

Consider crystal structure below

O O O O
O O O O
O O O O
O O O O

Frenkel defect
O O O O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O
Vacancy
Schottky defect formed in order to
maintain neutral charge

O O O O Pt defects disturb the perfect arrangement of

the surrounding atom. When a vacancy or a
O O small substitutional atom is present, the
surrounding atom collapse towards the Pt.
O O O O defect, stretching the bonds between the
O O O O surrounding atom and producing a tensile
stress field. An interstitional and large
substitutional atom produce the surrounding
Interstitial atoms together, producing a compressive
ion stress field. The disruption accounts for the
strength of the metal.
 Crystal Imperfections

Point defects disturb the perfect arrangement of

the surrounding atom. When a vacancy or a
small substitutional atom is present, the
surrounding atom collapse towards the point
defect, stretching the bonds between the
surrounding atom and producing a tensile stress
field. An interstitional and large substitutional
atom produce the surrounding atoms together,
producing a compressive stress field. The
disruption accounts for the strength of the metal.
 Crystal Imperfections
LINE DEFECT (DISLOCATIONS)
Dislocations are line imperfections in a perfect
lattice. A Dislocation is a disturbed region
between two substantially perfect parts of a
crystal. Disturbed region

The dislocation is responsible for the phenomenon of slip, by which

most metals deform plastically The dislocation is responsible for
the phenomenon of slip, by which most metals deform plastically
 Crystal Imperfections

CONCEPT OF EDGE AND SCREW DISLOCATION

In edge dislocation the Burger’s vector lies at an

angle to the line of the dislocation, along the axis
of rows of atoms in the same plane, whereas in
screw dislocation, Burger’s vector lies parallel to
the dislocation line along the axis of a line of
atoms in the same plane.
 Crystal Imperfections
EDGE DISLOCATIONS
Considering the diagram below, if a force or stress
―F‖ is applied parallel to and along the x- axis, we
have a motion.

The dislocation is responsible for the phenomenon of slip, by which

most metals deform plastically The dislocation is responsible for
the phenomenon of slip, by which most metals deform plastically
EDGE DISLOCATIONS
An edge dislocation lies perpendicular to its Burger’s
vector.

An edge dislocation moves (in its slip plane) in the direction of the
Burger’s vector (slip direction)
An edge dislocation involves an extra row of atoms, either above
(positive sign) or below (negative sign) the slip plane.
The presence of this extra row means that adjacent atoms are displaced
elastically, and consequently from both sides elastic forces are exerted
on the dislocation
SHEAR Stress = +ve dislocation moves to the right, -ve to the left
SCREW DISLOCATIONS
A screw dislocation lies parallel to its Burger’s vector.

Shearing occurs is a screw dislocation

A screw dislocation moves (in the slip plane) in the direction

perpendicular to the Burger’s vector (slip direction)
In the screw dislocation, the distortion follows a helical or screw
path and both right hand and left hand senses are possible.
A dislocation produced by skewing a crystal so that one atomic
plane produces a special ramp about the dislocation
• The direction and distance that a dislocation moves
in each step is known as burger’s vector i.e. the
vector requested to complete the loop and return to
the starting point.
• Screw and edge dislocation can occur in different
form among which are:
• Dislocation slide : if a force causes the movement of
atoms in the horizontal direction
• Dislocation jump: this could be either +ve or – ve. It
is the vertical movement of the atom within the
crystal structure (+ ve for upward and – ve for
downward)
• Dislocation jog: when a force is applied not all the
planes move in the direction of the force.
• SIGNIFICANCE OF DISLOCATIONS
The process by which dislocation moves and causes a
metal to deposition is called slip.
1. This slip explain why the strength of metals is much
lower than the value predicted from metallic bond
2. Slip provides ductility in metals, if no dislocation were
present, the metal (Bar) is brittle, the materials can not
be shaped by various metalworking processes such
as forging into useful shapes.
3. The mechanical properties of a metal or alloy can be
control by interfering with the movement of
dislocations. An alloy or obstacle introduced into the
crystal presents a dislocation from slipping.
• Dislocation densities of 106 cm/cm3 are typical of the softer
metals while densities upto 1012 cm/ cm3 can be achieved by
• SLIP PLANE
The crystal planes on which slip generally takes place
are those that possess the highest degree of atomic
packing. The direction of slip within
1. The mechanical properties of a metal or alloy can be
control by interfering with the movement of
dislocations. An alloy or obstacle introduced into the
crystal prevents a dislocation from slipping.
• Dislocation densities of 106 cm/cm3 are typical of the softer
metals while densities upto 1012 cm/ cm3 can be achieved by
deforming the materials.
 SCHMID’S LAW
• Critical resolved shear stress – the shear stress
required to produce slip on a crystal plane.
P
β

P
 SCHMID’S LAW
• A resolved shear stress 
may be produced on a slip
system, causing the dislocation to move on the slip plane in
the slip direction.
  Cos Cos 
• where  
Fr
Resolved shear stress in the slip direction;
A
• Fr = F Cos λ – resolved shear force; σ = F/Ao – unidirectional stress
applied; F – unidirectional force

Φ
λ

Slip direction

A Shear stress
λ is the angle between the slip direction and the applied force and Φ is
the angle between the normal to the slip plane and the applied force
The critical resolved shear stress  crss is the shear stress required to
break enough metallic bonds in order for slip to occur. Thus slip occurs
causing the metal to deform, when the applied stress produces a resolved
shear stress that equals the critical resolved shear stress
 r   crss
Note When the slip plane is perpendicular to the applied stress σ. Then Φ
= O0 , λ = 900 and Cos λ = 0, therefore  =0
That is, even if σ is great, no resolved shear stress develop along the slip
direction and the dislocation cannot move.

