New Journal for Science Vulgarization

Vol 2, N0 1 (2022) 1–9

Journey through the history of physics

Abstract

History has taught us that the fate of any civilization is a descent into hell. As the misfortune of some
creates the happiness of others, another civilization will emerge by reigning on the world, during a long
period, by spreading its multidimensional knowledge. Thus, as we will see, the physical sciences have
known a more or less distinguished development according to each period of human history. Each
civilization has contributed, in its own way and according to its means, to the construction of the physical
edifice. But the most spectacular contribution, both quantitative and qualitative, emerged at the
beginning of the 20th century, giving birth to modern physics with the blossoming of quantum physics and
general relativity.

Keywords:History of physics, Scientific evolution, Classical physics, Modern physics.

ISSN : 2820-7181© 2022 www.supmit.org. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Over the centuries, physics has evolved from observations of natural phenomena, then from
experiments, that is to say from quantitative measurements made under the most controlled
conditions possible. These have enabled the identification of characteristic physical quantities,
followed by quantitative correlations between them, which are frequently written in the form of
mathematical equations, allowing for the prediction of new phenomena and the development of new
experiments. They are also likely to design and develop technological applications. These equations,
which were set up as laws, were first conceived for restricted domains of phenomena; they were then
generalized to larger and larger coherent sets, including an increasing optimal number of basic
principles. Thus, physics is the result of a largely cumulative process. Nonetheless, it is possible for an
experiment to produce results that contradict the predictions made by these laws. This sand grain in
the set of physical explanations accepted at any given time generates changes to the fundamental
concepts. This is the start of what is known as a "scientific revolution". Physicists must then abandon,
at least partially, old assumptions in order to imagine new interpretations.

It is an extremely complex intellectual exercise that only the greatest minds can achieve. The new
principles gradually put in place, at the cost of brilliant intuitions and numerous trials, must then not
only account for the new phenomena observed, but also, in some cases, the mechanisms explained
by the old theories. They also allow for the prediction of new phenomena and the development of
new technologies.

In principle, physics is a predictive science, at least in the short term. Any theoretically predicted
discovery must be confirmed by experiment (although many discoveries have been found by chance,
for example, the microwave radiation of the cosmic background, which constitutes the trace of the
birth of the universe). This discipline is intended to describe both infinitely large phenomena and
extremely small structures. To illustrate this massive length scale, consider the following: 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟏 is the
ratio of the size of the observable universe to the size of the atomic nucleus. We will spread out the
key periods of the evolution of this discipline and draw up the main underlying inventions (it is
impossible to mention them all) and their respective authors through this article.

2. Ancient Era

This era was notable for the emergence of astronomy, among other things. Our forefathers observed
the skies on a regular basis, believing them to be a divine world with the earth at its center. Everyone
could see that the sun, moon, and stars were moving across the sky in perfect harmony. No
documented thinker in the ancient world would ever question this magnificent central view of the
earth. Humans, on the other hand, began to recognize the towers in the sky and used these tower
signs to calculate calendars and seasons. The Egyptian civilization, for example, made significant
advances in the development of basic engineering, which found applications in astronomy, to clearly
define the demarcation of the agricultural area along the Nile (3150, 30 before JC). Furthermore,
Egyptian astronomers enjoyed observing the sky and naming the stars while attempting to predict
certain phenomena (the face of the moon). They were the first to think of time division, placing a
calendar and indicating that each year is made up of 12 months, each month of 30 days, and each
day of 24 hours. In contrast, the Greek scientific Heparkhos (190-120 BC) is regarded as the greatest
observational astronomer of ancient Greece. He used the trigonometric tables he created to apply
geometry to the study of astronomy and was able to predict the solar eclipse. He also studied the
movement of the sun and moon, calculating its distance, size, and different vision with greater
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precision than before. Ptolemy (90-168 A.D. J-C.) also formally described the model of the universe
centered on the earth, describing a series of overlapping circles and divisions on which other planets
moved. The combinations should have been too complex to explain the observed motions, but his
work was sufficient to the point where it was considered the global statement of celestial motion for
fourteen centuries.

