1

General Chemistry 2
Third Quarter
Module No. 1A of 3
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY & INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
LIQUIDS & SOLIDS
Writer: Roland R. Agra

HONOR CODE
AS A MEMBER OF THE NAMUAC ACADEMY EAGLES FAMILY, I WILL CONDUCT
MYSELF WITH INTEGRITY & SINCERITY AT ALL TIMES, DEMONSTRATE COMPASSION &
JUSTICE IN ALL MY ACTIONS, UPHOLD THE VALUE OF EXCELLENCE, AND ABIDE BY THE
EXPECTATIONS SET FORTH IN THE STUDENT HANDBOOK.
I MAKE THIS PLEDGE IN THE SPIRIT OF HONOR & TRUST.

PERFORMANCE TASK IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Design a simple investigation to determine the effect on boiling point or freezing point when a
solid is dissolved in water

TRANSFER GOAL

GOAL To design a community plan

ROLE Scientist, environmentalist, planner
AUDIENCE Community members
SITUATION You were tasked to discuss ways to conserve materials and resources to
the community. You will present a comprehensive community plan that
will include atomic structure, gas behavior, mass relationships, and
reactions.
PRODUCT Video presentation, slideshow, narrative report
STANDARDS Content, accuracy, organization of ideas

21ST CENTURY SKILLS CORE VALUE TASK

CRITICAL THINKING Excellence
CREATIVITY Excellence
COLLABORATION Justice
CROSS CULTURAL
UNDERSTANDING
COMPUTER/ICT
CAREER/SELF RELIANCE
COMMUNICATION Integrity

SCORING RUBRIC FOR THE PERFORMANCE TASK

CRITERIA 4 3 2 1
Content
Accuracy
Organization of Ideas
STEM General Chemistry 2 Q3 Module 1
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EXPECTATION
S
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
99)
2. Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c100)
3. Describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these
properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization
(STEM_GC11IMF-IIIac102)
4. Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces
(STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c103)
5. Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-
c104)
6. Interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIac107)
7. Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c109)
8. Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: percent by mass, mole fraction,
molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm (STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-111)
9. Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: molarity (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111)
10.Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution (STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f112)

PRE-TEST

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Juan observed the ice as it melts on the table. He wondered what happened to the movement
of the particles present on the ice. Which of the following concepts can help Juan?
a. The movement of the particles become slower as phase change happens.
b. The movement of the particles become slower because there are spaces between
particles.
c. The movement of the particles become faster because the temperature of the ice changes
sufficiently as phase change happens.
d. The movement of the particles become faster because the particles in ice is faster than the
particles in water.

2. Which is NOT true about London Dispersion Force?

a. It is present in all molecules whether polar or nonpolar.
b. Forces are higher with higher boiling point.
c. The higher the surface area, the higher the forces.
d. Exhibit stronger dispersion forces with smaller and lighter atoms/molecules.

3. Which property of matter shows a liquid’s resistance to flow?

a. Ductility c. Boiling point b. Viscosity d. Being brittle

4. The bond involved in water that gave its unique properties and structure.
a. Ion-Dipole Forces c. Hydrogen Bond
b. Ionic Bond d. London Dispersion Forces

5. Which of the following properties is generally exhibited by amorphous solids?

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a. Anisotropy c. Equal strength of all bonds

b. Glass-transition d. Crystal Intersect
6. For water, how are pressure and boiling point related?
a. The greater the pressure, the lower the boiling point.
b. The lower the pressure, the higher the boiling point.
c. The greater the pressure, the higher the boiling point.
d. All answers are incorrect.

7. At the melting point of a point of a substance, temperature _________ as heat is being added
and the substance is changing from a solid to a liquid.
a. Increases c. Remains constant
b. Decreases d. Cease to exist

8. A solution is prepared by mixing 20g of sodium chloride in 80g of water. What are the
concentrations of the solute and the solvent in % by mass?
a. Solute: 80%, Solvent:20% c. Solute: 90%, Solvent:10%
b. Solute: 20%, Solvent:80% d. Solute: 40%, Solvent:60%

9. When working with solutions, there are several ways of expressing concentration of the amount
of solute in the solvent. Which of the following common unit of concentration defined as the
number of moles of a solute in one liter of solution?
a. Molality (m) c. Mole fraction
b. Molarity (M) d. Limiting reagent

10. What is a coefficient in a balanced chemical equation?

a. The number written before a substance to determine the number of mass that are present
in the solution.
b. The number used to determine the relative number of molecules, formula units, or moles of
compounds in the reaction.
c. This is an entity that denote the proportion before and after of a certain reaction.
d. This is a number that varies on the conditions that affect reaction rate such as temperature,
pressure, surface area and others.

OVERVIEW

In the previous lessons in General Chemistry 1, you have learned about the kinetic molecular
model of gases. This activity sheet will mainly focus on the kinetic molecular model of solids and
liquids.

