Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v15
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v15
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v15
ORG
CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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Multicellular
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they
It contains a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts
share.
Only feed on organic substances made by other living
Species are a group of organisms which can reproduce to
things
produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of classification: Kingdom → Phylum → Classes
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species. 1.4. Vertebrates
Funny acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Mammals
Good Soup Fur/hair on the skin
External ears (pinna)
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
Internal fertilisation, giving the birth of young
internationally agreed system in which the scientific name Mammary glands
of an organism comprises two parts showing the genus Reptiles
and species. Thick, dry, scaly skin
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalized, Usually four legs
and the species are not. Internal fertilisation, conception from egg
The classification of organisms helps show the Soft eggs
evolutionary relationships between them. Fish
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help Wet scales
classify organisms. Streamlined body shape
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely related External fertilisation and soft eggs
two organisms are. Uses gills to breathe
Dichotomous keys use visible features to classify Amphibians
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and Smooth, moist skin
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to External fertilisation and soft eggs
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1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body
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A
Other Forms in Magnification Formula
1cm = 10mm
Prokaryotes (Bacteria) 1mm = 1000μm
Prokaryotes DO NOT have mitochondria and a true nucleus. Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
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In Animals
In Plants
4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
(CHO)
Dialysis Tubing Experiment Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
Dialysis tubing (or Viking tubing) is a non-living, partially
permeable membrane made from cellulose. Smaller molecules Larger molecules
Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
(such as glucose and water) to pass through by Amino acids Proteins
diffusion and osmosis.
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Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions. starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
will remain brown.
5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
Activity
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
produces C O2 .
Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs
Photosynthesis C O2 .
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Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the Children Below 12: Require more calcium
top of the leaf Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and Males: Generally, require more energy
contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells that create air 7.2. Nutrition
spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place; do
not contain many chloroplasts Nutrients Uses
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem
Carbohydrates Energy
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved
minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose Source of energy, building materials,
Phloem: a vessel that transports nutrients Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy,
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the making hormones
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to
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7.5. Teeth
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Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
calcium salts surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
Cement: helps to anchor tooth on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and More surface area means more absorption of nutrients
nerve endings which detect pain. can happen.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
collagen fibres Capillaries: provide a better blood supply
Nerves Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
Blood vessels some from the colon (large intestine).
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longer supported
8.4. Translocation
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis (sinks).
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm. Translocation in different seasons:
Then, it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly, Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
the mesophyll cells. leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
8.3. Transpiration
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, and it
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.
Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by 9. Transport in Animals
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface 9.1. Circulatory Systems
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between
mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata. Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water to ensure a one-way flow of blood.
molecules held together by forces of attraction between Single circulation system (fish):
water molecules. Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit
Wilting Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills
Wilting: occurs if water loss is greater than water uptake –
Released in body cells, then back to the heart
cells become flaccid, tissues become limp, and plants are no
Double circulation system:
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Blood Clotting
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Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form that are exactly the right shape to fit into molecules
a scab. (antigens) outside the pathogen.
Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to
10. Diseases and Immunity engulf.
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
10.1. Pathogens lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
and divide rapidly by mitosis.
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating active
Transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen
immunity.
can be passed from one host to another.
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
Active Immunity
transmitted either:
Direct contact e.g., through blood, body fluids Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
Indirect contact e.g., contaminated surfaces/food, production in the body.
from animals, from air
Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or
by vaccination.
10.2. Body Defences
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
pathogens
The human body has many natural defences against
pathogens. Process of Vaccination:
weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the
Mechanical barriers: body
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust the antigens stimulate an immune response by
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells lymphocytes which produce antibodies
Chemical barriers: memory cells are produced that give long-term
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens immunity
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food Passive Immunity
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
defences are destroyed by white blood cells: Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen by
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens antibodies acquired from another individual.
by phagocytosis
Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the
Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
pathogen
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
Vaccination against disease helps antibodies to be
which are passed on to her baby.
made very quickly
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases
against any diseases.
a clean water supply Some diseases are caused by the immune system
hygienic food preparation targeting and destroying body cells (Auto-immune
disease)
good personal hygiene
waste disposal
sewage treatment 10.4. Cholera
Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces
10.3. Active & Passive Immunity
To cure this, is oral rehydration therapy
Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens leading to the direct One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio chlorae”,
destruction of pathogens or marking pathogens for causing cholera.
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in
destruction by phagocytes.
contaminated water.
Pathogen molecules are called antigens, and they have The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
specific shapes secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing
specific antigens diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
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transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the Produces poisonous lactic acid
maintenance of a constant body temperature. Lactic Acid:
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
speed up the reaction. exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
after exercise.
An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.
the effect of temperature on yeast cells. Oxygen Debt is removed by:
Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically, continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate in the blood from the muscles to the liver
is being investigated. continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
suspension.
The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless,
12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and
the faster the respiration rate.
IV: Effect of Temperature Anaerobic Respiration
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless) Aerobic Anaerobic
Oxygen Needed Not needed
Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Amount of Energy
More Less
Released
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Sensory Neurone
14.4. Synapse
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
Relay Neurone
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14.7. Accommodation
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.
14.9. Hormones
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more
specific target organs.
Endocrine Glands
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14.10. Nervous and Hormonal Control When the control of blood glucose does not work, a
person is said to have diabetes
Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow Type 1 Diabetes
Chemical
Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that secrete
Electrical impulses messengers insulin.
