A2.

2 Cell Structure
Theme: A Unity & Diversity
Level of organisation: Cells

Guiding Questions:
What are the features common to all cells and the features that differ?
How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?

A2.2.1 Cells are the smallest unit if self-sustaining life

Cell theory states that:
1. ___________________________________(s)
2. Cells are the __________ ____________ of ___________
• Specialised structures in cells perform different functions,
however, organelles cannot survive alone, but some cells
can.
• Eg: _________________ organisms = single cell that can
carry out all _______ ___________________
3. ________________________________________

NOS (Nature of Science)

Scientific Theories:
• Explanation of a phenomena based on observation/investigation
• Supported by evidence & facts
• Have been repeatedly tested
• Can be used to make predictions
• Can be falsified (if new evidence comes out to prove the theory wrong)

____________ _______________ can be used to _______________ _________________ from __________

Eg: Based on cell theory, a newly discovered organism can be predicted to consist of one or more cells.

A2.2.9 Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes

1. _____ _________ Cells – have _____ ____________ or ______________
 While most eukaryotic cells do.
 Are cells without DNA / nucleus / mitochondria – cells?
 Challenges the idea that cells require these structures for survival
2. _______________ ____________ __________ ______________
 Considered as __________ ____________
 ______ _______________ – metabolic function are regulated by
neighbouring _____________ __________ in plants
 ________________ by ____________________
 Challenges the idea that cells are independent from one another and
require ________________ _____________ for survival
3. ________________ ________________ ____________ ___________
 Muscle cells that fuse together to form long fibres
 ______________ _______________ but surrounded by ________
__________________ ____________ ______________
 Combined together they are very large compared to a single human cell
 They work together and contract at the same time. One cell or many
cells?
 Challenges the idea that cells always function as a single autonomous unit
 4. _______________ _____________
 Fungal hyphae cells are separated by ___________
_________ called septa
 But in some fungi, there are ______ _________. Their
hyphae is a tube-like structure with ____________
_______________ & _____________ ________ along it.
 challenges the idea that cells are always separated into
discreet units

A2.2.2 MICROSCOPY SKILLS

NOS: student should appreciate that measurement using instrument is a form of quantitative
observation

How to create a scale bar

• FOV (field of vision) x 40 = 4.5mm, x100, 1.8mm,
x400 = 0.45mm
1. draw your cell
2. calculate actual cell size: use the diameter of your
cell over length of diameter of lens multiply by FOV
(must be in center)
= diameter of cell/diameter of lens in picture x FOV
3. use ruler to measure your drawing
4. magnification = drawing / actual cell size
5. draw a 1 cm scale bar
6. use magnification to calculate actual size of 1 cm

Calculating Magnification
Calculation of the magnification of
drawings and the actual size of Structures
& Ultrastructure shown in drawings or
micrographs.

• Magnification =
Image ¿ drawing ¿ ¿
Actual ¿ real ¿ ¿ ¿
• Must have same units
• 1mm = 1000µm
• Use ruler & Compare scale in diagram
to figure out the magnification

A2.2.3 Development in Microscopy

Include advantages of electron microscopy, freeze fracture, cryogenic electron microscope, and the use of
florescent stains and immunofluorescence in light microscope

• Light microscopes limited  cannot produce structures smaller than 0.2µm & many biological
structures are smaller
• Electron microscope developed in 1930-1950 allowed images of structures as small as 0.001µm
(x200 of light microscope) which allowed us to discovered the features of ultrastructure of the cells.

Light microscope Electron microscope

Cryogenic electron microscopy
• Cryogenic microscopy – _____________ ___________ _____________ (very rapid freezing),
coating them in ice before viewing them using SEM
• helps to ______________ _______________ of
_______________ ___________ without the
formation of ice crystals that damage cellular structure
• Allow viewing of small ________________ ____
__________________ with __________ ___________
___________ (0.12nm) that
• Allows scientist to investigate changes in protein
structures as they carry out their function, virus
structure, protein synthesis, hereditary expression &
regulation
• eg: spike protein in coronavirus
Freeze-fracture
• ______________ ______________: rapidly ______________ specimen can be ____________,
causing a _____________ through the weakest link and s______________
 • This produces a plane through the samples that exposes the ________________ _______________
• The structure are then replicated by applying a thin layer of metal on top of the structure and the
replica is then studied using the EM
• This method was used to demonstrate presence of integral membrane proteins within the plasma
membrane – crack occur along line of weakness which is the centre of membrane & phospholipid
bilayer splits open

