Carbon 09 00070
Carbon 09 00070
Carbon 09 00070
Carbon Research
Review
Recent Advancements in Applications of Graphene to Attain
Next-Level Solar Cells
Sonal Santosh Bagade 1 , Shashidhar Patel 2 , M. M. Malik 3 and Piyush K. Patel 1, *
1 Renewable Energy Laboratory, Department of Physics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology,
Bhopal 462003, India; [email protected]
2 Government Polytechnic, Shahjahanpur 242001, India; [email protected]
3 Nanotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology, Bhopal 462003, India; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: This paper presents an intensive review covering all the versatile applications of graphene
and its derivatives in solar photovoltaic technology. To understand the internal working mechanism
for the attainment of highly efficient graphene-based solar cells, graphene’s parameters of control,
namely its number of layers and doping concentration are thoroughly discussed. The popular
graphene synthesis techniques are studied. A detailed review of various possible applications of
utilizing graphene’s attractive properties in solar cell technology is conducted. This paper clearly
mentions its applications as an efficient transparent conducting electrode, photoactive layer and
Schottky junction formation. The paper also covers advancements in the 10 different types of solar
cell technologies caused by the incorporation of graphene and its derivatives in solar cell architecture.
Graphene-based solar cells are observed to outperform those solar cells with the same configuration
but lacking the presence of graphene in them. Various roles that graphene efficiently performs in the
individual type of solar cell technology are also explored. Moreover, bi-layer (and sometimes, tri-
layer) graphene is shown to have the potential to fairly uplift the solar cell performance appreciably
as well as impart maximum stability to solar cells as compared to multi-layered graphene. The
current challenges concerning graphene-based solar cells along with the various strategies adopted
to resolve the issues are also mentioned. Hence, graphene and its derivatives are demonstrated to
Citation: Bagade, S.S.; Patel, S.;
Malik, M.M.; Patel, P.K. Recent
provide a viable path towards light-weight, flexible, cost-friendly, eco-friendly, stable and highly
Advancements in Applications of efficient solar cell technology.
Graphene to Attain Next-Level Solar
Cells. C 2023, 9, 70. Keywords: Dirac point; Fermi level; sheet resistance; transparency; work function
https://doi.org/10.3390/c9030070
C 2023, 9, 70 2 of 33
positions in reciprocal lattice space (Brillouin zone) which is in the vicinity of the Fe
energy. The conduction and valence band edges intersect each other at the Dirac po
This creates a continuum
This creates for charge transport
a continuum for chargeand charges
transport andstart behaving
charges as massless
start behaving as massless p
particles [5]. This aspect of graphene can be explained by the Dirac equation
ticles [5]. This aspect of graphene can be explained by the Dirac equationfor mass-for massl
less particles [6] and is [6]
particles represented using Figure
and is represented using1.Figure
Thus,1.graphene is known
Thus, graphene as a zero
is known as a zero ba
band gap semiconductor or semimetal [7].
gap semiconductor or semimetal [7].
Figure 1. Three-dimensional
Figure 1. Three-dimensional band
band structure of structure of semiconductor
semiconductor and graphene materials.
and graphene materials.