The study of ancient physicists extended to other fields, with concepts adapted to their time. Thus,
in ancient Greece, Aristotle's philosophy (384-322 BC) was centered on secular foundations, as
opposed to Platon's and Socrates' moral philosophy. According to Aristotle, the movement of any
natural phenomenon could only be governed by natural laws. Obviously, in the absence of
experience, all of his reasoning was mental. He went on to say that all matter is made up of five
elements: fire, earth, air, water, and ether. For Aristotle, the natural state of things was a state of
rest, in a balanced position with the elements that comprised them. Thus, object movement was an
attempt by the body to achieve its optimal state of equilibrium. Because the earth is in the ground,
the rock falls. Because water's natural field is underground, it flows. Because smoke is made of air
and fire, it tries to reach the world of high fire, which is also why the flame extends upwards.
Archimede (287-212 BC), on the other hand, is known, among other things, for discovering the
principles of density and buoyancy while taking a bath, immediately provoking the streets of
Syracuse, shouting "Eureka!" (Which almost translates to "I found it!").

This period also saw several physical science discoveries, thanks in part to the contributions of
Chinese, Hindu, and other Babylonian scientists.

3. Arab and Persian civilizations

The international community recognizes the inherent glory of these two civilizations in the
emancipation of the exact sciences. As an example, here is a non-exhaustive list of eminent scientists
from this period and their physics discoveries:

The philosopher of the Arabs was Abu Yusuf al-Kindi (801-873). Some orientalists described him as
the pinnacle of human thought. Color, he argued, does not exist in and of itself, but rather is a
phenomenon that he perceives as a result of the interaction of darkness and light. He attributed the
blue of the sky, for example, to the mixture of the darkness of the sky with dust and vapor particles.

According to Abu Bakr al-Razi (865-935), among others, the forms of the body such as weight,
lightness, darkness, light, and others are caused by a scarcity or abundance of emptiness that mixed
with matter so that something became light and another heavy, one thing is light and another is dark;
in so far as the method is a display, the presentation is the essence, and the essence is the substance.
Al-Razi imagined the earth to be round and also stated that the earth is larger than the moon in size,
while the earth's body is much smaller than the sun's body.

Ibn Sina (980-1037) was a great scholar of many disciplines. His most important contributions to
physics are in mechanics, where he explained the various types of forces, the elements of motion,
and the resistance of the influenced medium, which acts in motion annihilation. He also classified the
forces into three categories. He demonstrated that if bodies were removed from them, there are
forces that would return them to their natural state. He referred to these as the natural forces, which
we now know as gravity, and the coercive force, which compels the body to move or rest. The third
force is the upper arch's inherent force, which is supposed to move the body with a directed will. He
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was the first to recognize that the body in a dynamic state tends to continue its movement, whether
natural or forced, so that if we try to stop it, we feel the body's impulse to remain in motion. This
confirms that Ibn Sina predicted the first law of motion more than four centuries before Leonardo da
Vinci, Galileo by more than five centuries, and Isaac Newton by more than six centuries.

Among those who contributed to the evolution of physics during this time period are Abu al-Rayhan
al-Biruni (973-1050), Banu Musa bin Shaker (803-873), and Al-Hassan bin Al-Haytham (965-1040).

4. Physics in Medieval Europe

The physical sciences advanced rapidly in Medieval Europe. Because of experienced researchers,
astronomical discoveries were notable at this time. We will discuss two major physical innovations
that occurred during this time period, as well as those who brought them into being.

Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish canon, doctor, and astronomer, was the first to openly
challenge Ptolemy's geocentric model. Instead, he advocated for a heliocentric model (centered on
the sun). This proposal will serve as a catalyst for the restart of the scientific process. We no longer
hesitate to speak of a Copernican revolution. In 1543, he proposed a new model of the solar system,
meticulously planning the planetary movement in this model, proving that the earth turns around the
sun, not the other way around, as ancient Egyptian and Greek astronomers believed. This model
challenges what has been assumed for over 1400 years, since the Greek astronomer Aristo proposed
that the earth is the center of the universe. Copernicus' "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium,"
published shortly before his death in 1543, explains the principle he followed and the reasons for his
belief in the validity of his model. This model marks the beginning of modern astronomy as well as
the scientific revolution. Copernicus' excellent precision model enabled the German astronomer
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) to develop his planetary motion equations, which are still in use today.

Galileo (1564-1642) was not satisfied with simply formulating theories; he experimented, inventing
the measuring instruments he required. As a result, he created a much more sophisticated
astronomical telescope than those available at the time. He deduced that there is no difference
between the sublunar and supra-lunar worlds by observing the Moon and Jupiter, as claimed by the
Aristotelians. He deduced the parabolic trajectories and discovered the law of accelerated motion.
He discovered the formula for the frequency of oscillation of the pendulum by observing it suspended
beneath the dome of the Pisa cathedral. He challenged Aristotle's precepts on body motion based on
his experiments and deductions. He is well-known in the field of relativity. Galileo pointed out that
no mechanical experiment can tell the difference between a ship that is stationary in port and one
that is in uniform motion: a mechanical experiment (falling body, pendulum motion, etc.) will produce
identical results in both cases. To put it another way, the physical laws of mechanics are the same for
all inertial reference frames. Einstein extended the Galilean relativity principle to include the laws of
special relativity, and then to any reference frame in a gravitational field (general relativity).

5. Classical physics

This period, which marked the start of the industrial revolution, was rich in scientific events and saw
the birth of several physical disciplines (mechanics, electromagnetism, thermodynamics...). This
phenomenon of specialization had no effect on the unity of physics, but was rather beneficial.

Galileo's ideas eventually took out when Isaac Newton (1643-1727) entered the picture. The spread
of scientific culture began. A scientific community in Europe was established. Ideas were exchanged,
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and writings were distributed. Colleges proliferated, and high-quality education became available.
The "Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge" is a place in London where
scientists from all over the world can discuss scientific topics. It is true, however, that Newton's book
(Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) published in 1686 will play an important role in the
history of science, as will Planck's article on black body radiation in 1900 (the introduction of the
concept of the quantum) and Einstein's in 1905, in which he published the famous formula « E=𝒎𝒄𝟐 ».
Newton reveals three mechanics-related principles in his book:

- The principle of inertia: the laws of mechanics have the same form in all inertial frames

- The fundamental principle of dynamics: relates the acceleration 𝒂, of a particle, of mass m, to the
force F exerted on it, a dynamic quantity: 𝑭=m𝒂.

- The principle of reciprocal action.

These three principles serve as the foundation for the universal laws of motion. They will establish
the physics framework for the next 200 years. They remain the best approximation available to us
today for treating almost all mechanical problems. The three most important points to remember
about Newton's works are as follows:

- Isaac Newton proposes the existence of an all-encompassing frame of reference. This was a
revolutionary idea at the time, despite the fact that it was already present in Galileo's principle of
relativity. Newton established a formal framework for it. This is a Euclidian frame of reference. It is
"external" to the universe that inhabits it in some ways.

- Newton also proposes an absolute time that is the same in all reference frames.

- He describes gravity as a law of attraction between bodies, and claims that this law is the same as
the one that describes the movement of the planets and all celestial bodies:

F=G (M₁M₂) /d²

Other famous scientists, such as the Swiss Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783), who played a significant role
in mechanics, have left their mark. Infinitesimal calculus was invented by him, as was fluid dynamics
and a mathematical method for solving optimization problems (Euler-Lagrange equations). For his
part, Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) developed the principle of least action, which generalized
Newtonian mechanics and allowed the motion of any system to be equated. The application of this
principle precipitated the development of a new branch of mathematics: variational calculus. Sir
William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865), an Irish mathematician and physicist, developed a canonical
formulation of classical mechanics. This is known as Hamiltonian mechanics.