Matter can exist in three main different states: namely, solid, liquid, and gas. The most common
example of which is water. You only have to think about water to appreciate how different the three
states of matter are. Steam bathing, drinking, and ice skating are all done in contact with water in its
various forms. But how do these states of matter differ with each other? Understanding the kinetic
molecular model of the three states will answer this question.

In lesson 2, you’ll learn that water makes up a large proportion of the entire biosphere and of
these, 95% is saltwater and the remaining 5% is freshwater.

Water is locked up in ice and glaciers, deep and shallow underground lakes, soil, atmosphere,
and in rivers. The human body consists of 50-75% water. Water serves important purposes for life on
earth. Water’s unique properties result from the strong intermolecular force of attraction characterized
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by the hydrogen bond. Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily.
When placed in water, sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged sodium ion (Na+)
binds to oxygen, while the negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-) attaches to hydrogen. This property of
water allows for the transport of nutrients vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of rainwater falling
through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the
land, lakes and rivers.

The concentration of a solution is defined as the relative amount of solute present in a solution.
It basically talks about how to find the amount of solute present in solvent which together forms
solution. You’ll learn in lesson 3 are various methods used to express concentration of solutions.

Chemists deal with molecules every day. Chemical reactions are described as to how many
molecules of compound A reacts with how many molecules of compound B forming how many
molecules of compound C. To be able to determine the amount of reactant needed, number of
molecules in a given volume of reactant must be determined. Concentrations expressed in percent
only gives the amount in grams and not molecules. A 100 mL solution of 2% NaCl will have a very
different number of molecules than a 2% solution of CsCl. Thus, another way of expressing
concentration is needed. This will be covered in lesson 4.

LESSON PROPER

LESSON 1: Kinetic Molecular Model and Intermolecular Forces

What is Kinetic Molecular Theory?

The kinetic-molecular theory is a theory that explains the states of matter and is based on the
idea that matter is composed of tiny particles that are always in motion. The theory helps explain
observable properties and behaviors of solids, liquids, and gases. An application of the theory is that it
helps to explain why matter exists in different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) and how matter can
change from one phase to another.

The state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic energy of the individual
particles (molecules or atoms) and the intermolecular forces. The kinetic energy keeps the molecules
apart and moving around, and is a function of the temperature of the substance. The intermolecular
forces are attractive forces that try to draw the particles together.

Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory

1. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic
energy.
2. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature. Increased
temperature means greater speed.
3. There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.
5. There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength of
these forces increases as particles get closer together.

KMT of Liquids and Solids

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The principal difference between the condensed states (liquids and solids) and the gaseous
state is the distance between molecules. In a liquid, the molecules are so close together that there is
very little empty space. Thus, liquids are much more difficult to compress than gases, and they are also
much denser under normal conditions. Molecules in a liquid are held together by one or more types of
attractive forces. A liquid also has a definite volume, because molecules in a liquid do not break away
from the attractive forces. The molecules can, however, move past one another freely, and so a liquid
can flow, can be poured, and assumes the shape of its container.

In a solid, molecules are held rigidly in position with virtually no freedom of motion, so they only
vibrate only about fixed positions. There is even less empty space in a solid than in a liquid because
their particles are tightly packed. Thus, solids are almost incompressible and possess definite shape
and volume. This is due to stronger intermolecular force of attraction compared to liquids.

The condensation of gaseous substance to form liquids which in turn form solids could be
explained by the attractive forces called intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces vs. Intramolecular forces

It is important to note the difference between

intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces. As
discussed in General Chemistry 1, atoms can form stable
units called molecules by sharing electrons.

This is called the intramolecular bonding.

Intramolecular (within molecules) forces holds atoms
together in a molecule. Intramolecular forces stabilize
individual molecules. Generally, these forces are simply the
chemical bonds such as ionic and covalent bonding.

On the other hand, intermolecular forces are

attractive forces between molecules. Intermolecular forces
are responsible for the non-ideal Intermolecular force in water molecule which hold two behavior of
gases, but they exert more influence in molecules together. the condensed phases of matter which are
liquids and solids. Intermolecular forces are collectively known as van der Waals forces named after
Dutch chemist, Johannes van der Waal. Van der Waals forces are electrical in nature; that is, they
result in the attraction between centers of opposite charge in two molecules close to each other.

It is important to recognize that when a substance such as water changes from solid to liquid to
gas, the molecules remain intact. The changes in states are due to changes in the forces among the
molecules rather than in those within the molecules. In ice, the molecules are virtually locked in place,
although they can vibrate about their positions. If energy is added, the motions of the molecules
increase, and they eventually achieve the greater movement and disorder characteristic of liquid water.
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The ice has melted. As more energy is added, the gaseous state is eventually reached, with the
individual molecules far apart and interacting relatively little. However, the gas still consists of water
molecules. It would take much energy to overcome the covalent bonds and decompose the water
molecules into their component atoms. This can be seen by comparing the energy needed to vaporize
1 mole of liquid water (40.7 kJ) with that needed to break the -OOH bonds in 1 mole of water molecules
(934 kJ).

