9

Research II
Quarter 2 – Module 3: Week 3
Experimental Research
Design
Research – Grade 9
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 2 – Module 3: Week 3: Experimental Research Design
First Edition, 2020

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in
any work of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the
government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for
exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among other things,
impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand
names, trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective
copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use
these materials from their respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors
do not represent nor claim ownership over them.

Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Writers: A.C. MANLANGIT, JR.
Editors: FARRAH MADRIO
Grammarian: ANGIE D. CORDOVA
Reviewers:
Illustrator:
Layout Artist: AISHA MAE L. GAMALLO
Subject Area Supervisor: MERIAM T. ABADILLA
Management Team: RONALD G. GUTAY,
ALLAN B. MATIN-AW,
MARY JANE J. POWAO,
AQUILO A. RENTILLOSA,
CRISTINA T. REMOCALDO
ADM Coordinator: RYAN B. REDOBLADO

Printed in the Philippines by ________________________

Department of Education – Region VII
Office Address: Department of Education – Carcar City Division
(Learning Resources Management Section)
P. Nellas St., Poblacion III, Carcar City, Cebu
Telefax: (032) 487-8495
E-mail Address: [email protected]
 9

Research
Quarter 2 – Module 3: Week 3
Experimental Research
Design
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:
Welcome to the Research 9 Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on
Experimental Research Design.
This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators
both from public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in
helping the learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while
overcoming their personal, social, and economic constraints in schooling.
This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and
independent learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims
to help learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration
their needs and circumstances.
As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

For the learner:

Welcome to the Research 9 Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on
Experimental Research Design.
The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used
to depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and skills
at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to This will give you an idea of the skills or

Know competencies you are expected to learn in
the module.

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to

check what you already know about the
lesson to take. If you get all the answers
correct (100%), you may decide to skip
this module.

4
 What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you
link the current lesson with the previous
one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be

introduced to you in various ways such
as a story, a song, a poem, a problem
opener, an activity or a situation.

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of

the lesson. This aims to help you discover
and understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More This comprises activities for independent

practice to solidify your understanding
and skills of the topic. You may check the
answers to the exercises using the
Answer Key at the end of the module.
What I Have This includes questions or blank
Learned sentence/paragraph to be filled in to
process what you learned from the
lesson.

What I Can Do This section provides an activity which

will help you transfer your new
knowledge or skill into real life situations
or concerns.

Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your

level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.
Additional In this portion, another activity will be
Activities given to you to enrich your knowledge or
skill of the lesson learned. This also tends
retention of learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in

the module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in

developing this module.

5
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part
of the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other
activities included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with
it.

If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you
are not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

6
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed for your advantage and specially written to suit your needed
knowledge about East Asian Arts. This can be used in all types of learning situations as the
diversity of students in terms of their vocabulary level is being put into consideration. The lessons
are organized, but it was modified to match with the textbook you are now using.
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. plan the research design
1.1 apply the guidelines on how to make a research design;
1.2 discuss the guidelines that are extensively applied in making a research design;
1.3 identify the experimental and control group;
1.4 design the necessary experimental and control set-ups; and
1.5 apply the principles of sampling techniques and strategy in the selection of
samples
2. Write the materials and methods in conducting an experiment
2.1 apply the guidelines of scientific writing in preparing the materials and methods
section of a research report.

What I Know

Pre-test / Assessment (answer this portion)

Multiple Choice: Read each item carefully and choose the letter of the correct answer. Please
use separate sheet of paper.
1. Mixed-method research refers to use of both:
A. experimental and correlational methods
B. quantitative and qualitative methods
C. description and intervention
D. group and single subject designs
2. Operational definitions are encouraged in research in order to:
A. conform to the requirement of statistical analysis
B. increase the probability for experiments to succeed
C. make terms used in a study as explicit as possible
D. make educational research more easily understood by laypersons
3. Which of the following statements can be checked by means of scientific inquiry?
A. All high schools should teach driver education.
B. Driver education is more important than drug abuse education.
C. Driver education is an ideal subject for all students to take.
D. The accident rate of driver education graduates is lower than the accident rate of
those who have not had driver education.

