Arba Minch University

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Geometric Design of Highway

Chapter six
Intersection,
Interchange,

Dereje G. (Lecturer)
[email protected]
 Outline
Intersections and Traffic Control
• Intersection
Introduction
Classification
Design principle
Channelization
Control mechanism or traffic control
Traffic control
• Interchange

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 Intersection
• Is areas shared by two or more roads serving
conflicting traffic when competing for the same
space at the same time when going ahead or
changing directions.
• Is location of low performance traffic flow through
sections of the road.
• The process of decision making for road users at
intersections is complex and dynamic which result
in a high potential for accidents and delays.
• As number of intersecting road increase the traffic
complexity is high and vice versa.

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 Classification Intersection
• Generally classified into three general categories:-
1. At-grade intersections,
2. Grade-separated without ramps, and
3. Grade-separated with ramps (commonly
known as interchanges).
– Ramp:- is one-way, often single-lane, road providing a
link between two roads that cross each other at
different levels.
• At grade intersections:-
provide for the flow of traffic at same levels, thus there
exist conflicts between intersecting streams of traffic

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 Classification Intersection cont.…
• Basic types of at grade intersections:-

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 Classification Intersection cont.…
• Basic types of at grade intersections:-

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 Classification Intersection cont.…
• Grade-separated intersections:-
usually consist of structures that provide for traffic to
cross at different levels (vertical distances) without
interruption.
Traffic potential conflicts is eliminated and thus reduce
potential of accidents

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 Classification Intersection cont.…
• Types of grade-separated intersections:-
An interchange
• is a grade separation in
which vehicles moving in
one direction of flow may
transfer by the use of
connecting roadways (know
as ramps).
• The choice between these
intersection types depends
on various factors such as:-
 traffic,
 economy,
 safety,
 aesthetics,
 delay,
 space requirements,
etc.

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 Classification Intersection cont.…
Grade Separations (Interchanges)
• permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without
interruption.
• Such separation results in saving of time and increase in
safety for traffic movements
• Grade separations or interchanges may be warranted
• As part of an express highway system designed to carry high
volumes of traffic,
• To eliminate bottlenecks,
• To prevent accidents,
• Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-grade
intersection exceeds the cost of the improvement, and
• Where the volumes to be catered for would require the
design of an intersection at grade of unreasonable size.

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 Design Principles of At-Grade Intersections
• The fundamental objectives in the design of at-
grade intersections are:-
to minimize delay and
to minimize the number and severity of potential
conflicts among different streams of traffic and
between pedestrian and turning vehicles.
to provide for the smooth flow of traffic across the
intersection
To maximize the traffic safety
• Elements affecting design of Intersection:-
– Human factors
– Environmental Influences
– Vehicle characteristics

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 Design Principles cont.….
• Intersection Selection Criteria's
– Traffic safety
– Road types an function
– No of occurring legs
– Traffic volume & Types
– Design Operating speed
– Priority Setting
– Terrain
– Room availability
– Adjacent land use
– Service to neighboring population
– Network Consideration (design consistence)
– Environmental Concerns
– Cost

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 Design Principles cont.….
Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
• Channelization
 is the separation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths
of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings
 Is to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians.
 It purpose is to achieve safe and efficient operation by managing the
conflicts that are inherent to intersections
• A traffic island
 is a defined area between traffic lanes where vehicular traffic is
excluded and
 provided to regulate the movement of vehicles or
 to serve as a pedestrian refuge. traffic island

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 Design Principles cont.….
Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
Islands in an intersection serve one or more of the
following purposes:
– Separation of conflicts
– Control of angle of conflict
– Reduction of excessive pavement areas
– Regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area
– Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement
– Protection of pedestrians
– Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
– Location of traffic control devices.
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 Design Principles cont.….
Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
– Channelizing Islands
The three main functions of channelizing islands :-
Directional :- to control and direct
movements, usually turning;
Division :- which can be of opposing or same
direction, usually through, movements; and
Refuge: - either of turning vehicles or of
pedestrians.

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 Design Principles cont.….
Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
– Channelizing Islands
General types and shapes of islands:

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 Design Principles cont.….
Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
• A properly channelized intersection will result in:-
– increased capacity,
– enhanced safety,
– increased driver confidence,
– decrease conflicts and accidents.

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 Sight Distance at Intersections
• The high accident potential at an intersection can be
reduced by providing sight distances
• It allows drivers to have an unobstructed view of the
entire intersection at a distance great enough to permit
control of the vehicle.
• At signalized intersections, the unobstructed view may
be limited to the area where the signals are located,
• But for un-signalized intersections, it is necessary to
provide an adequate view of the crossroads or
intersecting highways.
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 Sight Distance at Intersections
• .