Types of Intermolecular Forces

1. London Dispersion forces.

London dispersion forces, or
simply dispersion forces, are
intermolecular forces of
attraction that exist between all
atoms and molecules. In
addition, dispersion forces are
the only kind of intermolecular
forces present among
symmetrical nonpolar substances such as O2 and CO2 and monoatomic species such as noble
gases. Without dispersion forces, such substances could not condense to form liquids or solidify to
form solids.

Dispersion forces are weak attractive forces that results from the continuous movement of electrons
in particles. Nonpolar molecules have zero dipole moment because their electron density is uniform
and symmetrical.

Nevertheless, the electrons have some freedom to move around the molecule. This induces
temporary dipoles (instantaneous dipoles) in neighboring atoms or molecules. As electron clouds
become larger and more diffuse, they are attracted less strongly by their own positive nuclei. Thus,
they are more easily distorted, or polarized by the adjacent/nearby nuclei.

Polarization increases with increasing numbers of electrons and therefore with increasing size of
molecules. Therefore, dispersion forces are generally stronger for molecules that are larger or have
more electrons. As an example, between helium and argon, two argon atoms will have greater
dispersion force because they are bigger than helium atoms.

2. Dipole-dipole Forces. Dipole-dipole forces are attractive

forces between polar molecules, that is, between
molecules that possess dipole moments. Their origin is
electrostatic, and they can be understood in terms of
Coulomb’s law. The larger the dipole moment, the greater
the force. Dipole-dipole forces are the attraction between
the positive end of one molecule and the negative end of
another.

Dipoles form when there is a large difference in

electronegativity between two atoms joined by a covalent
bond.

Hydrogen bond is a special case of very strong dipole-

dipole interaction. They are not chemical bonds in formal sense. Strong hydrogen bonding occurs
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among polar covalent molecules containing H and one of the three small, highly electronegative
elements – F, O, or N.

Like ordinary dipole-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonds result from the attractions between + (partial
positive) atoms of one molecule, in this case H atoms and the − (partial negative) atoms of another
molecule. The + H is attracted to a lone pair of electrons on an F, O, or N atom. Typically, a
hydrogen bond is about five to ten times stronger than other dipole-dipole interactions.

3. Ion-Dipole Forces Ion-dipole force acts

between an ion (either cation or anion) and a
polar molecule. When an ionic compound is
placed in a solution of water, the positive end
of the ionic compound becomes surrounded
with the partial negative end of the ionic
compound, in turn, becomes surrounded by
the partial positive hydrogen ion in water. In
short, the positive pole is attracted to the
negative ion (anion), while the negative pole is
attracted to a positive ion (cation).

Ion- dipole interactions are involved in solution process like in the case of sodium chloride (table
salt) dissolving in water. In this case, Na + and Cl- ions are dispersed amidst water molecules. The
Na+ will be surround by the partial negative oxygen of water molecule while the Cl- will be surround
by the partial positive H of water molecule.

The strength of this interaction depends on the

charge and size of the ion and on the magnitude of
the dipole moment and size of the molecule. The
charges on cations are generally more concentrated
because cations are usually smaller than anions.
Therefore, a cation interacts more strongly with
dipoles than does an anion having a charge of the
same magnitude.

These four intermolecular forces vary in

strength. Ion dipole forces is the strongest of the four,
followed by hydrogen bonding being a special type of dipole-dipole. Dipole-dipole is weaker than the
ion-dipole and hydrogen bonding while London dispersion forces is the weakest.

Lesson 2: Properties of Liquids

Liquids are made up of particles

that are close to each other and have
kinetic energy.

The particles are not confined to a

rigid position and they move, but they can
only travel at a short distance before they
collide with each other and change the
direction of motion. They roll and slide on
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top of one another and flow. Since the molecules flow, they take the shape of their container and
diffuse moderately to a fixed volume.

Liquids have moderately high density since they occupy a fixed volume and the particles are
attracted to each other. They also have low compressibility and thermal expansion.

The kinetic energy of the molecules breaks away from their neighbor and thus, the particles are
joined by intermolecular forces.

Most liquids exist as molecules at room temperature. The presence of the intermolecular forces
results in special properties. The physical properties of liquids depend on the type of the different
intermolecular forces.

a. Surface Tension. It is
the force that causes
the surface of a liquid
to contract. It is the
property of the surface
of a liquid that allows it
to resist an external
force, due to the
cohesive nature of its
molecules.

Phenomena such as
insects walking on the
surface of water,
droplets of liquid being spherical in shape, and needle remaining suspended on the surface of
water can all be explained in terms of surface tension.

The strength of surface tension depends on the intermolecular force of attraction. If the
intermolecular force of attraction of a liquid is strong, then there is a greater force needed to
break through the surface and the greater the surface tension is. Since the intermolecular
forces vary in nature and strength, surface tension is different for different form of liquids. Water
has a high surface tension because of its ability to form a hydrogen bond.

Temperature affects surface tension, an increase in the liquid’s temperature causes water
molecules at the surface to evaporate resulting to the weakening of the force of attraction.
Therefore, there is less force needed to break through the surface of the molecules, this
decreases surface tension.

Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces. Molecules at the
surface are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not upward away from the
surface.

These intermolecular forces tend to

pull the molecules into the liquid and
cause the surface to tighten like an
elastic film or skin.

Capillary action is the tendency of a

liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be
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drawn into small

openings such as
those between grains
of a rock. Capillary
action, also known as
capillarity, is a result
of intermolecular
attraction between the
liquid and solid
materials.

Capillary action is
shown by water rising
spontaneously in capillary tubes. A thin film of water adheres to the wall of the glass tube as
water molecules are attracted to atoms making up the glass (SiO 2). Surface tension causes the
film of water to contract and pulls the water up the tube.

Two types of forces are involved in capillary action. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction
between like molecules (the liquid molecules). Adhesion is an attraction between unlike
molecules (such as those in water and in the particles that make up the glass tube). These
forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical container (the meniscus!)

b.

Viscosity. It is the resistance of fluids to flow.

A liquid’s resistance (friction) to flow exists between the molecules of liquid when they move
past each other. The greater the resistance in flowing, the more viscous the liquid is.

Maple syrup is usually made from the

xylem sap of sugar maple, red maple or
black maple trees. It is boiled down so
it becomes more concentrated and
viscous liquid. Maple syrup is more
viscous than water. The difference in
viscosity between the two liquids is a
measure of their intermolecular force of
attraction. In order to flow, molecules
must move, roll and slide over one
another. A liquid with low intermolecular
force allows its molecules to move freely and, therefore, has lower viscosity.

An increase in temperature causes kinetic energy to increase. Heat breaks the intermolecular
forces causing the liquid molecules to move faster. This makes the molecules flow more
readily. Therefore, an increase in temperature decreases viscosity.
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Since the structure of maple syrup

contains a lot of O-H bond compared to
water, more H-bonds are formed in maple
syrup. The greater the number of Hbonds,
the stronger the intermolecular force of
attraction is, and the higher the viscosity of
the liquid.

Viscosity is expressed in units of

centipoise. The table below gives
viscosities of liquids of some pure
substances. Water has viscosity of 1
centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20 0C.
Substances with lower viscosities include
carbon tetrachloride and benzene.
Glycerol has a resistance to flow of more
than a thousand times greater than water.

Liquids that have strong intermolecular

forces have higher viscosities than those
that have weak intermolecular forces.

Viscosity decreases as temperature

increases: hot molasses flows much faster
than cold molasses.

c. Vapor Pressure. Vaporization is a change of state from liquid to gas, while the opposite
process (gas to liquid) is condensation. When liquid molecules break free from their neighbors
and escape into the gas phase, the process is called evaporation.

Vaporization is a broader term that includes evaporation and boiling. Gas and vapor are similar
but not the same. Vapor is used to refer to the gaseous state of a substance which is normally
a liquid or solid at room temperature. The average kinetic energy of the liquid molecules of a
substance depends on temperature. Most liquid particles have higher kinetic energy and some
others move at a slower pace.

Substances that evaporate readily are volatile. They have weak intermolecular forces of
attraction. Some examples of volatile liquids are alcohol, gasoline, paint thinner and dry-
cleaning solvents. Volatile substances burn more readily since they easily combine with
oxygen. As evaporation continues, the slow -moving particles are left behind. Since the
average kinetic energy is directly proportional to temperature, temperature decreases.
Therefore, evaporation is accompanied by cooling.

In a closed container half-filled with liquid, the fast-moving molecules also escape into the gas
phase forming vapor at the space above the liquid.

Gas molecules move in random directions, collide with other gas particles and the walls of the
container. Some will strike the liquid surface and condense back into it. In the closed flask,
none of the gas particles are able to get out of the container, and eventually, the number of
molecules that goes into the gaseous state would equal the number of molecules that

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condenses back. When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of
evaporation of the liquid, the gas in the container is said to be in equilibrium with the liquid.

liquid ⇋ vapor (gas)

In this condition, the amount of gas and liquid no longer changes

Like any gas sample, the molecules in the gaseous state over its liquid create a pressure. The
greater the number of gaseous particles, the greater the pressure exerted by the gas. The
pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a liquid in a closed container at a given
temperature is called the equilibrium vapor pressure or simply vapor pressure of the liquid.

The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at a given
temperature and that it is constant at a constant temperature. It increases with temperature.

Vapor pressure is independent of the amount of liquid as well as the surface area of the liquid
in contact with the gas.

When temperature is high, more

molecules have enough energy to
escape from the liquid. At a lower
temperature, fewer molecules have
sufficient energy to escape from the
liquid.

Consider the vapor pressure of the

following substances.

Ethyl alcohol and water have very low vapor pressures. Both liquids have the strong dipole-
dipole interaction called hydrogen bonding. Acetone is polar but does not have H-bonding. Its
vapor pressure is of intermediate value. Pentane is a nonpolar substance, and its vapor
pressure is high compared to those of water and ethyl alcohol.