We can use Schmid’s law to compare the properties of metals having Bcc,
Fcc and Hcp crystal structures. (see table below)

Schmid’s law : slip in a metal crystal begins when the stress resolved on
the slip plane in the slip direction reaches a certain value termed the
critical resolved shear stress
 C

BC =a√2
B AC = a√3

[101] Ф (111)
α

a [001]
O A

α = = sin-1(2/3)½
 Schmid’s law : Slip in a metal crystal begins when the stress
resolved on the slip plane in the slip direction reaches a certain value
termed the critical resolved shear stress factors affecting slip in perfect
S/N metallic structures
FACTOR BCC FCC HCP
1 Critical resolved shear 35-70 0.35-0.70 0.35-0.70
stress (MPa)
2 Number of slip Systems 48 12 3
3 Cross-slip` Can occur Can occur Cannot occur
4 Properties Strong Ductile Relatively
Less dense Brittle
packed than FC
5 Slip Direction [111] [110] (100)(010)(ī10)

6 No Slip Planes 6 4 1
7 No of slip directions per 2 3 3
plane
 r   crss
• Cross-slip: A change in the slip system of a dislocation – when
dislocation shift to a second intersecting slip system, also
properly oriented and continue to move.
• In many Hcp metals cross-slip cannot occur since the plane are
parallel, not intersecting. Therefore the Hcp metals tend to
remain brittle. Cross –slip is possible in both Fcc and Bcc
metals because a number of intersecting slip system is present.
Cross-slip consequently helps maintain ductility in these metals.
• Note
• Dislocations are more difficult to move in ionic and covalent
materials. In covalent materials of Si, the directionality of the
bonds prevents easy movement of dislocations – behaves in a
rather brittle manner.
• In ionic materials including most ceramics, dislocations are
present and are observed to move , however movement of a
dislocation disrupts the charge balance around the anions and
cations, requiring that bonds between anions and cations be
broken. Slip is much more difficult and ceramic materials
normally display bristle behavior.
• Cross-slip: A change in the slip system of a dislocation – when
dislocation shift to a second intersecting slip system, also
properly oriented and continue to move.
• In many Hcp metals cross-slip cannot occur since the plane are
parallel, not intersecting. Therefore the Hcp metals tend to
remain brittle. Cross –slip is possible in both Fcc and Bcc
metals because a number of intersecting slip system is present.
Cross-slip consequently helps maintain ductility in these metals.
• Note
• Dislocations are more difficult to move in ionic and covalent
materials. In covalent materials of Si, the directionality of the
bonds prevents easy movement of dislocations – behaves in a
rather brittle manner.
• In ionic materials including most ceramics, dislocations are
present and are observed to move , however movement of a
dislocation disrupts the charge balance around the anions and
cations, requiring that bonds between anions and cations be
broken. Slip is much more difficult and ceramic materials
normally display bristle behavior.
• Critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) depends
on
– Composition: The value of CRSS increases with
increasing alloy content
– Purity: CRSS increases with increasing impurity
content (soluble impurity being more effective than
insoluble ones)
– Extent of prior deformation: CRSS increases with
increasing amount of prior deformation
– Temperature: CRSS generally decreases with
increasing temperature and drops abruptly to zero
at the melting point or the solidus temperature in
alloys
• SURFACE DEFECTS
• Surface imperfections of a structural nature arise
from a change in the stacking of atomic planes
across a boundary.
• STACKING FAULTS
• A surface defect in Fcc materials caused by the
improper stacking sequence of close-packed planes.
Normally, a stacking sequence ABCABCABC… is
produced in a perfect Fcc lattice. But suppose the
following sequence is produced ABCABABABC. The
small region ABAB which has an Hcp stacking
sequence instead of the Fcc stacking sequence
represents a stacking fault. Stacking faults interfere
with the slip process.
 STACKING SEQUENCE
• The manner in which close-packed
planes are stacked on top of one another
in a particular structure; planes stacked
so their atoms are directly above one
another are represented by the same
letter, for example ABABABA…
represents HCP stacking and
ABCABCABC… represents FCC stacking
 (0001)
(111)
A

B
C
(0002)
A

B A

A A Stacking of
C (111) planes
A B B
A A
C C
B
A A
A A

B B
A A
B Stacking of
A A (0002) planes
• TWIN BOUNDARIES
• A twin boundary is a surface defect across
which there is a mirror image misorientation of
the lattice. It can also move and cause
deformation of the material. The twin
boundaries interfere of the metal.
 Crystal Formation
Crystallization
• Crystallization is the transition from the liquid to the solid state
and occurs in two stages:
• 1. Nucleus formation
• 2. Crystal growth
• Atomic motion in the liquid state of a metal is almost completely
disordered. Although the atoms in the liquid state do not have
any definite arrangement, it is possible that some atoms at any
given instant are in positions exactly corresponding to the
space lattice they assume when solidified. As the energy in the
liquid system decreases, the movement of the atoms decreases
and the probability increases for the arrangement of a number
of atoms into a characteristic lattice for that material. The
energy level at which these isolated lattices form is called the
freezing point.
 (a) (b) (c) (d)
Mechanism of solidification (square grids represent the unit cells)
(a) Nucleus formation; (b), (c) Growth of the crystallites; (d) Grain boundaries
Now consider a pure metal at its freezing point where both the liquid and solid states
are at the same temperature. The kinetic energy of the atoms in the liquid and the solid
must be the same, but there is a significant difference in potential energy. Kinetic
energy is related to the speed at which the atoms move and is strictly a function of
temperature. The higher the temperature, the more active are the atoms and the
greater is their kinetic energy. Potential energy, on the other hand, is related to the
distance between atoms. The greater the average distance between the atoms, the
greater is their potential energy. The atoms in the solid are much closer together, so
that solidification occurs with a release of energy. This difference in potential energy
between the liquid and solid states is known as the latent heat of fusion.
When the temperature of the liquid metal has dropped sufficiently below its freezing
point, stable aggregates or nuclei appear spontaneously at various points in the liquid.
These nuclei, which have now solidified, act as centers for further crystallization. As
cooling continues, more atoms tend to freeze, and they may attach themselves to
already existing nuclei or form new nuclei of their own. Each nucleus grows by the
attraction of atoms from the liquid into its space lattice.
• Crystal growth continues in three dimensions, the atoms
attaching themselves in certain preferred directions,
usually along the axes of a crystal. This gives rise to a
characteristic treelike structure which is called dendrite.
Crystal growth continues in three dimensions, the atoms
attaching themselves in certain preferred directions,
usually along the axes of a crystal. This gives rise to a
characteristic treelike structure which is called dendrite.

