(1) SCALE AND PROPORTION rectangle, forming a ratio of approximately

1:1.61.

ARCHITECTURE Since the dimension of these shapes

Architecture applies science, art, and correspond to the ratio, this suggests that it is
mathematics. An architect arranges space, possible to adjust structure hile still
form, and materials in a structure. This maintaining these golden proportions
process was highly affected by the concept of
proportion and scale which are critical in VITRUVIAN SYSTEM
determining the aesthetic and functional Uses mathematical ratios based on human
matter of a building anatomy for element size and placement.

PROPORTION Was developed by the ancient Roman

Definition: Relationship between building architect Vitruvius.
elements in terms of size, scale, and visual It shows the perfect proportion of an
balance. individual. It helps the architecture by
Methods: Calculation of ratios and use of presenting the size, scale, and proportions
mathematical and geometric forms. which are key to design
Examples: Golden ratio (1:1.618) for balance,
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns with MODULAR SYSTEM
specific ratios. Based on the human body for element
Role in Architecture: Creates harmonious and size and placement. It is an iteration of
aesthetically pleasing compositions. the Vitruvian Man
Example in Architecture: Seen in building The Modulor system is based on the height of
height-to-width ratio. Affects placement of a man with his arms raised, reaching a height
windows, doors, and columns. Classical of 2.262 m
orders that follow specific height, width, and
base ratios. SCALE
Definition: Relationship of an object's size to
Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious a standard measurement (e.g., human body
relation of one part to another or the whole. or environment).
This relationship might be. Use in Architecture: Creates harmonious and
A Magnitude aesthetically pleasing designs, considering
Quantity human scale and surroundings.
Degree Comparative Aspect: Objects compared to
human scale or a common standard.
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS Importance: Impacts hierarchy, balance,
Definition: Set of rules guiding element visual interest, comfort, safety, and
relationships in terms of size, scale, and well-being.
visual balance. Example: Life-sized, Miniature, Oversized,
Unique Rules: Each system has distinct and Enormous
guidelines.
Goal: Achieve harmonious and aesthetically TYPES OF SCALE
pleasing compositions.
● HUMAN SCALE
GOLDEN RATIO Size and proportion relative to the human
Uses mathematical ratio (1:1.61) for body. It takes into account the average height
balance to produce balanced, and and size of a person.
aesthetically pleasing composition This scale is used to provide environment
that is comfortable and functional by all ages,
The golden rectangle is an architectural size, and abilities.
shape that can be divided into a square and a
 ● INTIMATE SCALE
Usually refers to small size and designed for Every small detail give immediate
cozy feel of spaces. It is intended for smaller response to the brain
and personal use. Also, providing a sense of
comfort and safety is one of its goal.
SPATIAL PERCEPTION
Often with a low ceiling height and enclosed
feel. Its is usually in contrast by monumental
Ability to be aware of your relationship
scale. with the environment around you and with
yourself. Ability to perceived spatial
● MONUMENTAL SCALE relationship in respect to the orientation
Imposes grand and size of architectural of one’s body despite distracting
structures. Usually for public buildings, information. (visually understand)
monumental works of art, and landmarks. Its
purpose is to create a sense of awe. 2 TYPES OF VISION
This is characterized by its large size, high Binocular Vision
ceilings, and grand public spaces.
Monocular Vision
● HIERARCHICAL SCALE
It shows sense of visual hierarchy and
Binocular Vision
emphasis. This scale increases the size of a The ability to overlap views that are
certain element to make it appear more slightly different into one image. This
dominant than others. visual process created an illusion of
It allows designers to highlight an element to three-dimensional depth, making it
guide the viewer’s experience of a space. possible to judge distances

(2) VISUAL ACUITY & PERCEPTION

VISUAL ACUITY
It is the ability to see every detail
The ability of the eye to see contours and
patterns in a detailed and sharply
delineated way

PERCEPTION
Oxford (The ability to see, hear, or
become aware of something through the
senses.)
Merriam (A result of perceiving, Retinal Disparity
observation) Britannica (The way you A binocular cue for perceiving depth: the
think about or understand someone or greater the disparity (difference) between
something. The ability to understand or the two images each eye receives of an
notice something easily) object, the closer the object is.

PERCEPTION
Explain how the process visual
information. How your brain
analyze/interpret someting
 Impossible Figures
Monocular Vision
When three dimensional forms are
ability to see with just one eye. It's the
illustrated on two-dimensional surfaces
type of vision that occurs when an
individual uses one eye to view their
surroundings, rather than using both eyes
together (binocular vision).