Figure 1 that
Figure 1 demonstrates demonstrates that as a semiconductor
as a semiconductor has agap
has a finite band finite
andband gap and parabo
parabolic
dispersion
dispersion relation, relation, are
the carriers the quite
carriers are quite Thus,
massive. massive. Thus, carriers
carriers in the conduction ba
in the conduction
possess energy, 0 𝐸 = p2𝐸 , and carriers in the valence band possess energy, 𝐸
band possess energy, EC = E − ∗ , and carriers
C
∗
2me in the valence band possess energy,
p2 𝐸 𝑚∗E, 0𝑚, ∗E, 0𝑝,EC
∗ , m∗ , p, 𝐸 and
, 𝐸 E𝐸V denote
and 𝐸 rest
∗ . eHere, denote rest of
masses of electron
and and p
EV = 0
EV − m
2m∗p . Here, p C V masses electron
proton, momentum, ton, momentum, rest mass
rest mass energies andenergies and total
total energies energies of band
of conduction conduction band and vale
and valence
band carriers, respectively. As the particles in graphene are massless, its energy is energy
band carriers, respectively. As the particles in graphene are massless, its cal- is cal
culated similarly to that of photons (rest mass = 0). Thus, both the electrons and holesholes poss
lated similarly to that of photons (rest mass = 0). Thus, both the electrons and
E=±𝐸
possess energyenergy = |𝑣p|, where
v Fermi |𝑝|, where
v Fermi is𝑣 Fermiisvelocity,
Fermi velocity,
i.e., thei.e., the velocity
velocity of fastestof fastest m
moving chargeing chargehaving
carriers carrierskinetic
havingenergy
kinetic equal
energytoequal
Fermi to energy,
Fermi energy,
or theor the velocity
velocity of of cha
charge carriers carriers
in highestin highest
occupied occupied
states at states
zeroatabsolute
zero absolute temperature
temperature and zero
and zero external elec
external
fields.
electric fields. As As graphene
graphene hasdispersion
has linear linear dispersion
relation,relation, the carrier
the carrier group group velocity/Fermi vel
velocity/Fermi
ity is over
velocity is constant constant overThus,
energy. energy. theThus, the carriers’
carriers’ effectiveeffective
mass in mass in graphene
graphene is directly rela
is directly
to momentum
related to momentum and hasand zerohas zeroatvalue
value at theenergy
the zero zero energy point (Dirac
point (Dirac point).point).
The highThe high Fer
velocity of carriers in graphene (𝑣 5 = 8 10 𝑚/𝑠
Fermi velocity of carriers in graphene (v Fermi = 8 × 10 m/s) indicates its high conductivityconductiv
) indicates its high
property.
property. This carrier This difference
energy carrier energy difference in semiconductors
in semiconductors and graphene and graphene
better explains better expla
the exceptional carrier mobility of graphene [7]. Furthermore, it has ambipolar electrical electr
the exceptional carrier mobility of graphene [7]. Furthermore, it has ambipolar
properties,
properties, thereby enabling thereby enabling
it to serve as aitcathode
to serveas aswell
a cathode as well[8,9].
as an anode as an This
anode [8,9]. This furt
further
widens its scope
widens its scope of applications [2]. of applications [2].
Owing to its large Owing to its largeand
conductivity conductivity
ultrahigh and flat ultrahigh flat transmittivity
transmittivity (~97.7%) through
(~97.7%) throughout
the entire solar spectrum from the ultraviolet (UV)
the entire solar spectrum from the ultraviolet (UV) region to the infrared (IR) region region to the infrared (IR) region (2
(200–1100 nm), 1100 nm), is
graphene graphene is readilyasapplied
readily applied as the transparent
the transparent conducting conducting
electrodeselectrodes
(TCEs) (TCEs
energy-harvesting devices, photo-detectors and other
in energy-harvesting devices, photo-detectors and other optical devices [2,10]. Similarly, optical devices [2,10].it Similarly
possesses unusual electronic properties that follow Landau level quantization, quantum
Hall effect, 2D Dirac fermion characteristics, etc. Thus, its free charges can easily move in
two dimensions with carrier mobility of 106 cm2 /Vs [2].