Process of crystallization by nucleation and dendritic growth.

• The crystal axes are pointed at random because Each
nucleus is formed by chance, and therefore the dendrites
will grow in different directions in each crystal. As the
amount of liquid decreases, the gaps between the arms of
the dendrite will be filled and the growth of the dendrite will
be mutually obstructed by that of its neighbors. This leads
to a very irregular external shape. The crystals found in all
commercial metals are commonly called grains because of
this variation in external shape. The area along which
crystals meet, known as the grain boundary, is a region of
mismatch. The boundaries are formed by materials that are
not part of a lattice, such as impurities, which do not show
a specific grain pattern. This leads to a noncrystalline
(amorphous) structure at the grain boundary with the
atoms irregularly spaced. Since the last liquid to solidify is
generally along the grain boundaries, there tends to be a
higher concentration of impurity atoms in that area.
 Dendrites observed
at a magnification of
Grain Boundary Formation of dendrites in 250x
a molten metal.
 Plastic Deformation
• When a material is stressed below its elastic limit,
the resulting deformation or strain is temporary.
Removal of stress results in a gradual return of
the object to its original dimensions. When a
material is stressed beyond its elastic limit, plastic
or permanent deformation takes place, and it will
not return to its original shape by the application
of force alone. All shaping operations such as
stamping, pressing, spinning, rolling, forging,
drawing, and extruding involve plastic
deformation of metals. Various machining
operations such as milling, turning, sawing, and
punching also involve plastic deformation.
Differences between elastic and plastic deformations
Elastic Deformation Plastic Deformation

Elastic deformation is a temporary deformation Plastic deformation is the permanent deformation.

under the action of external loading.

Once the external load is removed from an When a body is plastically deformed, it retains its
elastically deformed body, it regains its original deformed shape even after the removal of external
shape. load.

In elastic deformation, atoms of the material are In plastic deformation, atoms of the solid are
displaced temporarily from their original lattice displaced permanently from their original lattice
site. They return back to their original position site. They don’t return back to the original
after the removal of external load. position even after the removal of external load.

Elastic deformation is characterized by the Plastic deformation is characterized by the

property Elasticity. By definition, elasticity is the property Plasticity. By definition, plasticity is the
property of the solid material by virtue of which it property of the solid material by virtue of which it
tends to regain its shape after the removal of tends to retain its deformed shape even after the
external load. removal of external load.
Elastic deformation is characterized by the Plastic deformation is characterized by the
property Elasticity. By definition, elasticity is the property Plasticity. By definition, plasticity is the
property of the solid material by virtue of which it property of the solid material by virtue of which it
tends to regain its shape after the removal of tends to retain its deformed shape even after the
external load. removal of external load.

Amount of elastic deformation is very small. Amount of plastic deformation is quite large.

External force required for elastic deformation of Force required for plastic deformation is also
solid is quite small. higher.

Energy absorbed by the material during elastic Total energy absorbed by the material during
deformation is called module of resilience. elastic and plastic deformation region is called
module of toughness.
Hooke’s Law of elasticity is applicable within this Hooke’s Law is not applicable if the material is
elastic region. plastically deformed.

Most solid materials display a linear stress-strain Stress-strain curve is non-linear in plastic region.
behavior within this elastic region.

Material first undergo elastic deformation under Plastic deformation occurs after it is elastically
the application of external loading. deformed due to the application of external
loading.

Mechanical and metallurgical properties of the Many properties of the solid material change
solid material remain unaltered when it is considerably for plastic deformation.
elastically deformed.
• Plastic deformation may take place by :
» Slip
» Twinning
» Combination of slip and twinning
• Deformation by Slip:
When the plastic deformation is due to slip, the atoms
move a whole interatomic space (moving from one
corner to another corner of the unit cell). This means
that overall lattice structure remains the same. Slip is
observed as thin lines under the microscopes and
these lines can be removed by polishing.

The effect of slip on the lattice structure.

• Deformation by Twinning:
• When mechanical deformation is created by twinning,
the lattice structure changes. The atoms move only a
fraction of an interatomic space and this leads to a
rearrangement of the lattice structure. Twinning is
observed as wide bands under the microscope. These
wide bands can not be removed by polishing.
• Two kinds of twins are of interest to the metallurgists:

– 1. Deformation or mechanical twins, most prevalent in close

packed hexagonal metals (magnesium, zinc, iron with large
amount of ferrite)

– 2. Annealing twins, most prevalent in F.C.C. (Face centered

cubic) metals (aluminum, copper, brass, iron with austenite).
These metals have been previously worked and heat
treated. The twins are formed because of a change in the
normal growth mechanism.
The effect of twinning on the lattice structure. Twin bands

Twin bands in zinc.

 Slip versus Twinning
Slip Twinning
Atomic movement Atoms move a whole Atoms move
number of atomic fractional atomic
spacing. spacing.
Microscopic Thin lines Wide bands or broad
appearance lines
Lattice orientation No change in lattice Lattice orientation
orientation. The steps changes. Surface
are only visible on the polishing will not
surface of the crystal destroy the evidence
and can be removed by of twinning.
polishing. After polishing
there is no evidence of
slip.
 Cold Work
• A material is considered to be cold worked if its grains are in a
distorted condition after plastic deformation is completed. All the
properties of a metal that are dependent on the lattice structure are
affected by plastic deformation or cold working. The following
properties are affected by cold work significantly:
• Tensile Strength
• Hardness
• Yield Strength
• Ductility
• Tensile strength, yield strength and hardness are increased, while
ductility is decreased. Although both strength and hardness increase,
the rate of change is not the same. Hardness generally increases most
rapidly in the first 10 percent reduction (cold work), whereas the tensile
strength increases more or less linearly. The yield strength increases
more rapidly than the tensile strength, so that, as the amount of plastic
deformation is increased, the gap between the yield and tensile
strengths decreases. This is important in certain forming operations
where appreciable deformation is required. In drawing, for example, the
load must be above the yield point to obtain appreciable deformation
but below the tensile strength to avoid failure. If the gap is narrow, very
close control of the load is required.
 Effect of cold working on tensile
strength, hardness, ductility and grain
size. (The curve below ductility
represents the change in grain size)

Effect of cold working on tensile

and yield strength of copper.