When liquids evaporate, the molecules have to have sufficient energy to break the attractive
forces that hold them in the liquid state. The stronger these intermolecular forces are, the
greater the amount of energy needed to break them.

For some substances with weak intermolecular forces, the energy requirement is easily
obtained from collisions with other molecules and absorption of energy from the surroundings.
Many molecules can vaporize, resulting in a high vapor pressure. For molecules with strong
intermolecular forces, gathering enough energy may not be as easy, and register low vapor
pressures.
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The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the lower the vapor pressure of a liquid.

d. Molar Heat of Vaporization. The

relationship between vapor pressure
and strength of intermolecular forces
is consistent with the trends in two
other properties of liquids, the
enthalpy or molar heat of
vaporization, and the boiling point of
the liquid.

The molar heat of vaporization

(ΔHvap) is the energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature. H is the
symbol for enthalpy, which means heat content at a given standard condition.

The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the strength of intermolecular forces
in a liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free the molecules
from the liquid phase and the heat of vaporization will be high.

It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap) than water (higher Hvap) at a given temperature,
and more acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given temperature. Acetone is a polar
substance but has no H-bonding. It has weaker intermolecular forces than water, and therefore
acetone molecules are held less tightly to one another in the liquid phase.

A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of vaporization is by rubbing

acetone on your hands. Compare what is felt when water is used. Acetone has a lower ΔHvap
than water so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of these
molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize them.

As a result of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.

e. Boiling Point. The boiling point of a liquid

is the temperature at which the liquid
converts into a gas.

Liquid boils when its vapor pressure

equals the pressure acting on the surface
of the liquid. The boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure
of a liquid is equal to the external
pressure.

The normal boiling point is the

temperature at which the liquid converts
to a gas when the external pressure is 1
atm. The normal boiling point of water is
100 OC. The boiling point of a liquid
depends on the external pressure. For
example, at 1 atm, water boils at 100 OC,
but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils at only 82 OC.

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The boiling point is related to molar heat of vaporization: the higher ΔHvap, the higher the
boiling point.
Lesson 3: Properties of Water

Water makes up a large

proportion of the entire biosphere and of
these, 95% is saltwater and the remaining
5% is freshwater.

Water is locked up in ice and

glaciers, deep and shallow underground
lakes, soil, atmosphere, and in rivers. The
human body consists of 50-75% water.
Water serves important purposes for life
on earth. Water’s unique properties result
from the strong intermolecular force of
attraction characterized by the hydrogen
bond. Some substances, like common
table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very
easily. When placed in water, sodium
chloride molecules fall apart. The
positively charged sodium ion (Na+) binds
to oxygen, while the negatively charged
chloride ion (Cl-) attaches to hydrogen.
This property of water allows for the transport of nutrients vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of
rainwater falling through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects
the quality of the land, lakes and rivers.

1. Boiling point and freezing point. The high boiling point of water is a consequence of its strong
intermolecular forces of attraction caused by the formation of the H-bond. It also explains why
water is liquid at room temperature. Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling to each
other (cohesion) and remain in liquid state under temperatures that are favorable to plants and
other living organisms.

Pure water at sea level boils at 100 0C and freezes at 0 0C, but extra energy is needed to push
water molecules into the air. This is called latent heat—the heat required to change water from
one phase to another. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric pressure) water’s boiling
temperature decreases. This is why it takes longer to boil and egg at higher altitudes. The
temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg properly. If a substance is dissolved in
water, then the freezing point is lowered. Energy is lost when water freezes. A great deal of
heat is released into the environment when liquid water changes to ice. It is lost when the high
energy phase of liquid water moves to the low energy phase of ice. Nights when ice freezes
often feel warmer than nights when ice melts.

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2. Specific heat. Specific heat refers to the

amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance
by 1 oC. For water, its specific heat is
1cal/g oC. It means that water can
absorb and release large quantities of
heat without change in temperature.
This is the reason why body
temperature remains at 37 oC even
when there’s a change in the
surrounding. This also explains why
oceans and lakes exert an influence on
the climate. If there were no large bodies of water, the earth would experience great
temperature variations. Water has a high specific heat. The amount of energy required to raise
the temperature of water by one degree Celsius is quite large. Because so much heat loss or
heat input is required to lower or raise the temperature of water, the oceans and other large
bodies of water have relatively constant temperatures. Thus, many organisms living in the
oceans are provided with a relatively constant environmental temperature. The high-water
content of plants and animals living on land helps them to maintain a relatively constant internal
temperature. The specific heat of water is 5 times greater than of sand.

3. Density in its liquid form. Water is the only

substance that contracts when cooled.
For most substances, their solid form is
denser than their liquid form. This is
because the H-bond is more extensive in
its solid state than in its liquid state. Ice
has an open structure because the
hydrogen bonds could not get inside the
hexagonal ring structure. This more open
structure of the solid form of water causes
the ice to have smaller number of
molecules packed in a given volume. This
causes the mass to be lower, hence, the
density of ice is lesser than the liquid water, and, as a result, ice floats on water. This also
causes water in lakes to freeze from the top down.