C 2023, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of
C 2023, 9, 70 3 of 33
possesses unusual electronic properties that follow Landau level quantization, quantu
Hall effect, 2D Dirac fermion characteristics, etc. Thus, its free charges can easily move
The Landautwo dimensions
level quantizationwithofcarrier mobility
graphene and of 106 cm2/Vs [2].density of states (DOS)
corresponding
The Landau level quantization of graphene and corresponding density of sta
in its Landau quantized levels is illustrated in Figure 2. It demonstrates that the allowed
(DOS) in its Landau quantized levels is illustrated in Figure 2. It demonstrates that
energy levels of graphene are discrete (not continuous). Moreover, the distance between
allowed energy levels of graphene are discrete (not continuous). Moreover, the distan
consecutive Landau levels decreases at higher energies and is inversely proportional to
between consecutive Landau levels decreases at higher energies and is inversely prop
the energy level quantum number (n). The magnitude of DOS remains constant at every
tional to the energy level quantum number (n). The magnitude of DOS remains const
Landau energy level. Graphene exhibits the special property of carrier multiplication [11].
at every Landau energy level. Graphene exhibits the special property of carrier multip
The Landau quantization allows us to tune graphene’s band gap and greatly benefits the
cation [11]. The Landau quantization allows us to tune graphene’s band gap and grea
carrier multiplication process, as shown by Wendler et al. [11]. This has the potential to
benefits the carrier multiplication process, as shown by Wendler et al. [11]. This has
further enhancepotential
the PCE to of further
SC devices to a the
enhance higher
PCElevel.
of SC devices to a higher level.
C 2023, 9, 70 The thickness of graphene depends on the number of layers stacked 4 of one
33 over th
other. Based on this number, graphene’s structures are termed as mono-layer, bi-layer, tr
layer or multi-layered graphene which vary greatly in their characteristics [50]. Multi-lay
ered graphene grown on flat resistive surfaces has two main advantages. Firstly, it reduce
electronic scattering thereby, decreasing sheet resistance up to 350 Ω/cm. And secondly, it
electronic scattering thereby, decreasing sheet resistance up to 350 Ω/cm. And secondly
increases photon itscattering
increasesat surface
photon wrinkles
scattering at thereby, decreasing
surface wrinkles effective
thereby, reflectance
decreasing [51].reflectanc
effective
However, the disadvantage
[51]. of the thick layer (~4 layers) is that there is a decrement
in layer transmittivityHowever,
to 93% in thethe visible andofIRthe
disadvantage range
thick[52,53].
layer (~4Hence,
layers) to achieve
is that thereboth
is a decremen
the desired properties
in layer transmittivity to 93% in the visible and IR range [52,53]. Hence, (and
of reduced sheet resistance and high transmittivity, the bi-layer to achieve bot
occasionally tri-layer or 4–7 layers,
the desired depending
properties on sheet
of reduced the SCresistance
structure) graphene
and becomes thethe bi-laye
high transmittivity,
most suitable and(andpromising material
occasionally for optoelectronic
tri-layer SC devices.on the SC structure) graphene be
or 4–7 layers, depending
The four main advantages
comes that graphene
the most suitable offers to
and promising high-tech
material SCs are (1.) transparent
for optoelectronic SC devices.
The four main
window for effective absorption andadvantages
collection that graphene
of incident offers to(2.)
photons; high-tech SCs are
appreciable (1.) transparen
charge
transport kineticswindow for effective
for effective absorption and
photogenerated collection
charge of incident
collection; (3.)photons;
offering(2.) appreciable charg
flexibility
to SCs along with transport
a robust kinetics for effective
architecture; andphotogenerated
(4.) provision charge collection;
of higher (3.) offering
efficiency heat dis-flexibility t
sipation [2]. Moreover, graphene’s electrocatalytic activities contribute to enhancing the dissipa
SCs along with a robust architecture; and (4.) provision of higher efficiency heat
tion [2]. Moreover,
performance of electrochemical SCs graphene’s electrocatalytic solar
such as dye-sensitized activities
cellscontribute
(DSSCs) to enhancing
where the the pe
formance of electrochemical SCs such as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) where the ele
electron transport pathway is a solid/liquid interface [2]. Many more diverse applica-
tron transport pathway is a solid/liquid interface [2]. Many more diverse applications rep
tions representing the versatility of graphene in SC technology, as shown in Figure 3, are
resenting the versatility of graphene in SC technology, as shown in Figure 3, are presente
presented henceforth in this paper.
henceforth in this paper.