Ductility follows a path opposite to that

of hardness. A large decrease in the first
10 percent reduction and then a decrease
at a slower rate is observed. Distortion of
the lattice structure hinders the passage
of electrons and decreases electrical
conductivity in alloys. The increase in
internal energy, particularly at the grain
boundaries, makes the material more
susceptible to inter granular corrosion,
SCC
 Annealing
• As a result of cold working, the hardness, tensile
strength, and electrical resistance increase, while
ductility decreases. There is also a large increase in
the number of dislocations, and certain planes in the
crystal structure are severely distorted. Most of the
energy used to cold work the metal is dissipated in
heat, and a finite amount of energy is stored in the
crystal structure as internal energy associated with the
lattice defects created by the deformation.
• Full annealing is the process by which the distorted
cold worked lattice structure is changed back to one
which is strain free through the application of heat.
This process is carried out entirely in the solid state
and is usually followed by slow cooling in the furnace
from the desired temperature.
• The annealing process may be divided into three stages:
– Recovery
– Recrystallization
– Grain growth

• Recovery:
• This is primarily a low temperature process, and the property changes
produced do not cause appreciable change in microstructure or the
properties, such as tensile strength, yield strength, hardness and
ductility. The principal effect of recovery is the relief of internal
stresses due to cold working.
• When the load which causes plastic deformation is released, all the
elastic deformation does not disappear. This is due to the different
orientation of crystals, which will not allow some of them to move back
when the load is released. As the temperature is increased, there is
some spring back of these elastically displaced atoms which relieve
most of the internal stresses. Electrical conductivity is also increased
appreciably during the recovery stage.
• Since the mechanical properties of the metal are essentially
unchanged, the main purpose of heating in the recovery range is
stress relieving cold worked alloys to prevent stress corrosion
cracking or to minimize the distortion produced by residual stresses.
Commercially, this low temperature treatment in the recovery range is
known as stress relief annealing or process annealing.
• Recrystallization:
• As the temperature of the recovery range is reached,
minute new crystals appear in the microstructure. These
new crystals have the same composition and lattice
structure as the original undeformed grains and are not
elongated but are uniform in dimensions. The new crystals
generally appear at the most drastically deformed portions
of the grain, usually the grain boundaries and slip planes.
The cluster of atoms from which the new grains are formed
is called a nucleus. Recrystallization takes place by a
combination of nucleation of strain free grains and the
growth of these nuclei to absorb the entire cold worked
material.
• The term recrystallization temperature does not refer to a
definite temperature below which recrystallization will not
occur, but refers to the approximate temperature at which
a highly cold worked material completely recrystallizes in
one hour.
Material Recrystallization
Temperature (oF)
Copper ( 99.99 %) 250
Copper (5 % Zinc) 600
Aluminum (99.99 %) 175
Aluminum alloys 600
Low carbon steel 1000
Zinc 50
Tin 25
Lead 25
Recrystallization temperatures for various metals and alloys.

Material Recrystallization
Temperature (oF)
Copper ( 99.99 %) 250
Copper (5 % Zinc) 600
Aluminum (99.99 %) 175
Aluminum alloys 600
Low carbon steel 1000
Zinc 50
Tin 25
Lead 25
• The greater the prior deformation, the lower the
temperature for the start of recrystallization.
• Increasing the annealing time decreases the
recrystallization temperature for the start of
recrystallization.
• During recrystallization stage, there is a
significant drop in tensile strength, hardness and
a large increase in the ductility of the material.
• Grain Growth:
• In this stage the tensile strength and hardness
continue to decrease but at a much less rate than
the recrystallization stage. The major change
observed during this stage is the growth of the
grain boundaries and reaching the original grain
size (See Figure below).
Effect of annealing on tensile strength, hardness, ductility and grain size.
 Phase Diagrams
Part 1
The properties of a material depend on the type,
number, amount, and form of the phases present, and
can be changed by altering these quantities. In order to
make these changes, it is essential to know the
conditions under which these quantities exist and the
conditions under which a change in phase will occur.
The best method to record the data related to phase
changes in many alloy systems is in the form of phase Sample Phase Diagram
diagrams, also known as equilibrium diagrams or
constitutional diagrams.
In order to specify completely the state of a system in equilibrium, it is necessary to specify
three independent variables. These variables, which are externally controllable, are
temperature, pressure and composition. With pressure assumed to be constant at
atmospheric value, the equilibrium diagram indicates the structural changes due to variation
of temperature and composition. Phase diagrams show the phase relationships under
equilibrium conditions, that is, under conditions in which there will be no change with time.
Equilibrium conditions may be approached by extremely slow heating and cooling, so that if
a phase change is to occur, sufficient time is allowed.
Phase diagrams are usually plotted with temperature as the ordinate, and the alloy
composition as the abscissa as shown in the Figure above.
 Phase Diagrams
Part 2
• Inverse Lever Rule:
• Inverse lever rule is used to determine the percentage of each
phase that is present at various temperatures.
• The length of line XY represents the sum of the two phases as
100 percent. The inverse lever rule states that liquid phase can
be calculated by taking the length of the line XZ and dividing
this by XY.
• The solid phase can be calculated by taking the length of the
line ZY and dividing it by XY. To get the percentages, the
values are multiplied by 100.