PRINCIPLES IN PERCEIVING THE

OBJECTS AND SHAPES
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT
Figure-Ground AFFECT THE ACCURACY OF SHAPE
defined as a human's ability to visually PERCEPTION
differentiate between an object and its
background. The target object becomes VISUAL ILLUSIONS
the observer's main visual and mental have an effect because the observer's
focus. In psychology, the object being perception is influenced by the inclusion
perceived is known as the figure while of their parts in the overall pattern.
everything else is referred to as the
background or ground. GESTALT psychologist places a high
value on this tendency to perceive
shapes not exactly as they are but in a
slightly modified form. The word means
"FORMATION.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES
1. Proximity
The principle, also known as "grouping,"
Reversible Figure is concerned with the effect produced
when a set of elements' collective
Fluctuation presence becomes more meaningful than
The phenomena of the alternating 'Figure' their presence as separate elements.
and 'Ground' alternating perspective and
retinal rivalry provide examples of
fluctuation.
2. Similarity
According to the principle of similarity,
perception allows for the recognition of
stimuli that physically resemble each
other as being part of the same object.

6. Good Form
Symmetry and Order

The principle of good form refers to the

tendency to group forms of similar shape,
pattern, color, and so on together. Even
3. Closure when two or more forms clearly overlap,
The principle of closure refers to the the human brain interprets them in such a
mind's tendency to see complete figures way that people can distinguish between
or forms even if a picture is incomplete, different patterns and/or shapes.
partially obscured by other objects, or if
part of the information required to create
a complete picture in the minds is missing

(3) SHAPES, FORMS & UNITY

SHAPE
4. Good Continuation According to Ching (2023, p. 36), "Shape
When two or more objects intersect, refers to the characteristic outline of a
people tend to perceive each obiect as a plane figure or the surface configuration
single uninterrupted object. This allows of a volumetric form. It is the primary
for the differentiation of stimuli even when means by which we recognize, identify,
they are visually overlapping. and categorize particular figures and
forms.
In architecture, we are concerned with
the shapes of:
• floor, wall, and ceiling planes that
enclose space
• door and window with spatial enclosure
silhouettes and contour of building forms
5. Common Fate
Perception associates movement as part
of the same stimulus when visual
FUNCTION OF A SHAPE
elements are seen moving in the same
direction at the same rate (optical flow)
Gestalt psychology affirms that the mind
will simplify the visual environment in
order to understand it. Given any
composition of forms, we tend to reduce
the subject matter in our visual field to the A form in architecture is a
simplest and most regular shapes threedimensional item or structure that is
perceived in place and time by the viewer
PRIMARY SHAPES and is made possible by the interaction of
light and shadow. An example of a
CIRCLE structure that presents a complicated,
A plane curve every point of which is geometric form on the skyline is a
equidistant from a fixed point within the building.
curve
WHY FORM IS IMPORTANT IN
A circle is a stable and self-centering ARCHITECTURE?
figure that can appear to rotate when
combined with angular forms or elements It is a crucial component of architectural
along its circumference. Placing a circle design since a building's form can affect
in the center of a field emphasizes its its use, aesthetic appeal, and overall
centralit environmental impact. Many different
aspects, such as cultural, historical,
social, and technological settings, have
TRIANGLE an impact on form.
A plane figure bounded by three sides 02 Using form in graphic design allows
and having three angles graphic designers to produce more
eyecatching and detailed work.
The triangle is a symbol of stability, but
when tipped onto one of its vertices, it EXAMPLES OF FORMS
can become unstable and fall over onto SPHERE
one of its sides - Spherical architectural buildings
are rarely built; they often only
SQUARE appear in utopian schemes.
A plane figure having four equal sides - The shape of the sphere is more
and four right angles like to the interior of the cave that
has been hollowed out,
The square represents purity and reason,
with two equal and perpendicular lines of CONE
symmetry. Other rectangular shapes can - Cones have a comical
be seen as modifications of the square by appearance, but they also serve a
changing its height or width. The square purpose. They are frequently
is stable lying on one side and dynamic employed in roofs because of their
standing on a corner. When its diagonals ability to shed water, offer
are vertical and horizontal, the square is protection from the elements, and
in a harmonious and balanced state. produce an uplifting interior
atmosphere.
WHAT IS FORM?
A building's form is its shape or
configuration. The fundamental
components of architecture are form and CUBE
space - The cube is a threedimensional
SQUARE; it is a symbol of stability
 and permanence, of geometric Form and Shapes
perfection. Repetition or variation of a particular form
can provide strong elements of
CYLINDER composition
- The cylinder is a threedimensional
shape that is significant in (4) BALANCE & GRAVITATIONAL
architecture. Many structures, CURVE
including arches, ceilings, and
roofs, are supported by cylinders What is Balance?
● Equality
WHAT IS UNITY? ● Composition
● It is the foundation upon which
the state of being joined together or in arrangement,harmony and
agreement adjustment of weights, tones,
refers to how different elements work valuesetc. are developed.
together to create a sense of wholeness ● Satisfies the eye with reference to
the relative importance of the
ELEMENTS OF UNITY various parts of design
Texture
Refers to the appearance and feel of a Axis
surface ● Demands balance
● Means of organizing forms
Color ● and spaces in Architecture.
Here colour refers to hue (colour range ● Imaginary and not visible
● Qualities of length, width and
Tone induces movementalong its path.
The colour theory and varies from the
neutral scale of white to black Types of Balance
I. Symmetrical
ELEMENTS OF UNITY A. Centralized
Central axis- the easiest and simplest
Direction kind of Balance in which the elements are
These are strong elements that suggest arranged in precisely the same manner
vertical and horizontal direction. on either side of a central axis or line