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 Sight Distance at Intersections

For the intersection to be safely operated under basic rules of the

road (i.e., with no control), dBact ≥ dBmin, assuming that the Vehicle
A is at safe location (i.e., dA = ds), (Vehicle A is selected as the
vehicle on the minor street) 19
Traffic Controls

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 Traffic Controls
• The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of
way to drivers, and
• thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring the
orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on
highways.
• Control may be achieved by using traffic signals,
signs, or markings that
»regulate
»guide
»warn,
• Complex maneuvering areas of highways such as
intersections require properly designed traffic
control systems.

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 Traffic Controls
• Traffic Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving
in different directions interfere with each other.
• The three types of conflicts are :-
» merging,
» diverging, and
» crossing.
• The number of possible conflict points at any
intersection depends on:-
» the number of approaches,
» the turning movements, and
» the type of traffic control at the intersection.

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 Types of Intersection control
 YIELD Signs: placed on minor-road approaches; where it is
necessary to yield the right of way to the major-road traffic.

 STOP Signs: A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle

is required to stop before entering the intersection.
used on a minor road when it intersects a major road, at an

un-signalised intersection, and where a combination of high

speed, restricted view and serious accidents indicates the
necessity for such a control.

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 Types of Intersection control
 Round about:
A round about is a means of traffic control where one-way traffic is
circulating around a central island.
 Priority within the roundabout is controlled by GIVE WAY (YIELD) signs for
entering traffic, although occasionally traffic signals may be used.
 It considerably reduces the number and severity of conflicts, makes the
traffic flow self-regulatory and continuous, reduces congestion, and
promotes safety.
 Traffic Signals:
 the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an intersection
 used to eliminate many conflicts because different traffic streams which
can be assigned the use of the intersection at different times.

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 stop
Traffic Clearance
signal Go
 Is the device which could alternatively direct the
traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red
and green traffic light signals as per the pre-
determined time settings.
 Types of Traffic Signals :
• Fixed Time Signals
• Traffic Actuated Signals or Automatic Signals

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 Design of traffic signals
 Fixed time signal can be designed by many methods
such as:-
1. Trial Cycle Method
2. Approximate Method
3. Webster’s Method
 The commonly used method accepted by many
countries is Webster’s method.

Next class

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 Design of traffic signals
1. Webster’s Method
 In this method it is required to collect two types of
traffic data at the intersection point.
a)Traffic volume data (q) at each phase at least
8 hours covering both morning peak hour and
evening peak hour at the intervals of 15
minutes.
b)Saturation flow rate (s) at each phase
simultaneously with traffic volume data at
the same timings at the interval of 15
minutes interval.

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 Design of traffic signals
1. Webster’s Method
The following steps are required. ( Assume that it is a four phase
intersection )
 Step 1 : Calculate the flow ratio (y) for each phase individually, which bis
given as
 Y1 = q1 / s1
 Y2 = q2 / s2
 Y3 = q3 / s3
 Y4 = q4 / s4
 Where q1, q2, q3 and q4 are the respective traffic volume data (per hour)
at each phase
 S1, s2, s3 and s4 are the saturation flow rates at the respective phases.
 Saturation flow rates are to be determined at each phase either by
conducting traffic studies or by using appropriate formulas.

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 Design of traffic signals
1. Webster’s Method
 Step 2 : Calculate the total time lost at the intersection point using the equation
L = ∑ (n-1) + ∑ l
 Where L = Total time lost at the intersection point during one cycle time
 l = time lost at the intersection point per phase
 n = number of phases at the intersection point
 Step 3 : Calculate the Cycle Time required for all the phases at the intersection
point using
CO = 1.5 L + 5 / 1 – Y
 WHERE CO = Cycle time required for all the phases at the intersection point
 L = Total time lost at the intersection point during one cycle time
 Y = Total flow = y1 + y2 + y3 + y4
 Step 4 : Calculate the green times of each phase individually using
 G1 = y1 . (CO – L ) / Y
 G2 = y2 . ( CO – L ) / Y
 G3 = y3 . ( CO – L ) / Y
 G4 = y4 . ( CO – L ) / Y
 Where G1, G2, G3 and G4 are the green times of the respective phases
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 Design of traffic signals
1. Webster’s Method
 Step 5 : Calculate the red times of each phase individually
using
• R1 = CO – ( G1 + A )
• R2 = CO – ( G2 + A)
• R3 = CO – ( G3 + A )
• R4 = CO – ( G4 + A )
 Where R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the red times of the respective
phases.

 A is the Amber time In the design of Fixed Time Signal by

Webster Method, the amber time ( A ) can be assumed as in
between 3 to 8 seconds depending upon the size of the
intersection. ( preferably A can be taken as 5 seconds ).
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