Fluorescent Light Microscopy

• ______________ _____________ can be used to stain particular ______________ ______________
distribution of proteins, ____________ _____________ of particular cellular
molecules/components
• Eg: DAPI is used to bind to DNA
• ___________________ (IF) is using __________________ that carries ________________ ______
and _______________ to _____________ to label specific ___________________in cells /
distribution of proteins

A2.2.7 Processes of life in Unicellular organisms

All cellular organisms should be able to carry out the following function of life:
1. __________________ – chemical reaction that release energy for
cellular use
2. ________________ – produce more offspring/cells – sexually or
asexually
3. _______________ – moving using flagella or cilia
4. ______________________ – respond to internal/external stimuli
5. __________________ – maintain stable internal conditions
6. _________________ – remove waste products
7. _________________ – obtain energy/materials from environment
8. _______________ – increase in cell size or cell number, grow/develop

Mnemonic: Mr & Mrs Heng

Unicellular Organism are Organisms that are only made up of one cell and carry out all functions of life with
one cell
Life Process in Paramecium

Life Process in Chlorella

A2.2.4 Structure common to ALL cells – Unity
• All cells share four common components:
1. _________________ – consist mainly of water, cell’s
___________ ___________ needed as a __________ for
______________ __________ (chemical reactions to occur)
2. DNA as ____________ ______________ that contain
__________ instructions for cells to make ____________
___________- – mainly proteins that act as enzymes and
catalyse metabolic processes
3. ______________ _____________ – a lipid bilayer needed to
_____________ ____________ ____________ and chemistry
from the _____________ (homeostasis), enclosing the
cytoplasm
4. ________________– to ______________ coded DNA to form
___________

A2.2.5 Prokaryote cell structure

Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure
________________ _________________
 (pro-before, karyotes – nucleus)
 Organisms that __________
____________________
 Two of the three domains of life
 First organism to evolve & have
very simple cell structure
 Eubacteria (true bacteria) &
Archaea (live in extreme
conditions)
 Cell wall made of different
structure

 _________________ – attach to other bacteria to

transfer DNA (bact c____________)
 ______ _________________ (smaller than
eukaryotes) for protein synthesis (must be drawn as
dots)
 ____ __________________ (region is called
___________)
 ________________ - DNA is in a loop
____________ (____ bound to _____________)
 ________________ - enables movement (not all
prokaryotes)
 ________________ – ________________ wall -
maintains shape and prevents bursting (lysis)
 Plasma membrane – semi-permeable, selective
barrier and controls exit and entry of substances
into cell
 __________________ – _______ _____________ ______ that may be transferred between
bacteria
 Not compartmentalised, no membrane bound organelles
 Cytoplasm – fluid-like and contains enzymes for metabolic reactions
A2.2.6 Eukaryotes Cell Structure – Diversity
Eu = good/true; Karyotes = nucleus
• They have a more complex structure and is believed to have evolved from prokaryotes (through
endo symbiosis – A2.2.12)
• Four major kingdoms: ______________ (unicellular), ___________, ______________, ___________
• The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm which
• Contains membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles that are compartmentalised such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts, ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles and vacuoles (including lysosome)
• which helps them concentrate functions in their own space, making regions of the cells specialised
and much more efficient – B2.2.3
A2.2.8 Differences in eukaryotic cell between animals, fungi & plants - Diversity

Animal Plant Fungi

Nutrition

Cell wall

Size of
vacuoles

Organelles

Motility
(mobile)

Difference between Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes

 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

DNA

Organelles

Reproduction

Average size

Difference between Eubacteria, Archean &

Eukaryotes
Archaea share many similarities with eukaryotes as well,
indicating possible shared evolutionary history

Eubacteria Archaea Eukaryote

Have nuclear membrane

Normal conditions

Ester-linked phospholipid Ether linked phospholipid Ester-linked phospholipid

Usually have introns

Have histones proteins

A2.2.11 Drawing Skills
Drawing Materials: All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white, unlined paper.
Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be corrected.