Proportion
The geometric relationship of
the sides of volumes

Solid and Void

The relationship between solid (walls,

roofs, etc) and void (windows and other
B. Formal Type Symmetry –
openings
approaches absolute symmetry. General
mass and grouping may appear similar,
but there are dissimilarities in plan, ● it is the sensation of movement or
elevations or details starin in muscles, tendons and
joints.

● a person's awareness of the

position and movement of the
parts of the body by means of
sensory

HOW IS KINESTHETIC PRINCIPLE

C. Radial Type Symmetry – APPLIED IN SPACE?
characterized where all parts radiate from In the context of architecture and design,
a center the kinesthetic quality of a space involves
how the physical environment influences
and interacts with human movement,
bodily sensations, and spatial awareness

In the context of architecture and design,

the kinesthetic quality of a space involves
how the physical environment influences
and interacts with human movement,
bodily sensations, and spatial awareness

Subtle and elusive. Difficult to attain EARLY JAPANESE GARDEN

Informal grouping of shapes in attempt to
satisfy the eye’s instinctive need to The early designers of the Japanese
observe balance without making effort to Garden apparently understood something
place equal masses at similar distances of the interrelationship between the
Kinesthetic experience of space and the
visual experience. Lacking wide-open
GRAVITATIONAL CURVE spaces, and living close together as they
● Complete adaptation to do, the Japanese learned to make the
surroundings most of small spaces.
● Emphasizes picturesqueness
instead of symmetry. EARLY JAPANESE GARDEN
● Results freely rely on natural FEATURES
surroundings instead of manmade
structures Water
Many early Japanese gardens include
Group 5 water features such as ponds, streams,
and waterfalls. Water is the major
(6) KINETHETIC QUALITY OF SPACE element that defines a Japanese garden.
It embodies different meanings
WHAT IS KINESTHETIC? depending on its state. Still water
signifies a reflection of life, while flowing
water represents its continuity.
Rocks In the use of interior space, the
Rocks generally represent stability, Europeans tend to fill up the edges by
although pebbles or gravel can symbolize placing furniture near or against the walls.
water. Vertical rocks, including volcanic As a consequence, Western rooms often
ones, symbolize mountains, while flat look less clustered to the Japanese
rocks denote islands or the earth itself.
Smooth rocks often serve as stepping
stones or pathways

Plants
The Japanese garden stands as a tribute
to nature, wherein plants are used to
embellish the space and hide the outside
world. Plants are chosen based on their
blossoming seasons and the
transformation of their foliage across
different times of the year. HIDDEN ZONES IN AMERICAN
OFFICES
Tea Houses
Tea houses and designated rest areas People's reaction to office space reveals
are strategically placed within the garden. that the most important criterion is what
These spaces encourage visitors to people can do in the course of their work
pause, appreciate specific viewpoints, without bumping into something. Offices
and engage in the physical act of sitting provides different spatial experiences.
and resting. One office would be aquadate, another
would be not.
JAPANESE ROOM
One of example is an employee who had
Art Deco a habit of pushing herself away from her
In the use of interior space, the Japanese desk and leaning back in her chair to
keep the edges of their rooms clear stretch her arms, legs, and sp
because everything takes place in the
middle THREE HIDDEN ZONES IN AMERICAN
OFFICES

Cramped
01) The immediate work area of the
desktop and chair

Small
02) A series of points within arm's reach
outside the area mentioned above.

