MAGNETISM

First magnets were pieces of iron-bearing rock called loadstone (magnetite, Fe3O4)
found originally in Asia (magnesia).

A magnet is a rock or a piece of metal that can pull certain types of metal toward itself. The force of
magnets, called magnetism, is a basic force of nature, like electricity and gravity. Magnetism works
over a distance. This means that a magnet does not have to be touching an object to pull it.

Iron is one of a few materials (also Nickel, Cobalt) that can be permanently magnetised. These are
called ferromagnetic materials.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
1. All magnets have two poles, North and South. Named with reference to alignment in Earth’s
magnetic field.

End that points to Earth’s geographic north pole is called the north pole of the magnet.

2. Two north-seeking poles will repel each other, but a north - seeking pole of one magnet will
attract the south-seeking pole of the other magnet. In short, like poles repel, unlike poles
attract.

3. Magnets will attract ferromagnetic substances

4. The poles of the magnet are in pairs

DOMAIN THEOREM
You can imagine the electrons as spinning around the nucleus, while at the same time spinning around
on their own axis (just like the Earth as it goes around the Sun).

• For reasons that are not entirely understood, this induces a mini magnetic field all of its own.
◦ Enough of these individual microscopic magnetic fields add up to act as a domain.
◦ Each domain acts as a miniature magnet, with its own north and south poles.

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In most materials, these domains are random, pointing in all sorts of directions.

• Overall, randomly, these domains tend to cancel each other out.

• This explains why almost all materials are not magnets.
◦ The domains start off random, and can never be aligned.

In ferromagnetic materials the domains can align.

• This does not mean that all ferromagnetic materials have to be magnetic.
The domains might be random.
◦ The difference for ferromagnetic materials is that they can align their domains.
▪ This can be done by doing things like placing an existing magnet on the ferromagnetic
material you want to align.

The question comes up as to whether or not doing something to a piece of iron will make it a
permanent or a temporary magnet.
• This depends mostly on how the metal is forged.
• If the domains are pretty much locked in place, then a permanent magnet will be formed. If this is
done with iron, it is called hard iron.
• If the domains can be moved around easily, then temporary magnets will be formed. This would be
soft iron.
◦ Soft iron is useful if you want to make something like an electromagnet to pick up cars. It allows the
magnetic field to be “switched” off and on.

The terms “hard” and “soft” iron only refer to its magnetic properties.
Neither of the two irons is actually physically harder or softer than the other.

Domain theory also gives us an easy way to look at demagnetizing an existing magnet.
• If you drop a magnet on the floor or strike it with a hammer, you are basically adding energy to
the atoms of magnet.
◦ Some of this extra energy will cause the atoms (and the electrons) to jiggle around more randomly.
◦ This will screw up the alignment of the domains.

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• Heating a magnet has pretty much the same effect, since raising the temperature will also
increase the random motion of the electrons and domains.

◦ Above a certain temperature, known as the Curie temperature (1043 K for iron), a magnet
cannot be made at all.
Remember that “K” stands for “degrees Kelvin.”

Magnetic force
A wire carrying a current in an external magnetic field.
Current and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other as shown.

Force on the wire is perpendicular to the plane containing the line of the wire and the line of the
magnetic field. i.e. into the page.

Force (F) on the wire is proportional to the current and the length (L) of the wire in the magnetic field.

F α IL F = B*I*L
B is the magnetic field strength

B = F/IL (B perpendicular to I)

units of B are Newtons per metre per ampere

(SI unit) of magnetic field strength Tesla

Nikola Tesla (1856—1943) Croatia

1T = 1N.m-1.A-1

Magnetic fields
The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a magnetic field. The
force around a bar magnet can be detected and shown to vary in direction, using the apparatus in
Figure 1.1.
If the floating magnet is released near the N pole of the bar magnet, it is repelled to the S pole and
moves along a curved path known as a line of force or a field line. It moves in the opposite direction if
its south pole is uppermost.

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 Fig 1.1
It is useful to consider that a magnetic field has a direction and to represent the field by lines of force. It
has been decided that the direction of the field at any point should be the direction of the force on
a N pole. To show the direction, arrows are put on the lines of force and point away from a N pole
towards a S pole.
The magnetic field is stronger in regions where the field lines are close together than where they are
further apart.
The force between two magnets is a result of the interaction of their magnetic fields.