Nature of message travelling along (hormones)
nerves travelling in the Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth,
bloodstream blurred vision, and feel thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired,
Duration of Usually within It may take years showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
response seconds (puberty) Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
Localized response Widespread
Area of response (only one area response (in many blood glucose concentration
usually) organs)
Development of the 14.13. Thermoregulation
Example of Reflexes such as
reproductive
process-controlled blinking
system
14.11. Homeostasis
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
environment.
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Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send Antibiotics work by disrupting the cell wall formation of
impulses to the hypothalamus the bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but not of human
Shivering: muscular activity generates heat cells.
Thermoregulatory Centre: the hypothalamus controls Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces
corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering). the effectiveness of antibiotics.
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when essential
and ensuring treatment is completed.
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not have
a cell wall and make the host cell perform their tasks.
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
affects chemical reactions in the body. nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other
15.1. Antibiotics
Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
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The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the
zygote is diploid plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes (stigma).
Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and
Advantages Disadvantages wind
Produces genetically different It takes lots of time and Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
offspring energy nucleus in an ovule
Self Pollination
Wind Pollinated Flowers
Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different
flower on the same plant.
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition
pollination between plants
Susceptible to the same
Functions Fast and saves time
disease
16.4. Pollination
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16.5. Germination
Germination: A process controlled by enzymes
Development of zygote:
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.
Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and It implants itself in the nucleus's (implantation) wall,
the cells between tubes produce testosterone. followed by conception.
Scrotum: holds testicles Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra. growth (mitosis) and development (organization of cells
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid into tissues and organs)
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
the penis carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries
female. oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Female Reproductive System Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
produces progesterone and oestrogen mother’s blood)
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops. broken at birth.
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle, Amniotic fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
moist by mucus with a small opening shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and and affect the fetus.
secretes mucus
16.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes
Sperm (Male Gamete)
1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
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Features Functions
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim
Respiration to release energy
Mitochondria
for swimming
Release digestive enzymes to
Enzymes in the acrosome
digest the jelly coat
1. Larger in size
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes
Day 1 to 5:
In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to
stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
Features Functions menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
Energy storage Development of zygote
In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation
In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
16.9. Sex Hormones in Humans Day 13/14/15:
In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
puberty Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Primary sexual characteristics: present during Luteum
development in the uterus and are the differences in In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
reproductive organs etc., between males and females Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that possible embryo implants.
occur during puberty as children become adolescents Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the No implantation takes place, the Corpus Luteum
primary sex organs; the testes in males and the ovaries in degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
females. This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors to Day 1
which can recognize them. Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the Implantation occurs.
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs. This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum
maintained which means that progesterone is high.
16.10. Menstrual Cycle This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy
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17. Inheritance
Mitosis is needed for:
Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins cells when needed.
Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts.
information in the form of genes
Replacement of worn-out cells
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Asexual reproduction: in plants
Allele: an alternative form of a gene
The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
mitosis
chromosomes.
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
cell
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes (e.g., in body cells) Stem Cells: unspecialized cells that divide by mitosis to
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the produce daughter cells that can become specialized for
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein. specific functions
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
to protein molecules.
17.4. Meiosis
17.2. DNA & Protein Synthesis Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number
is halved from diploid to haploid
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Genetic Diagrams
Terminologies
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of
the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
Pedigree Diagram
Codominance: when both alleles in heterozygous organisms
contribute to the phenotype
Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a
specific characteristic (usually a disease) through Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance
generations of a family.
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
This can determine the probability that someone in the
symbols IA, IB and IO.
family will inherit the genetic disorder.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.
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18. Variation & Selection Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce and
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features
are:
18.1. Variation Deep roots reach the water far underground
Leaves reduced spines with minimum surface area for
Variation: differences between individuals of the same transpiration
species Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
Both genetic and environmental factors cause phenotypic Rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits to
variation trap moist air
Continuous variation: results in a range of phenotypes Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable water
between two extremes; examples include body length and Stomata open at night and close at midday when
body mass evaporation is highest
Discontinuous variation: results in a limited number of E.g. cactus and marram grass
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood groups,
seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas) Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
It is usually caused by genes only, and both genes and the Their features are:
environment cause continuous variation. Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
area for absorption and photosynthesis
Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and describe Minimal cuticle formation
examples of continuous and discontinuous variation Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
open and clear
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
absent
18.3. Selection
Natural Selection
Mutation
The greater chance of passing on genes by the best-
Mutation: A genetic change. adapted organisms.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Gene mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA is an example of natural selection.
Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate Process of Natural Selection:
of mutation
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1. genetic variation within populations Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food chains.
2. production of many offspring
3. struggle for survival, including competition for
resources
4. There is a greater chance of reproduction by
individuals who are better adapted to the environment
than others; these individuals pass on their alleles to
the next generation.
Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal but
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of plant
example: material to get far less meat.
When raising an animal, plants lose energy in the
environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
environment and does not use up all the plant material, so
it is inefficient.
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers.
Welfare issues for the livestock Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates leach
Diseases can spread easily among them into rivers and lakes after rain
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby Water plants grow more than usual
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
20.2. Habitat Destruction They die and sink to the bottom
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and
Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an decreasing the O2 concentration
area. Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
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Recycling:
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Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
blood for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil nucleic acids
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
as starch Probes monitor temperature and pH
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
Lactase: temperature of 24°C.
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing
The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an
milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
even temperature.
therefore, can’t digest lactose.
Filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized to
make capsules.
21.3. Fermenters
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