Positioning: Center drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave plenty of room for the
addition of labels.
Size: Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.

Labels: Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines. The labels should form a vertical list. All labels
should be printed (not cursive).

Technique: Lines are clear and not smudged. Avoid ‘feathery’ pencil lines and gaps. There are almost no
erasures or stray marks on the paper. Color is used carefully to enhance the drawing. Stippling is used
instead of shading.

Accuracy: Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making “idealized”drawings. Do not
necessarily draw everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for. Show only as
much as necessary for an understanding of the structure – a small section shown in detail will often suffice.
It is time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce accurately the entire contents of a
microscopic field. When drawing low power plans do not draw individual cells. Show only the distribution
of tissues. When making high power drawings, draw only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of
walls, membranes, etc.

Title: The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under (for example,
phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is informative, centered, and larger than
other text. The title should always include the scientific name (which is italicized or underlined).

A2.2.11—Drawing and annotation based on electron micrographs

Application of skills: Students should be able to draw and annotate diagrams of organelles (nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, sap vacuole, Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
and annotations.
A2.2.10—Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and electron micrographs
Application of skills: Students should be able to identify cells in light and electron micrographs as
prokaryote, plant or animal. In electron micrographs, students should be able to identify these
structures: nucleoid region, prokaryotic cell wall, nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast, sap vacuole,
Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, chromosomes, ribosomes, cell wall,
plasma membrane and microvilli.

A2.2 Cell Structure

Theme: A Unity & Diversity
Level of organisation: Cells

Guiding Questions:
What are the features common to all cells and the features that differ?
How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?

A2.2.1 Cells are the smallest unit if self-sustaining life

Cell theory states that:
1. All living organisms are composed of cell(s)
2. Cells are the smallest units of life
• Specialised structures in cells perform different
functions, however, organelles cannot survive alone,
but some cells can.
• Eg: Unicellular organisms = single cell that can carry
out all life functions
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells

NOS (Nature of Science)

Scientific Theories:
• Explanation of a phenomena based on observation/investigation
• Supported by evidence & facts
• Have been repeatedly tested
• Can be used to make predictions
• Can be falsified (if new evidence comes out to prove the theory wrong)

Deductive reasoning can be used to generate predictions from theories.

Eg: Based on cell theory, a newly discovered organism can be predicted to consist of one or more cells.

A2.2.9 Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes

5. Red Blood Cells – have no nucleus or mitochondria
 While most eukaryotic cells do.
 Are cells without DNA / nucleus / mitochondria – cells?
 Challenges the idea that cells require these structures for survival
6. Phloem sieve tubes elements
 Considered as living cells
 No nucleus – metabolic function are regulated by neighbouring
companion cells in plants
 Interconnected by plasmodesmata
 Challenges the idea that cells are independent from one another and
require genetic material for survival
7. Striated skeletal muscle cells
 Muscle cells that fuse together to form long fibres
 Multiple nuclei but surrounded by single continuous plasma
membrane
 Combined together they are very large compared to a
single human cell
 They work together and contract at the same time. One
cell or many cells?
 Challenges the idea that cells always function as a single
autonomous unit
8. Fungal hyphae
  Fungal hyphae cells are separated by cross walls called septa
 But in some fungi, there are no septa. Their hyphae is a tube-like structure with continuous
cytoplasm & many nuclei along it.
 challenges the idea that cells are always separated into discreet units

A2.2.2 MICROSCOPY SKILLS

NOS: student should appreciate that measurement using instrument is a form of quantitative
observation

How to create a scale bar

• FOV (field of vision) x 40 = 4.5mm, x100, 1.8mm,
x400 = 0.45mm
7. draw your cell
8. calculate actual cell size: use the diameter of your
cell over length of diameter of lens multiply by FOV
(must be in center)
= diameter of cell/diameter of lens in picture x FOV
9. use ruler to measure your drawing
10. magnification = drawing / actual cell size
11. draw a 1 cm scale bar
12. use magnification to calculate actual size of 1 cm

Calculating Magnification
Calculation of the magnification of
drawings and the actual size of Structures
& Ultrastructure shown in drawings or
micrographs.