The other area of physics that fascinated these scholars was electromagnetism or light (language used
at this time). Several authors have studied this discipline, which also includes optics, as we will see
below.

Indeed, Huygens (1629-1695) broke free from Cartesian theories and proposed that the universe is
filled with particles whose oscillatory movements are transmitted from one to the next. A wavelet is
a collection of particles that vibrate at the same time; the envelope of the wavelets forms the light
wave. This theory is inspired by the ripples that form on the water's surface. Huygens had a hazy
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understanding of the phenomena of interference and, more broadly, phase relations. As a result, his
theory was sometimes hazy.

Newton's (1642-1727) work in light is significant, and the dates of publication of his two treatises
(1672 for the theory of colors) demonstrate that he was always interested in the subject. On an
experimental level, Newton built the first telescope and studied light decomposition using a prism.
He also investigated the light produced by furnaces (an effect known today as "black body radiation").
Although Newton developed the wave theory of sound and light, he believed that it was made up of
corpuscles that propagated faster in a transparent medium than in a vacuum. Newton's fame and
notoriety enabled his theory to outlive Huygens' wave theory for a century.

The most spectacular development in this branch of physics occurred in the eighth century. Since
antiquity, static electricity and magnetism have been studied. The ancient Greeks were aware of the
Magnesia Stone (a Greek city in western Turkey). Magnetism was named after it. However, with the
contributions of Charles-Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806), Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), André-Marie
Ampère (1775-1836), and others, electricity and magnetism will enter the field of scientific study only
later. Despite these significant contributions, the laws that govern electrical and magnetic
phenomena remain divergent. The scientist James Clerk Maxwell (1831 - 1879) is credited with saving
unification through the famous equations that carry his name.

Thermodynamics, which has unraveled the mysteries of heat, the compressibility of gases, and the
irreversibility of transformations, is another branch of physics that has grown alongside the others. It
is based on three principles that stem roughly from energy conservation and the evolution of systems
towards equilibrium. Since the 17th century, physicists have been interested in the subject, but the
most spectacular progress was made in the 19th century. With the development of the steam engine
and the iron and steel industry, thermodynamics became a major industrial issue. The theory will take
shape over the next 50 years, from 1824 to 1872.

Edme Mariotte (1620 - 1684) and the Irishman Robert Boyle are two famous researchers who have
left their mark on the subject (1627 - 1691). They are both descended from the law of gas
compressibility. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) was the first to introduce the concept of kinetic theory
of gases in 1738. Daniel Bernoulli is the son of one of the Bernoulli brothers, a well-known Swiss
mathematician. In 1798, Benjamin Thompson, Count of Rumford (1753 - 1814), proposed that heat
is a type of energy. Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) published "an analytical theory of heat" in 1822.
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796 - 1832), the most charismatic of them, died young, and most of his
work was discovered after his death, and made a detailed analysis of the efficiency of steam engines
in 1824. (Carnot cycle). He established the premises of what became known as the second principle
of thermodynamics.

Following Sadi Carnot's work, Emile Clapeyron (1799 - 1864) highlighted latent heat and developed
the law that carries his name. William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin (Irish, 1824 - 1907), discovered the
absolute zero in 1848. The mechanical theory of heat was developed in 1850 by the German Rudolf
Clausius (1822 - 1888). In 1865, he invented the concept of entropy, which enabled him to more
rigorously reformulate the second principle of thermodynamics. In 1843, the Englishman James
Presco Joule (1818 - 1889) demonstrated experimentally the equivalence of work and heat. Ludwig
Boltzmann (1844 - 1906), an Austrian, published the Boltzmann equation in 1872, which expresses
entropy as a function of the number of possible states in the phase space. Boltzmann, a fervent
advocate of atomism and the pioneer of a statistical interpretation of gas properties, was bitterly
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opposed by supporters of matter continuity and succumbed to depression. In 1906, he committed

6. Modern physics

At the end of the nineteenth century, scientists believed that classical physics provided a precise and
global explanation for all observed motion phenomena in nature. Indeed, it appeared that almost all
of physics' mysteries had been solved. Nobody could have predicted that the classical approach to
some physical problems would reveal some contradictions with experience and observation. This will
raise fundamental questions about the very foundations of classical physics, leading to the emergence
of quantum physics and Einstein's relativity, which will serve as the foundation of modern physics
since the early twentieth century.