Water is most dense at 4 0C and then begins to expand again (becoming less dense) as the
temperature decreases further. This expansion occurs because its hydrogen bonds become
more rigid and ordered. As a result, frozen water (ice floats) upon the denser cold water. The
expansion of water takes place even before it actually freezes. This explains why a pond
freezes from the surface down, rather than from the bottom up. As water temperature drops,
the colder water (0-4 0C) where it is less dense— rises to the pond surface. It freezes to form a
lid of ice. This ice insulates the water below from the wintry chill so that it is less likely to freeze.
Organisms that inhabit the pond are able to survive the frigid winter below the icy surface.

For most substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the special properties of water make it
less dense as a solid. Ice floats on water! Strong hydrogen bonds formed at freezing 0 0C lock
water molecules away from each other. When ice melts, the structure collapses and molecules
move closer together. Liquid water at 4 0C is about 9% denser than ice. This property plays an
important role in lake and ocean ecosystems. Floating ice often insulates and protects animals
and plants living in the water below.
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4. Surface tension. The hydrogen bond formation among water molecules causes water to have
high surface tension, as described earlier. This high surface tension causes water to move from
the roots of a tree to the top of very tall trees and explains why water moves into the fibers of a
towel. This phenomenon is called capillarity.

5. Thermal properties - Water absorbs or

releases more heat than many
substances for each degree of
temperature increase or decrease.
Because of this, it is widely used for
cooling and for transferring heat in
thermal and chemical processes.
Differences in temperature between
lakes and rivers and the surrounding air
may have a variety of effects. For
example, local fog or mist is likely to
occur if a lake cools in the surrounding
air enough to cause saturation—small
water droplets are suspended in the air.
Large bodies of water, such as the
oceans or the Great Lakes, have a
profound influence on climate. They are the world’s great heat reservoirs and heat exchangers
and the source of much of the moisture that falls as rain and snow over adjacent landmasses.
When water is colder than the air, precipitation is curbed, winds are reduced, and fog banks are
formed. These properties of water are crucial in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

6. Heat of vaporization. Large amount of

heat is needed to vaporize a given
amount of water. This causes a
significant drop in temperature during
evaporation. When molecules of
water absorb heat energy, they move
fast in water. Eventually, the speed of
movement of some molecules
becomes so fast allowing them to
overcome the intermolecular
attraction, detach from the
multimolecular water, form bubbles,
and leave the water surface in gas
state. This property of water helps to
cool down the body of living
organisms. This is called evaporative
cooling. In humans, body heat is used to vaporize sweat; in plants, heat is likewise used in
converting liquid water to water vapor which then escapes into the atmosphere. This natural
process of vaporizing plant water is called transpiration.

7. pH. Water molecules have a tendency to ionize. They dissociate into ions (charged particles)
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-). In pure water a very small number of water
molecules form ions in this way. The tendency of water to dissociate is balanced by the
tendency of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to reunite to form water. A neutral solution
contains an equal number of hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions. A solution with a greater

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concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) is said to be acidic. A solution with a greater concentration
of hydroxide (OH-) ions is said to be alkaline or basic.

Lesson 4: Structure of Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

A solid interface is defined as a small number of atomic layers that separate two solids in
intimate contact with one another, where the properties differ significantly from those of the bulk
material it separates.

Based on their crystal structures, solids can be classified into the following categories:
Crystalline solids or Amorphous solids.

However, crystalline solids can be further classified into molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent
solids.

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Crystalline are solids featuring highly ordered arrangements of their particles (atoms, ions, and
molecules) in microscopic structures.

These ordered microscopic structures make up a crystal lattice that accounts for the structure
of the solid at any given point. Examples of crystalline solids include salt (sodium chloride), diamond,
and sodium nitrate. Ionic solids, such as sodium chloride and nickel oxide, are composed of positive
and negative ions that are held together by electrostatic attractions, which can be quite strong Figure 1.
Many ionic crystals also have high melting points. This is due to the very strong attractions between the
ions—in ionic compounds, the attractions between full charges are (much) larger than those between
the partial charges in polar molecular compounds. This will be looked at in more detail in a later
discussion of lattice energies.

Although they are hard, they also tend to be brittle, and they shatter rather than bend. Ionic
solids do not conduct electricity; however, they do conduct when molten or dissolved because their ions
are free to move. Many simple compounds formed by the reaction of a metallic element with a
nonmetallic element are ionic.

Metallic solids such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron are formed by metal atoms 2.
The structure of metallic crystals is often described as a uniform distribution of atomic nuclei within a
“sea” of delocalized electrons. The atoms within such a metallic solid are held together by a unique
force known as metallic bonding that gives rise to many useful and varied bulk properties. All exhibit
high thermal and electrical conductivity, metallic luster, and malleability. Many are very hard and quite
strong.