Phase diagram of a mixture with

complete solubility in liquid and
solid states.
• Eutectic System: Eutectoid System:
• Eutectic system is a phase The eutectoid phase
transformation that takes transformation occurs when
place when a single-phase a single-phase solid
liquid transforms directly to transforms directly to two-
a two-phase solid. phase solid.
• L ---> S1 + S2 S1 --->S2 + S3
• Liquid ---> Solid 1 + Solid 2 Solid 1 ---> Solid 2 + Solid 3
• (This is a reversible phase (This is a reversible phase
transformation) transformation)

Eutectic phase transformation Eutectoid phase transformation

 Polymorphism and Allotropy
• Polymorphism is a physical phenomenon where a
material may have more than one crystal structure. A
material that shows polymorphism exists in more than
one type of space lattice in the solid state. If the change
in structure is reversible, then the polymorphic change is
known as allotropy. The prevailing crystal structure
depends on both the temperature and the external
pressure.
• One familiar example is found in carbon: graphite is the
stable polymorph at ambient conditions, whereas
diamond is formed at extremely high pressures.
• The best known example for allotropy is iron. When iron
crystallizes at 1540 oC it is B.C.C. (δ -iron), at 1400 oC
the structure changes to F.C.C. (ɣ -iron or austenite),
and at 910 oC it again becomes B.C.C. (α -iron or ferrite).
 Cooling curve for pure iron. (Allotropic behavior of pure iron)
• a -iron (alpha) :
• Figure 2. Alpha iron (B.C.C) unit cell
• The other name for a -iron is ferrite. This crystal has body
centered cubic structure. The unit cell and the micrograph of
the crystal are shown in the Figures below.

Alpha iron (B.C.C) unit cell

 ɣ -iron (Gamma):

Face centered cubic crystal unit cell.

The other name for g -iron is austenite. This
crystal has face centered cubic (F.C.C)
Ferrite crystals. structure. The unit cell and the micrograph of
the crystal are shown in the Figures below.

Austenite crystals.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram

Iron-iron carbide diagram

CEMENTITE (Fe3C):
Cementite is also known as iron carbide which has a chemical formula, Fe3C.
It contains 6.67 % Carbon by weight. It is a typical hard and brittle interstitial
compound of low tensile strength (approximately 5,000 psi) but high
compressive strength. Its crystal structure is orthorhombic.

AUSTENITE ( iron):
It is also known as ( ) gamma-iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of
carbon dissolved in iron with a face centered cubic crystal (F.C.C) structure.
Average properties of austenite are:
Table 1. Properties of Austenite

Tensile strength 150,000 psi.

Elongation 10 % in 2 in gage length.
Hardness Rockwell C 40
Toughness High
Austenite (gamma iron) crystal structure
 Austenite is normally unstable at room temperature. Under certain conditions it
is possible to obtain austenite at room temperature.

FERRITE ( iron):
It is also known as ( ) alpha -iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of a
small amount of carbon dissolved in iron with a Body Centered Cubic (B.C.C.)
crystal structure. It is the softest structure on the iron-iron carbide diagram.
Average properties are:
Table 2. Properties of Ferrite.
Tensile Strength 40,000 psi

Elongation 40 % in 2 in gage length

Hardness Less than Rockwell C 0 or

less than Rockwell B 90.
Toughness Low
Ferrite (alpha iron) crystal structure
PEARLITE ( + Fe3C)
It is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.83 % Carbon and is formed at 720oC on very
slow cooling. It is very fine platelike or lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite. The
structure of pearlite includes a white matrix (ferritic background) which includes thin
plates of cementite. Average properties are:
(Light background is the ferrite matrix,
Table 3. Properties of pearlite. dark lines are the cementite network)
Tensile Strength 827 MPa
Elongation 20 % in 5 cm
gauge length
Hardness Rockwell C 20 or Pearlite microstructure
BHN 250-300
A fixed amount of carbon and a fixed amount of iron are needed to form cementite
(Fe3C). Also, pearlite needs fixed amounts of cementite and ferrite. If there is not
enough carbon, that is less than 0.83 %, the C and the Fe will combine to form Fe3C
until all the C is consumed. This cementite will combine with the required amount of
ferrite to form pearlite. The remaining amount of ferrite will stay in the structure as free
ferrite. Free ferrite is also known as proeutectoid ferrite. The steel that contains
proeutectoid ferrite is referred to as hypoeutectoid steel. If, however, there is an excess
of C above 0.83 % in the austenite, pearlite will form, and the excess C above 0.83 %
will form cementite. The excess cementite deposits in the grain boundaries. This excess
 – LEDEBURITE (α + Fe3C)
• It is the eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite. It contains 4.3 % Carbon and
represents the eutectic of cast iron. Ledeburite
exists when the carbon content is greater than 2
%, which represents the dividing line on the
equilibrium diagram between steel and cast iron.

• (δ) DELTA IRON:

• Delta iron exists between 2552 and 2802 oF. It may
exist in combination with the melt to about 0.50 %
Carbon, in combination with austenite to about
0.18 % Carbon and in a single phase state out to
about 0.10 % carbon. Delta iron has the Body
Centered Cubic (B.C.C) crystal structure and is
magnetic.
• Effect of Carbon on the Physical Properties of Steel
• In general, as the carbon content increases the hardness of the
steel also increases. The tensile strength and the yield strength
also increase to about 0.83 % carbon. Thereafter, they level
out. This is shown in Figure1.

• Figure 1. Effect of carbon on hardness, tensile strength and yield strength of steels.

• The tensile strength and hardness are affected as the ratio of

ferrite to cementite in the structure of steel changes. As the
percentage of pearlite increases in the hypoeutectoid steels,
the tensile strength increases. The hardness does not increase
dramatically. The hypereutectoid steels show only a slight
increase in strength as the cementite-to-ferrite ratio increases.
• The elongation and the reduction in area represent how ductile
or brittle a material is. Figure 2 indicates the effect of carbon on
the ductility and impact resistance (toughness) of steels. The
elongation and the reduction in area drop sharply with increase
in carbon content, going almost to zero at about 1.5 % carbon.
This indicates that the carbon content of 1.5 % or more will
cause high brittleness. The impact resistance also decreases
very sharply up to about 0.83 % carbon and then levels out.

Figure 2. Effect of carbon on the impact resistance and ductility of steels.