2. Methodology:2.Graphene
Methodology: Graphene Synthesis Techniques and Graphene Transfer
Synthesis Techniques and Graphene Transfer
There are two main techniques of graphene fabrication: (1.) physical techniques tha
There are two main techniques of graphene fabrication: (1.) physical techniques that
include: (a.) micro-mechanical exfoliation of highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG
include: (a.) micro-mechanical exfoliation of highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) [3]
[3] and (b.) sublimation at high temperatures [54]; and (2.) chemical techniques that in
and (b.) sublimation
clude:at (c.)
high temperatures
graphene [54]; and [55]
oxide reduction (2.) chemical techniques
and (d.) chemical vaporthat include: (CVD) o
deposition
(c.) graphene oxide reduction [55] and (d.) chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
metal substrates [56]. This section presents a brief overview of all major popular on metal graphen
substrates [56]. synthesis
This section presents a brief overview of all major popular graphene
processes. The most preferred among all synthesis techniques are the exfolia
synthesis processes.
tion,The mostCVD,
thermal preferred among
chemical all synthesis
synthesis techniques
and epitaxial growthare the exfoliation,
methods [2].
thermal CVD, chemical synthesis and epitaxial growth methods [2].
In the context of graphene synthesis, the major challenge is in the production of large
In the context of graphene
scale high-quality synthesis,
graphene the
atmajor
a low challenge is in the
cost. To address production
this of large-
issue, scientists Shi et al. pro
scale high-qualityposed
graphene at a low cost.
non-electrified To address this
electrochemical issue, scientists
exfoliation method [57],Shi et
Li al. proposed
et al. proposed salt an
non-electrified electrochemical exfoliation method [57], Li et al. proposed salt and water
co-assisted exfoliation of graphite in organic solvent [58], Islam et al. presented a protocol
for ultrafast chemical-free graphite exfoliation [59], Shi et al. focused on bubble-mediated
mass production [60], whereas Qiao et al. proposed use of CH4 as carbon source [61].
Owing to graphene’s vast applications, its large-scale high-quality low-cost production is
one of the most researched topics nowadays.
C 2023, 9, 70 5 of 33
Figure4.4.Variation
Figure Variationofof transparency
transparency andand sheet
sheet conductance
conductance as a function
as a function of the number
of the number of graphene
of graphene layers.
layers.
The sheet resistance (Ω/sq) can be theoretically obtained using the formula
Rsheet The
= ρ/t,sheet resistance
where ρ is the(Ω/sq) can beresistivity
electrical theoretically
andobtained
t is layerusing the formula
thickness Rsheet = ρ/t,
[95]. However,
where
Liu ρ is
et al. the electrical resistivity
demonstrated and resistance
that the sheet t is layer thickness [95]. However,
varies depending on theLiu et al. demon-
graphene syn-
strated
thesis that the
process andsheet
type resistance
of dopant varies
[96].depending on Singh
Li et al. [90], the graphene synthesis
et al. [93] and Weiprocess and
et al. [97]
type of dopant
provide a graphical[96].representation
Li et al. [90], Singh
of anetincrease
al. [93] in
and Wei resistance
sheet et al. [97] provide a graphical
and a reduction in
representation of an increase in sheet resistance and a reduction in sheet
sheet conductance with number of graphene layers. From these graphs, one can interpret conductance with
number
that of graphene
the sheet resistance layers. From these graphs,
of graphene-based one can
SCs is also interpret
dependent onthat the sheet
various aspectsresistance
like SC
of graphene-based
structure, graphene SCs is alsoand
synthesis dependent
deposition on process,
various SC aspects like SC
working structure,
conditions, graphene
etc. This is
synthesis
the and deposition
main reason behind theprocess, SC working
qualitative nature ofconditions, etc. This is the
the sheet conductance main
graph withreason
respectbe-
hind
to the the qualitative
number naturelayers
of graphene of theinsheet conductance
Figure 4. graph with respect to the number of
graphene
Based layers in Figure
on sheet 4. and optical transmittance, the SC efficiency is decided. For
resistance
maximumBasedSC onefficiency,
sheet resistance andresistance
the sheet optical transmittance,
should be small the SCandefficiency is decided. For
optical transmittance
should be large. With an increase in the number of graphene layers,
maximum SC efficiency, the sheet resistance should be small and optical transmittance both the optical
transmittance and sheet resistance decrease (sheet conductance increases). Thus, sheet
resistance and optical transmittance are two competing parameters for high efficiency of
graphene-based SCs.