Because of their malleability (the ability to deform under pressure or hammering), they do not
shatter and, therefore, make useful construction materials. The melting points of the metals vary widely.
Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, and the alkali metals melt below 200 °C. Several post-
transition metals also have low melting points, whereas the transition metals melt at temperatures
above 1000 °C. These differences reflect differences in strengths of metallic bonding among the
metals.

Covalent network
solids include crystals of
diamond, silicon, some
other nonmetals, and some
covalent compounds such
as silicon dioxide (sand)
and silicon carbide
(carborundum, the abrasive
on sandpaper). Many
minerals have networks of
covalent bonds. The atoms
in these solids are held
together by a network of
covalent bonds, as shown
in Figure 3. To break or to
melt a covalent network
solid, covalent bonds must
be broken. Because
covalent bonds are
relatively strong, covalent
network solids are typically
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characterized by hardness, strength, and high melting points. For example, diamond is one of the
hardest substances known and melts above 3500 °C.

A covalent crystal contains a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds, as illustrated by the

structures of diamond, silicon dioxide, silicon carbide, and graphite. Graphite is an exceptional
example, composed of planar sheets of covalent crystals that are held together in layers by
noncovalent forces. Unlike typical covalent solids, graphite is very soft and electrically conductive.

Molecular solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine, as shown in Figure 4, are
composed of neutral molecules. The strengths of the attractive forces between the units present in
different crystals vary widely, as indicated by the melting points of the crystals. Small symmetrical
molecules (nonpolar molecules), such as H2, N2, O2, and F2, have weak attractive forces and form
molecular solids with very low melting points (below −200 °C). Substances consisting of larger,
nonpolar molecules have larger attractive forces and melt at higher temperatures. Molecular solids
composed of molecules with permanent dipole moments (polar molecules) melt at still higher
temperatures. Examples include ice (melting point, 0 °C) and table sugar (melting point, 185 °C).

Amorphous are solids in which the particles are not arranged in any specific order or the solids
that lack the overall order of a crystal lattice.

The term
‘amorphous’, when broken
down into its Greek roots,
can be roughly translated
to “without form”. Many
polymers are amorphous
solids. Other examples of
such solids include glass,
gels, and nanostructured
materials.

An ideal crystal is
defined as an atomic
arrangement that has
infinite translational
symmetry in all the three
dimensions, whereas such a definite definition is not possible for an ideal amorphous solid (a-solid).

In summary, the primary difference between crystalline and amorphous materials lies in the
arrangement of their constituent particles. Crystalline materials have a regular, ordered lattice structure,
while amorphous materials have a random, disordered arrangement. This difference in structure leads
to distinct behaviors when subjected to heat or pressure. Crystalline materials have sharp melting
points and can exhibit anisotropic properties, while amorphous materials undergo a glass transition and
generally exhibit isotropic properties.

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POST-ASSESSMENT

A. Enrichment Activities

Activity 1: Directions: Analyze the problem and answer the questions below.

1. At 50. ° C the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, acetic acid is 0.08 atm, water is 0.12
atm, and acetone is 0.84 atm.
a. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates of evaporation.
b. Arrange these substances in order of increasing boiling point temperature
c. Arrange these substances in order of increasing intermolecular forces.

2. Given molecular structures of water

and glycerol, can you tell why
glycerol has a higher viscosity than
water?

Activity 2: OPERATION: Crossword Puzzle. Directions: Complete the crossword by filling in

the boxes to form a word that fits each clue.

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Across:
1. This is a special case of very strong dipole-dipole interaction.
4. This holds atoms together in a molecule.
6. Intermolecular force present among symmetrical nonpolar substance
8. These are attractive forces between molecules

Down:
2. This is an intermolecular force that acts between an ion and a polar molecule.
3. A collective term used to define attraction of intermolecular forces.
5. These are attractive forces between polar molecules.
7. This is an element that forms hydrogen bonding.
Activity 3. Determine the intermolecular force/s is/are present in each compound.

1. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

2. Nitrogen gas (N2)
3. Lithium chloride (LiCl) dissolved in water
4. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
5. Ethanol (C2H5OH)
6. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
7. Hydrogen iodide (HI)
8. Ammonium bromide (NH4Br) solution
9. Ethylene (C2H4)
10.Phosphorus trichloride (PCl3)

Activity 4. Directions: Identify what property of water is being shown on the pictures below.

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1. 2. 3.

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4. 5.
Activity 5. Direction: Identify the type of crystalline solid (metallic, network covalent, ionic, or
molecular) formed by each of the following substances.
1. CaCl2 6. CH3CH2CH2CH3
2. SiC 7. HCl
3. N2 8. NH4NO3
4. Fe 9. K3PO4
5. C (graphite) 10. SiO2

Post-Test. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. In the broadest sense, what was the Kinetic Molecular Theory designed to explain?
a. Phase changes c. The types of intermolecular force
b. The behavior of matter d. The types of crystalline solids.

2. What happens to the kinetic energy of particles when there is an increase in temperature?
a. Increases b. Decreases c. Reduce by half d. Does not change

3. Why are solids and liquids considered as condensed states?

a. Their intermolecular force is weaker compared to gas.
b. They have smaller spaces between molecules compared to gas
c. They have lower densities.
d. Their particles vibrate at fix position.