World-renowned scientists created the quantum physics framework. The majority of them received
Nobel Prizes in the first decades of the twentieth century, including Max Planck (1918), Niels Bohr
(1922), Louis De Broglie (1929), Paul Dirac and Erwin Schrödinger (1933), and others. The non-
determinism of quantum physics leads to the probability of the presence of a particle at a given
location, the Schrödinger evolution equation, the Heisenberg uncertainty, the discontinuity of
physical quantities such as energy, and the duality wave corpuscle; such as light, which can be
considered both as an electromagnetic wave and a set of photons. This duality can also be seen in
massive particles (corpuscles) like electrons. Indeed, in 1926, the French scientist Louis De Broglie
performed an experiment in which electrons were passed through the Young slits one after the other.
To his surprise, he noticed the appearance of an interference phenomenon, similar to that of light,
confirming the wave nature of electrons. As a result, this discipline is also founded on the principle of
state superposition. In other words, a quantum system can exist in multiple locations at the same
time, each with a different probability. Only by observing the physical system under consideration
will it be reduced to a single state (reduction of the wave packet). The anecdote of Schrödinger's cat,
which can be summarized as follows: if you put a cat in a box and introduce some venom into it, the
cat can drip some of the venom (as it cannot). The cat can taste it (but not swallow it). In any case,
this poor creature could end up in two diametrically opposed situations (superimposition of two
states). It is either dead or alive. We can only find out the outcome by opening the box and inspecting
it (reduction of the wave packet to a single state)

Modern physics took off in the twentieth century, with many great discoveries. Wolfgang Pauli
proposed the existence of the neutrino in 1930 to explain the apparent lack of energy conservation
in beta decay. It took another 26 years for the neutrino's existence to be confirmed experimentally.
James Chadwick also demonstrated its existence in 1932. Enrico Fermi proposed the first model to
explain beta radioactivity in 1933. (Decay of uranium). The weak interaction is the interaction
described by this theory. One year later, Hideki Yukawa proposed the existence of a fourth force to
account for the nucleus's cohesion despite Coulombic repulsion. The vector of the strong interaction,
the t-meson, was experimentally demonstrated in 1947. Ettore Majorana, an Italian physicist,
highlighted the tunnel effect and radioactivity in the early 1930s.

The 1950s are the years when quantum physics became popular. New laboratories were built to train field
researchers. New particles were discovered and experimental techniques were refined. It was a period of
gestation and consolidation preceding the decade of the 1960s, which would see the most spectacular
developments in quantum field theory. Murray Gell-Mann proposed the existence of quarks in 1962 to explain
the composition of protons and neutrons. In 1964, Belgians Robert Brout and François Englert, along with
British Peter Higgs, proposed the symmetry breaking mechanism to explain the mass of elementary particles.
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The agent of this symmetry breaking, the Higgs boson, will not be discovered experimentally until 2012. The
2013 Nobel Prize was shared by François Englert and Peter Higgs. Unfortunately for him, Robert Brout passed
away too soon to share this honor with them.

Sheldon Lee Glashow, Steven Weinberg, and Abdus Salam proposed the electroweak interaction in
1967, which in practice combines electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force. Once again,
experimental confirmation will come later than theoretical prediction (discovery of the W boson and
the Z boson in 1973). In 1979, all three were awarded the Nobel Prize.