Adequate or ample
EUROPEAN ROOM
Art Deco
03) Spaces marked as the limit reached A room with a ceiling you can touch is
when one pushes away from the desk to quite different from one with a ceiling
achieve a little distance from the work eleven feet high
without actually getting up
PLANNED TRAFFIC FLOW
WHY IS KINESTHETIC SPACE
IMPORTANT Behavioral trajectory of the people and
goods flowing inside a building.
kinesthetic space is an important factor in
day-to-day living in the buildings that The Family of Man
architects and designers create. “The Family of Man” is an example of a
hotel rooms are too small when a person planned traffic flow. It is an photographic
cannot move around them without art exhibit that contains 503 pictures
bumping into things. comparing two occupying some 2.700m of wall space in
rooms, identical in shape and area, the New York’s Museum of Modern Art
one that permits the greater variety of Planned. This exhibit is by Edward
free movement will usually be Steichen and was made by Architect Paul
experienced as larger. there is certainly Rudolph
great need for improvement in the layout
of our interior spaces, so that people are to give the show pace and rhythm,
not always bumping into each other tesichen and rudolph wanted to be sure
that people saw the pictures in a certain
WHAT DIFFERENTIATE ONE SPACE order. so he placed and arranged the
FROM ANOTHER photos, large keynot pictures alternating
with contemplative images, sorroful
Given the fact that there are great subjects distributed with lighthearted
individual and cultural differences, there ones.
are still certain generalizations which can
be made about what it is that
differentiates one space from another.
Briefly, what you can do in it determines
how you experience a given space.
A room that can be traversed in one or
two steps gives an entirely different
experience from a room requiring fifteen
or twenty steps.
A small restaurant with say twenty-five
small tables for four people, when filled
up will always look crowded and will give
a person the experience he is eating in a
famous restaurant, while a spacious
restaurant with 80 tables for four when
occupied, by the same amount of number
as the small restaurant will still look
empty and gives an impression of not
fully occupied.
(7) SPACE ARTICULATION AND it is a form of Physical space wherein it is
TERRITORIALITY a place where you can rest your eyes. It
is how we obtain privacy without being
WHAT IS SPACE? alone

Merriam-Webster: Space is the distance SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIP

from other people or things that a person
needs in order to remain comfortable. SPACE WITHIN A SPACE
A large space can contain a smaller
Architectural Space: is defined as a space within its volume.
concretization of man’s existential space.
it has to adapt itself to the needs or INTERLOCKING SPACE
organic action as well as facilitating Results from overlapping of two volumes
orientation through perception. and the resultant area of shared spac

PHYSICAL SPACE ADJACENT SPACE

It is when an individual’s physical allows each space to be clearly defined
characteristics are taken into and to respond to specific functional or
consideration in planning rooms inside a symbolic requirements.
house or a building to accommodate the
user’s comfort SPACES LINKED BY A COMMON
SPACE
● Anthropometrics
● Ergonomics Two separate spaces can be linked to
each other by a third, intermediate,
space. The spatial relationship between
the two spaces depends on the qualities
of the third space which they share

SPACE ARTICULATION

BASE PLANE
A horizontal plane laying as a figure on a
contrasting background defines a simple
field of space.

ELEVATED BASE PLANE

A horizontal plane elevated above the
ground plane establishes vertical
surfaces along its edges that reinforce
the visual separation between its filed
and the surrounding ground.

VISUAL SPACE
DEPRESSED BASE PLANE PRIMARY TERRITORY
A horizontal plane depressed into the
ground plane utilizes the vertical surfaces An area that is owned, used exclusively,
of the lowered area to define a volume of recognized by others, is controlled
space. permanently, and becomes a major part
of the daily activities of its inhabitants.
Extroverted - The act of stepping up to an Example: Bedroom
elevated space; implying significance of
place. SECONDARY TERRITORY
Introverted - Lowering of a space below
its surrounding’ protective/sheltering An area that is not too used exclusively
qualities. by a person or group of people who have
a relatively wide area coverage,
OVERHEAD PLANE periodically controlled.
A horizontal plane located overhead Example: Personal Desk
defines a volume of space between itself
and the ground plane PUBLIC TERRITORY

INTRODUCTION TO TERRITORIALITY An area that is used and can be entered

by anyone but he must comply with
DEFENSIBLE SPACE THEORY existing norms.
According to Newman (1972), Defensible Example: Beach
Space theory creates a social structure
that shields itself and aims at physical
restructuring that helps the residents to
gain control over the area of their homes
with established common values and
lifestyles (Newman, 1996).

TYPES OF TERRITORIALITY
Territoriality is the relationship between
space with humans, the study approach
with a focus on cultural norms, and
different societies will generate a form
and a different concept of space