4. Which of the following properties pertains to solid only?

a. They expand slightly when heated.
b. The particles are able to slide past one another.
c. The kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome the attractive forces.
d. They diffuse extremely slow because the particles are tightly packed.
5. Rank the matter based on decreasing the relative strength of attractive forces between
particles.
a. liquid, solid, gas c. gas, liquid, solid
b. solid, liquid, gas d. liquid, gas, solid

6. Rank the matter based on decreasing amount of space between particles.

a. liquid, solid, gas c. gas, liquid, solid
b. solid, liquid, gas d. liquid, gas, solid

7. Which of the following is common to both solids and liquids?

a. They are slightly compressible.
b. They have fixed shape ad volume.
c. They have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome their attractive forces.
d. They have a strong intermolecular force of attraction and vibrate in fixed position.

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8. Which of the following explains why gases are less dense than solids?
a. Gases have faster moving particles that are very close together.
b. Gases have faster moving particles that are far apart.
c. Gases have slow moving particles that are very close together.
d. Gases have slow moving particles that are close together.

9. What happens to water molecules when cooled?

a. The water molecules become excited.
b. The water molecules slide past each other.
c. The water molecules become fixed in position.
d. The forces between molecules breaks.

10. Which of the following has the strongest intermolecular force?

a. Ice b. Steam c. Water d. All have the same strength of IMF

11. In amorphous solid, the atoms or molecules are held together in a completely random
formation.
a. True b. False

12. Which of the following is true of solids?

a. Solids maintain a defined shape and size under all conditions.
b. All solids maintain a defined shape and size if conditions remain constant.
c. All solids have a lattice structure at atomic level.
d. All solids have a crystalline structure.

13. One major difference between crystalline and amorphous solids is that ___.
a. Crystalline solids have precise melting point.
b. Amorphous solids have a lattice structure.
c. Crystalline solids break unpredictably and can produce curved fragments.
d. Amorphous solids always behave consistently and uniformly.

14. A friend in your chemistry class is struggling to understand why crystalline solids are grouped
into four main types: network, molecular, ionic, and metallic. Which explanation below will best
help him begin to understand why chemists might have these groups?
a. Crystalline solids all share a lattice structure, but have different densities. Chemists use the
groups to organize the solids by density.
b. Crystalline solids all share a lattice structure and the same types of bonds, but are
composed of different elements. These elements affect the way the solid conducts heat and
electricity.
c. Crystalline solids all share a lattice structure, but behave differently under similar
conditions.
d. Crystalline solids all share a lattice structure, but the bonds that hold them together at the
atomic level differ. The elements that make up the solids also differ. These differences affect
how a solid conducts heat and electricity, and its density.

15. Solids have many different properties. _____ solids are known for their ability to be flattened
into a sheet, stretched into a wire, and to conduct energy well.
a. Molecular b. Metallic c. Network d. Ionic

16. It is possible to tell the difference between a solid with a crystalline structure and one with an
amorphous structure just by looking at it.
a. True b. False
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17. An engineer is designing an electrical system and is looking for a material to transmit energy.
She has four solids available, each made with different materials. To conduct energy most
efficiently and effectively, she should use what material?
a. Whose electrons are held with ionic bonds.
b. Whose electrons are held with covalent bonds.
c. Whose electrons are held with metallic bonds.
d. That is an electrical insulator.

18. Which statement is true about the properties of solids?

a. Metallic solids have a high melting point.
b. Network solids are generally not soluble in water.
c. Molecular solids do not dissolve easily in water.
d. All ionic solids are similar in density.

Directions: Choose the letter/letters of the property of water related to each phenomenon described
below. More than one property may be used to explain the given phenomenon.

a. Water molecules are cohesive, they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
b. Water molecules are adhesive, they form hydrogen bonds with polar surfaces.
c. Water is a liquid at normal physiological temperature.
d. Water has high specific heat.
e. Water has a high heat of vaporization.
f. Water shows high surface tension.

1. During the winter, air temperature in the northern parts of the planet can remain below zero
degrees Celsius for months, however, the fish and other animals living in the lakes survive.
2. Many substances, for example, salt (NaCl) and sucrose, dissolve quickly in water.
3. When you pour water into a 25mL cylinder, a meniscus forms at the top of the water column.
4. Sweating and the evaporation of sweat from the body surface help reduce a human’s body
temperature.
5. Water drops that fall on a surface tend to form rounded drops or beads.
6. If you put the end of a paper towel to a coloured water, the water will move up into the towel.
7. A paper clip can float on water.
8. When you place a straw into a glass of water, the water seems to climb up the straw before you
even place your mouth on the straw.
9. Water is most dense at about 4°C. As a result, the water at the bottom of a lake or the ocean
usually has temperature of about 4°C.
10. If you drop a tiny amount of water onto a very smooth surface, the water molecules will stick
together and form a droplet, rather than spread out over the surface.

STEM General Chemistry 2 Q3 Module 1