As the values of sheet resistance and optical transmittance depend on SC structure,
we obtain the highest efficiency at different numbers of graphene layers for different SCs.
The number of graphene layers providing maximum SC efficiency is seven layers in the
case of Ishikawa et al. [98], five layers in the case of Notte et al. [99] and one layer in the
case of Arefinia et al. [100]. However, bi-layer and tri-layer graphene, in most cases, offer
C 2023, 9, 70 8 of 33
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of shift in graphene’s Fermi level with respect to type of doping.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of shift in graphene’s Fermi level with respect to type of doping.
Shifting of
Shifting of graphene’s
graphene’s Fermi
Fermi level
level leads
leads toto an
an increase
increase inin graphene’s
graphene’s workwork function
function
in the case of p-type doping and a decrease in its work function in the
in the case of p-type doping and a decrease in its work function in the case of n-typecase of n-type dop-
ing. However, the exact graph is subjective to the SC structure, dopant
doping. However, the exact graph is subjective to the SC structure, dopant type, dopanttype, dopant con-
centration, experimental conditions, etc. The exact nature of the graphs
concentration, experimental conditions, etc. The exact nature of the graphs can be inferredcan be inferred
from the
from the studies
studies conducted
conductedby byShin
Shinetetal.al.
[94], Yang
[94], Yanget al.
et [110], Kwon
al. [110], et al.et[111],
Kwon Shi etShi
al. [111], al.
[112] and Garg et al. [113].
et al. [112] and Garg et al. [113].
Now, to understand precisely the effect of variation in work function on SC effi-
ciency, Figures 6 and 7 demonstrate the variation of graphene/semiconductor band align-
ment as a function of graphene work function and doping. In Figure 6, graphene is chosen
to be p-type doped. Hence, an increase in graphene’s p-type doping increases the gra-
phene work function. From Figure 6, one can understand that as the graphene’s work
function increases above the zero-energy level or vacuum level of the semiconductor, the
C 2023, 9, 70 9 of 33
teractions between the dopants and graphene [131,132]. Moreover, recently, Abdullah
et al. noted stacking orientation caused in bi-layer graphene due to interaction between
B and N dopant atoms [133]. To develop further intricate understanding, more such
studies need to be performed.
decrease in interfacial recombination and leakage current and an increase in shunt resistance
when it was applied as a photoactive layer by Uma et al. [146], Zhang et al. [147], Li
et al. [148] and Liu et al. [149]. This consequently improved the experimental efficiency
of their respective SCs. Being ambipolar in nature, graphene also offers good rectification
characteristics and facilitates electron/hole blocking. Hence, it behaves as an anode as well
as a cathode layer [150–153].
Apart from graphene, many other graphene hybrid materials are adopted as photoac-
tive layers. Kakavelakis et al. employed lithium-neutralized graphene oxide (GO-Li) as an
interfacial layer [154]. They too obtained efficiency upliftment from 5.51% without GO-Li to
6.29% with GO-Li photoactive layer in their SC. Along with SC efficiency, it also improved
the SC stability against solar heat, air and moisture. Increasing the layer thickness further
increased the SC performance. It can also be used as an antireflective protecting film due to
its chemical inertness and high transparency. Singh et al. provide a lot of technical details
to present this aspect of graphene in their article [93]. This role of graphene is projected in
various SCs and is discussed in detail in the following Section 3.3.