• Magnification =
Image ¿ drawing ¿ ¿
Actual ¿ real ¿ ¿ ¿
• Must have same units
• 1mm = 1000µm
• Use ruler & Compare scale in diagram
to figure out the magnification

A2.2.3 Development in Microscopy

Include advantages of electron microscopy, freeze fracture, cryogenic electron microscope, and the use of
florescent stains and immunofluorescence in light microscope

• Light microscopes limited  cannot produce structures smaller than 0.2µm & many biological
structures are smaller
• Electron microscope developed in 1930-1950 allowed images of structures as small as 0.001µm
(x200 of light microscope) which allowed us to discovered the features of ultrastructure of the cells.

Light microscope Electron microscope

Live samples Dead samples (samples placed in vacuum)
Coloured Black and white
Cheaper Expensive and occupy more space (large)
 magnification 2000 x – up till 0.1µm Magnification up to 200,000x – up till 0.0001µm
Low resolution High resolution
Produce flat 2D images SEM can produce 3D images
Limited by light wavelength Limited by electron wavelength (much shorter)

Cryogenic electron microscopy

• Cryogenic microscopy – flash freezing samples (very rapid freezing), coating them in ice before
viewing them using SEM
• helps to preserve structure of biological specimen
without the formation of ice crystals that damage
cellular structure
• Allow viewing of small biomolecule 3D structures
with high atomic resolution (0.12nm) that
• Allows scientist to investigate changes in protein
structures as they carry out their function, virus
structure, protein synthesis, hereditary expression &
regulation
• eg: spike protein in coronavirus

Freeze-fracture
• Freeze-fracture: rapidly frozen specimen can be cracked, causing a fracture through the weakest
link and separated
• This produces a plane through the samples that exposes the internal structure
• The structure are then replicated by applying a thin layer of metal on top of the structure and the
replica is then studied using the EM
 • This method was used to demonstrate presence of integral membrane proteins within the plasma
membrane – crack occur along line of weakness which is the centre of membrane & phospholipid
bilayer splits open

Fluorescent Light Microscopy

• Fluorescent dyes can be used to stain particular cellular components, distribution of proteins, track
location of particular cellular molecules/components
• Eg: DAPI is used to bind to DNA
• Immunofluorescent (IF) is using antibodies that carries fluorescent dyes and binding to antigens to
label specific biomolecules in cells / distribution of proteins

A2.2.7 Processes of life in Unicellular organisms

All cellular organisms should be able to carry out the following function of life:
9. Metabolism – chemical reaction that release energy for cellular use
10. Reproduction – produce more offspring/cells – sexually or asexually
11. Movement – moving using flagella or cilia
12. Response to Stimuli – respond to internal/external stimuli
13. Homeostasis – maintain stable internal conditions
14. Excretion – remove waste products
15. Nutrition – obtain energy/materials from environment
16. Growth – increase in cell size or cell number,
grow/develop

Mnemonic: Mr & Mrs Heng

A2.2.4 Structure common to ALL cells – Unity
• All cells share four common components:
5. Cytoplasm – consist mainly of water, cell’s internal fluid
needed as a medium for metabolic processes (chemical
reactions to occur)
 6. DNA as genetic material that contain coded instructions for cells to make functional elements –
mainly proteins that act as enzymes and catalyse metabolic processes
7. Plasma membrane – a lipid bilayer needed to separate internal environment and chemistry from
the exterior (homeostasis), enclosing the cytoplasm
8. Ribosomes – to translate coded DNA to form proteins

A2.2.5 Prokaryote cell structure

Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure
without compartmentalization
 (pro-before, karyotes – nucleus)
 Organisms that lack nucleus
 Two of the three domains of life
 First organism to evolve & have
very simple cell structure
 Eubacteria (true bacteria) &
Archaea (live in extreme
conditions)
 Cell wall made of different
structure

Pili – attach to other bacteria to transfer

DNA (bact conjugation)
70s ribosome (smaller than eukaryotes) for protein
synthesis (must be drawn as dots)
No nucleus (region is called nucleoid)
Naked - DNA is in a loop circular (not bound to protein)
Flagella - enables movement (not all prokaryotes)
Cell wall – peptidoglycan wall - maintains shape and
prevents bursting (lysis)
Plasma membrane – semi-permeable, selective barrier and
controls exit and entry of substances into cell
Plasmids – small circular DNA that may be transferred
between bacteria
Not compartmentalised, no membrane bound organelles
Cytoplasm – fluid-like and contains enzymes for metabolic
reactions