Plotting lines of force

a) Plotting compass method
A plotting compass is a small pivoted magnet in a glass case with non-magnetic metal walls (Figure
1.2a).

Fig 1.2

Lay a bar magnet on a sheet of paper. Place the plotting compass at a point such as A (Figure 1.2 b),
near one pole of the magnet. In Figure 1.2b it is the N pole. Mark the position of the poles (n, s) of the
compass by pencil dots B, A. Move the compass so that pole s is exactly over B, mark the new position
of n by dot C.
Continue this process until the other pole of the bar magnet is reached (in Figure 1.2b it is the S pole).
Join the dots to give one line of force and show its direction by putting an arrow on it. Plot other lines by
starting at different points round the magnet.

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A typical field pattern is shown in Figure 1. 3.

Fig 1.3
The combined field due to two neighbouring magnets can also be plotted to give patterns like those in
Figures 1.4a, b. In part a, where two like poles are facing each other, the point X is called a neutral
point. At X the field due to one magnet cancels out that due to the other and there are no lines of force.

Fig 1.4

b) Iron filings method

Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly on to the paper
from a ‘pepper pot’. Tap the paper gently with a pencil and the filings should form patterns showing the
lines of force. Each filing turns in the direction of the field when the paper is tapped.

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INDUCED MAGNETISM
Definition Induced magnetism is the temporary magnetisation of a magnetic material when it is placed
near to or in contact with a magnet.

 If a nail is placed in contact with a permanent magnet, the nail is magnetised. And it also
attracts another nail.
 The end of a nail nearer (connected) to the North pole of a permanent magnet becomes the
induced South pole, and the other end becomes the induced North pole.

Magnetise
How to make a permanent magnet (How to magnetise a hard magnetic material)?

 Stroking method
If permanent magnets are stroked along a hard magnetic material, the hard magnetic material is
magnetised and it is changed into a permanent magnet

 Electrical method
If a hard magnetic material is placed into a solenoid (Direct current), a hard magnetic material is
magnetised and it is changed into a permanent magnet.

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This is the best method to make powerful magnets.
 The magnet which is made with a solenoid is called the electromagnet.
 In the boxes, it shows how to find (decide) the poles.

Demagnetise
How to demagnetise a hard magnetic material.
 Heating
If a magnetised material (magnet) is heated to a higher temperature, it will lose its magnetism very
quickly.

 Hammering
If a magnetised material (magnet) is hammered many times, the magnetism becomes weaker and
weaker.

 Use alternating current and the solenoid

A magnet is placed inside a solenoid which has an A.C. supply. When the magnet is withdrawn far
away from the solenoid, this process is repeated, the magnet is demagnetised.

Electromagnet
Iron is commonly used as the core of electromagnets because it is easy to magnetise and also
demagnetise. (It is easy to control the magnetism.)

The strength of magnetism depends on

 the current
 the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid
 the material of core

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Magnetic materials (Iron and Steel)
Iron and steel are common magnetic materials. But they have different properties as shown below.

If iron and steel are placed in contact with a permanent magnet, they are induced. Then, they attract
some small nails. Iron attracts more nails than steel. And then, if they are removed from the permanent
magnet, iron releases the nails soon but steel still attracts some nails.

MAGNETIC SCREENING AND MAGNETIC KEEPERS

Magnetic screening is the covering of a magnetic device by some ferromagnetic substance to protect
the surroundings of the device, or protect the device from unwanted interferences.
The most popular material being used today in magnetic screening is nickel-iron alloy.

Magnetic keepers are used to preserve the strength of a magnet. Magnetic keeper is a piece of wood
or soft iron which is used in storing magnets because bar magnets get demagnetized when the poles
are left free for a long time. In order to preserve the magnetism of the magnets, a keeper is kept across
a pair of bar magnets with unlike poles besides each other.

USES OF MAGNETS
Magnets are used in our day-to-day lives;
 Electric bells, Magnetic compass
 Used in scanning machines called MRI’s (magnetic resonance imaging), used by doctors to look
inside people’s bodies
 In refrigerators to keep door closed
 Used to store data in computers.
 Used to separate magnetic and non-magnetic substances (electromagnets)
 Loudspeakers
 Electric motors.

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