Hugh David Politzer, Frank Wilczek, and David Gross develop quantum chromodynamics, a theory
that describes strong interactions within the framework of quantum theory of fields, in 1973. This
theory explains quark confinement in hadrons (protons and neutrons). In 2004, all three were
awarded the Nobel Prize. The gluon, a strong interaction mediator, was discovered in 1979. In the
early 1970s, quantum physics came to be associated with fundamental research. It was also made
into a political issue. Large sums of money were required to carry out the research.

Among the many great discoveries made by this branch of physics is the concept of entangled
particles, which refers to the fact that two (or more) quantum particles are linked in such a way that
knowledge of one lead to the deduction of all the properties of the other, regardless of the distance
that separates them. Quantum entanglement is useful in quantum information transport applications
such as quantum cryptography, quantum teleportation, and quantum computing.

As a result, other medical applications rely on the quantum properties of elementary particles.
Hadrontherapy, for example, entails sending hadrons (quantum particles) to cancer cells while
sparing healthy cells by utilizing the precision of targeting malignant cells due to the microscopic size
of these particles. Medical imaging has also advanced significantly as a result of techniques derived
from quantum physics and computer science.

In terms of general relativity applications, we can mention GPS, which allows for very precise
localization and meticulous tracking of all objects located at great distances from the observer. This
discipline is also responsible for the development of a theoretical framework that allows for the
description of the evolution of the universe. Georges Lemaitre and Edwin Hubble were able to
conclude, using Einstein's equations, that the universe experienced a much denser and hotter phase
than we know today, leading quite naturally to the formulation of the appearance of the Big Bang,
about 14 billion years ago.

The protocol of information transfer (http) on the network: world wide web (www) connecting
Internet users all over the world was created at CERN, in Geneva, with the collaboration of particle
physicists.

Last but not least, the James Webb Space Telescope's recent images have astounded everyone. Such
images, going back in time and showing the first moments of our universe's emergence from the Big
- Bang, were fascinating. Of course, the physicist community has contributed to this great scientific
achievement. associated

7. Conclusion

In this historical review, I attempted to expose the history of physics and its stages of development
across different eras and civilizations, without being able to list all of the discoveries, because the well
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of innovations is almost infinite. Each civilization has made a significant contribution to the scientific
progress we have today.

Physicists have always based their work on physical laws, drawing on previous theories to some
extent. "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." Newton said. This
emphasizes the importance of understanding the history of physics, which is what I attempted to
demonstrate in this contribution. On the other hand, the history of this science shows that the
unification of physical laws and phenomena has been a preoccupation of physicists since antiquity,
until modern physics came to bring a phenomenal contribution, leading to a better understanding of
the physical phenomena that surround us, since the beginning of the last century.

Despite all of the discoveries mentioned above, the path to other innovations remains long and
ruthless. Thus, despite several attempts (string theories and others...), the problem of unifying the
four forces of nature has not yet been solved. The much-touted superconductors, with almost zero
energy dissipation, have yet to see the light of day. What we see in the sky as stars, planets, and so
on represents only a small percentage of its composition, while the majority of its density, formed by
dark matter and invisible energy, remains a mystery. Nonlinear system phenomena such as
meteorology and turbulence are still poorly understood. The list is still extensive. Every time we
perceive a mystery, it appears that our ignorance of the dynamics of everything around us grows. This
demonstrates the complexity of nature, as well as the vastness of its beauty.

8. References

[1] Aspect ; R. Balian ; S. Balibar ; E.Brezin ; B. Cabane ; S. Fauve ; D. Kaplan ; P. Lena ; J.P. Poirier ;
J. Prost. «Demain la Physique.» . Edition. Odile Jacob. 2004.
[2] Jean C. Baudet, Penser le monde, Vuibert, Paris, 2006.
[3] Jean C. Baudet, Expliquer l'Univers, Vuibert, Paris, 2008.
[4] Jean C. Baudet, Histoire de la physique, Vuibert, Paris, 2015.
[5] http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portail:Physique
[6] http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portail:Astronomie
[7] http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portail:Cosmologie
[8] http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portail:Monde_quantique
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[10] http://www.astronoo.com/fr/
[11] http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Physique