A2.2.6 Eukaryotes Cell Structure – Diversity

Eu = good/true; Karyotes = nucleus
• They have a more complex structure and is believed to have evolved from prokaryotes (through
endo symbiosis – A2.2.12)
• Four major kingdoms: Protista (unicellular), Fungi, Plants, Animals
• The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm which
• Contains membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles that are compartmentalised such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts, ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles and vacuoles (including lysosome)
• which helps them concentrate functions in their own space, making regions of the cells specialised
and much more efficient – B2.2.3

Refer to details in your diagram

A2.2.8 Differences in eukaryotic cell between animals, fungi & plants - Diversity

Animal Plant Fungi

Nutrition • Heterotroph by • Autotroph • Heterotroph by

ingestion absorption
Cell wall • None • Made of cellulose • Made of chitin to
to provide provide structural
structural support support and
and prevent protection &
excessive water osmotic regulation
uptake
Size of • Smaller vesicles • Large vacuole • Large vacuole
vacuoles • Temporary • permanent • permanent
• Eg: lysosome,
phagosome
Organelles • Paired Centrioles • Plastid • No unique
– involved in cell (membrane bound organelles
division organelles)
• Lysosomes • Eg: Chloroplast,
(contain chromoplast
hydrolytic (pigment),
enzymes) amyloplast (store
starch)
Motility • Motile • non-mobile • non-mobile
(mobile) • May contain cilia • No cilia/flagella • No cilia/flagella
& flagella
Difference between Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

DNA • DNA is naked • Has histones

• DNA is circular • DNA is linear
• No introns • Has introns
Organelles • No nucleus • Has nucleus
• no compartments • Has compartments
• 70S ribosomes • 80S ribosomes

Reproduction • Asexual only (binary fission) • Asexual or sexual

• Cells are haploid • Haploid or diploid

Average size • Smaller (>10µm) • Larger (~100µm)

• Unicellular organisms • Unicellular or multicellular

Difference between Eubacteria, Archean &

Eukaryotes
Archaea share more similarities with eukaryotes, indicating
shared evolutionary history

Eubacteria Archaea Eukaryote

Prokaryotes – circular DNA Eukaryotes

No nuclear membrane, no membrane bound organelles Have nuclear membrane

Normal conditions Often extremophiles Normal conditions

Ester-linked phospholipid Ether linked phospholipid Ester-linked phospholipid

Peptidoglycan cell wall Cell wall has no peptidoglycan Plants have cellulose cell wall

Seldon have introns Usually have introns

No histones Have histones

Have one RNA polymerase Have 3 RNA polymerase several type of rRNA

All have different combinations ribosomal RNA subunit

A2.2.11 Drawing Skills

Drawing Materials: All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white, unlined paper.
Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be corrected.
Positioning: Center drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave plenty of room for the
addition of labels.
Size: Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.

Labels: Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines. The labels should form a vertical list. All labels
should be printed (not cursive).

Technique: Lines are clear and not smudged. Avoid ‘feathery’ pencil lines and gaps. There are almost no
erasures or stray marks on the paper. Color is used carefully to enhance the drawing. Stippling is used
instead of shading.

Accuracy: Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making “idealized”drawings. Do not
necessarily draw everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for. Show only as
much as necessary for an understanding of the structure – a small section shown in detail will often suffice.
It is time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce accurately the entire contents of a
microscopic field. When drawing low power plans do not draw individual cells. Show only the distribution
of tissues. When making high power drawings, draw only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of
walls, membranes, etc.

Title: The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under (for example,
phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is informative, centered, and larger than
other text. The title should always include the scientific name (which is italicized or underlined).

A2.2.11—Drawing and annotation based on electron micrographs

Application of skills: Students should be able to draw and annotate diagrams of organelles (nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, sap vacuole, Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
and annotations.
A2.2.10—Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and electron micrographs
Application of skills: Students should be able to identify cells in light and electron micrographs as
prokaryote, plant or animal. In electron micrographs, students should be able to identify these
structures: nucleoid region, prokaryotic cell wall, nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast, sap vacuole,
Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, chromosomes,
ribosomes, cell wall, plasma membrane and
microvilli.