The other notable graphene-based photoactive layers include thiolate-reduced graphene
oxide (TrGO) material producing an efficiency of 4.20%, graphene-C60 -silver-based hybrid
material exhibiting an efficiency of 7.2%, graphene and transition metal oxide composite with
an efficiency of 7.3%, graphene-CdS-based materials offering efficiency of 7.5%, etc. [93].
to prove this fact [206]. The rectifying behavior was determined by calculating Schottky
barrier height, series resistance, energy band diagram, build-in potential, charge separation
and extraction, etc., for single and bi-layer graphene. Their results suggested that the bi-
layer graphene exhibits higher Schottky barrier height (0.75 eV), smaller ideality factor (2.43)
and lower series resistance (20.1 Ω) as compared to mono-layer graphene. Hence, bi-layer
graphene/GaAs Schottky junction SC performs better than mono-layer graphene [206].
Tongay et al. demonstrated enhanced efficiency of graphene/nSi Schottky junction SC
up to 8%. They also illustrated experimentally that the TFSA dopant enhanced SC stability
due to its hydrophobic nature [199]. As graphene’s properties are tunable, it can be used to
optimize SC as well as can be applied to diverse materials. Moreover, graphene electrodes
are less costly and can easily be fabricated. Hence, graphene is considered to have the
potential to easily outperform ITO to form Schottky junction SCs [207].
In this context, the ultrahigh transmittance in the entire broad solar spectrum range,
remarkable surface area (2630 m2 /g), large electrical conductance and mobility, high thermal
conductivity and appreciable mechanical properties of graphene made it a best alternative
to Pt counter electrodes. This facilitates efficient exciton generation [56,91,229,230]. Hasin
et al. first reported the capability of graphene to be used as counter electrodes in DSSCs [231].
The rigorous research on such graphene-based DSSCs has improved their efficiency to about
7–9.5% [2]. Considering the remarkable properties of graphene, the efficiency of graphene-
based DSSCs can be predicted to increase much higher in the upcoming years.
tuned, making it suitable for various applications. The summary of their development is
demonstrated by Singh et al. [93].
In this context, the graphene-based PSCs are also performing well [85,274–283]. From
the comparison table presented by Singh et al., one can conclude that the presence of
graphene in PSCs often rises its efficiency [93]. Speaking quantitatively, Kuang et al. en-
hanced the performance of their SC from 14.8% to 28.7% just by inclusion of graphene layer
into their SC [275]. Yeo et al. even demonstrated that the presence of reduced GO offered
resistance against moisture and oxygen and increased the stability in PSCs [279]. Many stud-
ies have shown that graphene offers long-term stability to PSCs [284–293]. Li et al. found an
increment in interface wettability due to the amphiphilic property of GO, reducing the con-
tact angle to 00 and thereby, rising efficiency by 45.5% [93,280]. This can again be attributed
to the combined effect of remarkable properties of both the graphene and PSCs. Hence,
graphene-based PSCs are a very interesting future research area [294]. The various roles
that graphene can play to contribute to higher PSC efficiency are discussed briefly below.
tri-layer graphene [9,86]. The use of graphene as an anode improved OSC performance
by 55% [318]. Doping even made graphene capable of OSC surface passivation by in-
creasing wettability and hydrophilicity [89,319]. Research has improved graphene-based
OSC efficiency by up to 3% [320]. However, consistent research endeavors can make
graphene-based OSCs a promising photovoltaic technology.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S.B.; methodology, S.S.B.; validation, S.S.B., S.P., M.M.M.
and P.K.P.; formal analysis, S.S.B., S.P., M.M.M. and P.K.P.; investigation, S.S.B.; resources, P.K.P. and
S.S.B.; data curation, S.S.B.; writing—original draft preparation, S.S.B.; writing—review and editing,
S.S.B.; visualization, S.S.B.; supervision, P.K.P.; project administration, P.K.P. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data that support the findings of this study is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no competing interests.
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