 Composites
Composites are combinations of two materials in which one of the
materials, called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets,
or particles, and is embedded in the other materials called the matrix
phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal,
ceramic, or polymer. Composites are used because overall properties of
the composites are superior to those of the individual components. For
example: polymer/ceramic composites have a greater modulus than the
polymer component, but aren't as brittle as ceramics. The following are
some of the reasons why composites are selected for certain
applications:
• High strength to weight ratio (low density high tensile strength)
• High creep resistance
• High tensile strength at elevated temperatures
• High toughness
Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the
matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material. If the composite is
designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the
reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a
combination of desirable properties not available in any single
conventional material. The downside is that such composites are often
more expensive than conventional materials. Examples of some current
application of composites include the diesel piston, brake-shoes and
pads, tires and the Beechcraft aircraft in which 100% of the structural
components are composites.
• The strength of the composite depends primarily
on the amount, arrangement and type of fiber (or
particle) reinforcement in the resin. Typically, the
higher the reinforcement content, the greater the
strength. In some cases, glass fibers are
combined with other fibers, such as carbon or
aramid (Kevlar29 and Kevlar49), to create a
"hybrid" composite that combines the properties
of more than one reinforcing material. In addition,
the composite is often formulated with fillers and
additives that change processing or performance
parameters.
• Three types of composites are:
• Particle-reinforced composites
• Fiber-reinforced composites
• Structural composites
 Particle Reinforced Composites:

• Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and

glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles
such as aluminum, and amorphous materials, including
polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase
the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the permeability of
the matrix, to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles
are also used to produce inexpensive composites.
Reinforcers and matrices can be common, inexpensive
materials and are easily processed. An example of particle
reinforced composites is an automobile tire which has
carbon black particles in a matrix of polyisobutylene
elastomeric polymer. Another example is spheroidized
steel where cementite is transformed into a spherical
shape which improves the machinability of the material.
Another example for particle-reinforced composite is
concrete where the aggregates ( sand and gravel) are the
particles and cement is the matrix. Particle reinforced
composites support higher tensile, compressive and shear
stresses.
 Fiber-reinforced Composites:
• Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics,
glasses, or polymers that have been turned into graphite
and known as carbon fibers. Fibers increase the modulus
of the matrix material. The strong covalent bonds along the
fiber's length gives them a very high modulus in this
direction because to break or extend the fiber the bonds
must also be broken or moved. Fibers are difficult to
process into composites which makes fiber-reinforced
composites relatively expensive.
• Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most
advanced, and therefore most expensive, sports
equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which
consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix.
Body parts of race cars and some automobiles are
composites made of glass fibers (or fiberglass) in a
thermoset matrix.
• The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one
another, the fiber concentration, and the distribution all
have a significant influence on the strength and other
properties of fiber-reinforced composites. Applications
involving totally multidirectional applied stresses normally
use discontinuous fibers, which are randomly oriented in
the matrix material. Consideration of orientation and fiber
length for a particular composites depends on the level
and nature of the applied stress as well as fabrication cost.
Production rates for short-fiber composites (both aligned
and randomly oriented) are rapid, and intricate shapes can
be formed which are not possible with continuous fiber
reinforcement.
 Modulus of Fiber-Reinforced Composites:
• Fibers have a very high modulus along their axis, but have
a low modulus perpendicular to their axis. If the fibers are
all parallel, the modulus of a fiber reinforced composite
depends upon which direction you're measuring. The
modulus of the entire composite, matrix plus reinforcer, is
governed by the rule of mixtures when measuring along
the length of the fiber:
• Ec = EfVf + EmVm
• Ec is the modulus of the entire composite
along the length of the fiber.
• Ef is the modulus of the fiber along the
length of the fiber.
• Vf is the volume percent occupied by the
fibers.
• Em is the modulus of the matrix (usually
not dependent upon direction)
• Vm is the volume percent occupied by the
matrix (equal to (1-Vf)).
 tensile strength and elastic modulus
when fibers are perpendicular to the
direction of stress.

Tensile strength and elastic modulus

when fibers are parallel to the
direction of stress.
 Ceramics
• A ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic
nonmetallic material. Examples of such materials
can be anything from NaCl (table salt) to clay (a
complex silicate). Some of the useful properties of
ceramics and glasses include high melting
temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness,
hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion
resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and
thermal insulators.
• Some ceramics have special properties: some
ceramics are magnetic materials; some are
piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics
are superconductors at very low temperatures.
• Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback:
they are brittle
 Glasses
• A glass is an inorganic non-metallic
material that does not have a
crystalline structure. Such materials
are said to be amorphous.

• Examples of glasses range from the

soda-lime silicate glass in soda
bottles to the extremely high purity
silica glass in optical fibers.
 Composites
• Composites are formed from two or more
types of materials. Examples include
polymer/ceramic and metal/ceramic
composites.
• Composites are used because overall
properties of the composites are superior to
those of the individual components. For
example: polymer/ceramic composites have a
greater modulus than the polymer
component, but aren't as brittle as ceramics.
 POLYMERS
• An alternative name for this category is PLASTICS,
which describes the extensive formability of many
polymers during fabrication. A polymer has a
repeating structure, usually based on a carbon
backbone. The repeating structure results in large
chainlike molecules. The ―mer‖ in a polymer is a single
hydrocarbon molecule such as ethylene (C2H4).
• Polymers are long – chain molecules composed of
many mers bonded together. The most common
commercial polymer is POLYETHYLENE –(C2H4)n-
where n can range from approximately 100 to 1000.
• C C C C C C C
• C ==C …C–C–C–C–C-…
• Conversion of the C = C double bond into 2 C – C
single bonds
• Strong covalent bonds exist along the
straight lines between C and C and between
C and H. Only weak, secondary bonding
occurs between adjacent section of the long
molecular chains. This secondary bonding
that acts as ―weak link‖ leading to the low
strength and low melting joint for traditional
polymers.
• Polymers are contained within animal (wool,
leather), insect (silk) and vegetable (wood,
cotton) products.
• Polymers are useful because they are
lightweight, are corrosion resistant, are easy to
process at low temperatures, and are generally
inexpensive.
• Some important characteristics of polymers
include their size (or molecular weight),
softening and melting points, crystallinity, and
structure. The mechanical properties of
polymers generally include low strength and
high toughness. Their strength is often
improved using reinforced composite
structures.
• One of the distinct properties of polymers is that
they are poor conductors of electricity and heat,
which makes them good insulators.
• TYPES OF POLYMERISATION
• There are 2 types of polymers: thermoplastics and the thermosets. Rubber
or elastomers form another group of polymeric materials.
• Thermoplastic polymers, in which the long molecular chains are not rigidly
connected, have good ductility and formability; thermosetting polymers are
stronger but more brittle because the molecular chains are tightly linked.
• COPOLYMER: When 2 or more kinds of mers are mixed within a single
polymeric chain as in the case of alloying in metal system, and similarly
yields materials that potentially combine the beneficial properties of each
component. There are 3 types – alternating, random and flock, grafting and
terpolymers.
• Thermosets and Elastomers
• In thermosets and elastomers, the entire network is interconnected through
primary bonds in a non-regular (non-crystalline) fashion. The networks are
of two folds:
• 1. There in which small molecules link linear chains and 2) those in
which small molecules (including short polymer chains) react directly to
produce chain branching.
• Elastomers (Rubber): The main constituent of new natural rubber is
polyisoprene which belong to the first category of materials stated above. It
contains unsaturated C=C bonds, and when vulcanizing rubber, sulfur is
added to promote crosslinks.
• Without vulcanization, rubber is soft and sticky and flows viscously even at
room temperature. By crosslinking about 10% of the sites, the rubber
attains mechanical stability while preserving its flexibility.
 CERAMICS & GLASSES
• Greek word ―Keramos‖ – referring to pottery or earthen
ware. It includes various hand, brittle corrosion – resistant
materials made by firing clay and other minerals consisting
of one or more metals and one or more non metals; oxygen
present in the form of oxides. Ceramic materials are joined
together by ionic and covalent bonds. Ceramic typically are
hard, brittle, high melting point materials with low electrical
and thermal conductivity, good chemical and thermal
stability, and high comprehensive strengths.
• Ceramic materials have a wide range of applications,
ranging from pottery; Brick, tile, cooking ware, and soil pipe
to glass, refractories, magnets, electrical devices and
abrasives. The tiles that protect the space shuttle (Rocket)
are silica, a ceramic material. The newly discovered
superconductive and load bearing materials are also
ceramic such as impellers in turbine engines.
• STONE & ROCK e.g. granite (a mixture of feldspar
(aluminosilicate containing sodium, potassium or calcium),
quartz and mica (aluminosilicate), limestone and marble.
• The brittle nature of these materials facilitates quarrying
and polishing, while their low coefficient of thermal
expansion, relatively low density and low tendency to
absorb water are beneficial attributes in structural
applications.
• CLAY PRODUCTS (filed whiteware and structural clay
products). Clay consists of electrically neutral
aluminosilicate layers in the form of tiny crystalline platelets
that readily slide over each other. In combination with water
they form plastic masses that are easily shaped.
• White-ware includes porcelain, sanitary-ware, electrical
insulators and dishes. They are made from mixtures of clay,
feldspar and flint.
• Structural clay products includes bricks tiles and sewer
pipes.
• GLASSES
• Note: Glasses and ceramics are distinct materials. Silica
glasses are , however, generally classified as a subgroup of
ceramics. For example lithium aluminosilicate which have low-
thermal expansion coefficients, making them resistant to
fracture due to rapid temperature changes. They are mostly
used as cookware.
• REFRACTORIES
• These ceramics largely provide the thermal insulation, crucibles
and hardware in all kind of casting operations as well as
elevated temperature processing and heat treatment furnaces.
Refractories include fireclays containing alumina – silicates with
varying Al203 – Si02 , proportions, MgO – rich compositions,
relatively pure silica and zircona (Zr 02)
• ABRASIVES
• Materials used as abrasives include silicon carbide, tungsten
carbide, alumina, silica and industrial diamond dust. They are
most commonly bonded to grinding wheels or to paper and
cloth (e.g.. Sandpaper), but are also used to loose form as well
as embedded in pastes and waxes.
•
• CATEGORIES
• Ceramics and glasses can be divided into 3 categories –
crystalline ceramics, glasses (non crystalline) and glass –
ceramics
• CERAMIC – CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
• They include the traditional silicates and the many oxide and
non-oxide compounds.

• Compositions of some silicate ceramics Composition (wt %)

• Ceramic SiO2 Al2O3 K2O mqO CaO others

• Silica refractory 96 - - - - 4
• Fireclay 50-70 45-25 5
• Mullite 28 72 -
• Electrical porcelain 61 32 6 1
• Steatite porcelain 64 5 30 1
• Portland cement 25 9 64 2
• Some nonsilicate oxides and nonoxide ceramic

• primary comportion Common product names

• Al2O3 Alumina, alumina refractory
• MgO Magnesia, magnesia refractory
• MgO. Al2O3 Spinel
• UO2 Uranium dioxide
• ZrO2 Zirconia
• BaTiO3 Baruim titanate
• * Si C Silicon carbide
• * Si3N4 Silicon nitride
• TiC Titanium carbide
• WC Tungsten carbide
• C Graphite
• GLASSES – NON CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
• These are commercially silicates glassware.
• Composition of some silicate glasses, Composition (wt %)
• Glass Si02 B203 Al203 Na20 Ca0 Mg0 K20 Zn0 Pb0 other
Vitreous silica 100
Window 72 1 14 8 4 1
Container 73 2 14 10 1
Fiber (E-glass) 54 15 22 1
Copper enamel 35 3 4 17 42 -
• Vitreous – purely Si02 can withstand series temperature in
excess of 10000C. Thigh temperature crucibles and furnace
windows are typical applications.
• GLASS – CERAMICS
• The most important example of glass ceramic is the
Li20 – Al203 – Si02 system which consists of 74%Si02,
4%Li20, 16%Al203 and 6%Ti02. These materials
exhibit excellent thermal shock resistance due to the
low expansions coefficient of the crystallized ceramic.
Uses: missile nose cones, domestic ovenware
bearings and ceramic - to – glass seal.
• APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
CLAY PRODUCTS.
• Clay improve the forming characteristics, permitting
more complicated ceramic bodies to be produced.
High feldspar contents reduce the liquidus
temperature and consequently the firing temperature
• REFRACTORIES – used to contain molten metals.
 • APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
APPLICATIONS PROPERITES
• METALS
• Copper Electrical conductor were light electrical conductivity, good formability
• Gray cast Automobile engine blocks castability, mechinability, vibration damping
• Alloy steels Wrenches Good strengthening by heat treatment
• CERAMICS
• SiO2-Na2O-CaO Window glass Good optical properties and thermal insulation
• Al2O3, MgO, AiO2 Refractories for
Containing molten metal thermal insulation, high melting temperature, relatively inert to
molten
• Basium titanate Transducers for metal
• Stereo record players piezoelectric bahaviour converting sound to
electricity
• POLYMERS
• Polyethylene food packaging Easily formed into thin, flexible airtight film
• Epoxy Encapsulation of integrated
• Circuits Good electrical insulation and moisture resistance
• Phenolic Adhesives to join plies in
• Plywood Strength and moisture resistance
• SEMICONDUCTORS
• Silicon Transistors and integrated circuits Unique electrical behaviour
• GaAs Fiber-optic systems Converts electrical signals to light
• COMPOSITES
• Graphite-epoxy Aircraft components High strength-to-weight ratio
• Tungsten carbide
• Cobalt Carbide cutting tools for High hardness yet good shock resistance
• Machining
• Titanium-clad
• Steel Reactors vessels low cost and high strength of steel with good corrosion
resistance of Titanium
 Polymer Trade Names Major Application Characteristics Typical Applications
Acrylics (Polymethyl Lucite, Plexiglas Outstanding light transmission and Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures,
methacrylate) resistance to weathering drafting equipment, outdoor signs
Fluorocarbons (PTFE or Teflon, TFE, Halon Chemically inert in almost all Anticorrosive seals, chemical pipes and
TFE) TFE environments; excellent electrical valves, bearings, antiadhesive coatings,
properties; low coefficient of friction; may high temperature electronic parts
be used to 500 F; relatively weak
Nylons Zytel, Plaskon Good mechanical strength, abrasion Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles,
resistance, and toughness; low coefficient and jacketing for wires and cables
of friction; absorbs water and some other
Liquid
Polycarbonates Merlon, Lexan Dimensionally stable; low water Safety helmets; lenses, light globes, base
absorbtion; transparent; very good for photographic film
impact resistance and ductility;
chemical resistance not outstanding

Polyethylene Alathon, Petrothene, Chemically resistant, and electrically Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery
Hi-fax insulating; tough and relatively low parts, ice trays, film wrapping
coefficient of friction; low strength materials
and poor resistance to weathering
Polypropylene Pro-fax, Tenite, Resistant to heat distortion; excellent Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV
Moplen electrical properties and fatigue cabinets, luggage
strength; chemically inert; relatively
inexpensive; poor resistance to UV
light

Poylstyrene Dtyron, Lustrex, Excellent electrical properties and optical Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor
Rexolite clarity; good thermal and lighting panels, appliance housings
dimensional stability; relatively
inexpensive
Vinyls PVC, Pliovic, Saran, Good low cost, general purpose materials; Floor coverings, pipe, electrical wire
Tygon ordinarily rigid, but may be made insulation, garden hose
flexible with plasticizers; often
copolymerized; susceptible to heat
distortion
Polyester (PET) Mylar, Dacron, One of the toughest of plastic films; Magnetic recording tapes, clothing,
Celanar excellent fatigue and tear strength, auomotove tire cords
and resistance to humidity, acids,
 MATERIALS SELECTION
Design

Selection

Manufacture
Materials
 MATERIALS SELECTION
Material Properties:
The expected level of performance from the material
Material Cost and Availability
Material must be priced appropriately (not cheap but right)
Material must be available (better to have multiple sources)

Processing
Must consider how to make the part, for example:

Casting Machining Welding Environment

The effect that the service environment has on the part
The effect the part has on the environment The effect that
processing has on the environment
 Parameters to be considered
Mechanical Elastic moduli and stiffness, yield
and maximum strengths, fatigue
strength, creep strength, fracture
toughness, hardness, ductility,
abrasion resistance
MATERIALS physical Density, magnetic properties,
PROPERTIES atmosphere
chemical Corrosion resistance, oxidation
resistance, thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion
electrical Conductivity, resistivity, power,
current
MANUFACTURING CHARACTERISTICS Castability, formability, machinability
COST AND AVAILABILITY Material cost, manufacturing cost,
availability, price stability
Material Reliability, durability, environmental conditions, disposability and
recyclability, weldability
Materials Selection Charts
 Four Basic Steps
• 1) Translation: express design requirements as constraints and objectives
• 2) Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do the job
• 3) Ranking: find materials that best do the job
• 4) Supporting Info: handbooks, expert systems, web, etc.
Step 1 – Translation
 Function: What does the component do?
 Objective: What essentials conditions must be met?
 Constraints: What is to be maximized or minimized?
 Free Variables: Identify which design variables are free?
Example: Tie Rod
Function: Support a tensile load
Objective: Minimize mass
Constraints: Required length
Load carrying capability w/o/ failure
Minimize weight by maximizing Yield Stress / Density
 Step 2 – Screening
 Methods to evaluate large range of materials
 Material Bar Charts
 Material Property Charts (density vs. Young’s Modulus)
 Screen on Constraints
 Rank on Objectives
Step 3 – Ranking
 What if multiple materials remain after screening?
 Rank on Objectives
 Objectives define performance metrics
Step 4 – Select
 Then verify with any supporting materials