7
4. "Students taught first aid by programmed instruction will achieve at a higher level than
those taught first aid by the traditional method." The independent variable in this
hypothesis is:
A. Students C. programmed instruction
B. level of achievement D. method of instruction
5. Which of the following factors should not influence the decision when one is selecting a
topic or problem for research?
A. Will solution of the problem advance knowledge in my field?
B. Will I be able to prove that my previously held beliefs are true?
C. Will the study lead to the development of other investigations?
D. Is the topic or problem amenable to research?
6. In the example of question 5, the dependent variable is___.
A. students
B. level of achievement
C. programmed instruction
D. method of instruction
7. Statements or predictions that are tested by collecting and analyzing objective evidence
are called__.
A. Assumptions C. hypotheses
B. indicators D. premises
8. Which of the following is likely to be of greatest value in formulating hypotheses for a
scientific investigation?
A. A high level of emotional involvement in the research problem
B. A rigorous statistical design
C. Clear indication of the variables involved
D. A problem statement that is broad in scope
9. Characteristics of persons or things that can assume different values are called___.
A. Distributions C. data
B. observations D. variables
10. A manipulated variable is one that___.
A. uses equipment
B. requires subjects to arrange materials
C. is arranged by the researcher
D. makes a study hard to interpret
11. A moderator variable is one that___.
A. makes a relationship meaningless
B. qualifies the application of a relationship
C. weakens the strength of a relationship
D. provides an alternative explanation for a relationship
12. A researcher who decides to deceive participants in a study should:
A. determine that the study cannot be done without deception
B. argue convincingly that the importance of the study justifies deception
C. undeceive participants as soon as possible
D. all of these

8
 13. The first step in selecting a sample should:
A. define the population
B. decide how to stratify the population
C. compile a list of the population
D. determine how to randomize
14. Generalizing research findings from a sample to the population is most likely to be
justifiable when:
A. a small systematic sample is used
B. cluster sampling is used in a large, heterogeneous population
C. the null hypothesis is confirmed, regardless of the sampling procedures used
D. a large random sample is used
15. The most important consideration in selecting a sample is that the sample be:
A. selected from the population by means random table of numbers
B. made up of a large number of subjects
C. representative of the population

Lesson
Experimental Research
1 Design : The Design Plan

What’s In

Experiments are run for many purposes and are prevalent in a wide range of application
areas. Examples of experimental contexts include engineering for the design and improvement
of complex systems, pharmaceutical industry efforts to discover and develop new drugs, and the
improvement of crop yield and sustainability in agriculture. Recent improvements in computer
speed and memory have led to important developments in the computational aspects of the
statistical challenges associated with the various components of experimentation.

Research methods are many and varied, and ideally, the choice is guided primarily by
the nature of the problem to be studied. With respect to participants, research can be carried out
on individuals (single-case studies) or groups. The latter may involve a single group or multiple
groups (at least two: experimental and control). They can be further classified as between-
subject/group or within-subject/group studies. With respect to type of data, there are quantitative
(numerical data), qualitative (textual data), and mixed methods, which may be applied to
nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio, or other type of scales. Number of variables will determine
whether the study uses single-variable (one independent variable) or factorial (at least two

9
independent variables) design. Based on the criterion of amount of control the design is
categorized as non-experimental (also referred to as pre-experimental), quasi-experimental, or
true experimental. Non-experimental studies allow the least amount of control because they deal
with phenomena occurring in natural environments.

Most of them are correlational: They try to determine correlations among relevant
variables without manipulating them. With respect to phenomena studied, they can be classified
into descriptive/exploratory survey studies and interrelationship/difference studies. Quasi-
experimental design (most frequently used in applied research) allows more control over
independent variable(s) and involves manipulation but lacks randomness in subject selection.
(True) experimental design is characterized by manipulation of independent variable(s) and a
high amount of control over subject selection and assignment. The features discussed in this
entry are incorporated into steps that are common to all types of research: choice of topic; survey
of available literature; definition of research problem and formulation of hypothesis, including
choice of variables; study design; subject selection; data collection and analysis; interpretation
of results; and consideration of implications.

What’s New

Features of Experimental Research Design

There are many definitions of experimental research, but they all share several obligatory
features:

a. a dependent variable and at least one independent variable,

b. cause-and-effect relationship between these two variables while eliminating or
controlling all other possible confounding factors,
c. an experimental group and a control group,
d. appropriate selection and assignment of subjects, and
e. replicability.

Dependent Variable and at Least One Independent Variable

The dependent (criterion) variable is the object of study and measurement. The
independent (predictor) variable is selected and manipulated by the experimenter. The
experiment reveals how the changes in the independent variable (IV) affect the dependent
variable (DV). All other possible influences on DV, represented by variables referred to as
extraneous/ confounding/spurious, need to be eliminated or controlled for. Factorial design
involves two or more IVs and in that case the experimenter looks at main effects (how each of
them affects DV) and interaction (how they affect it together). It is preferable to a series of single-
variable studies. The variables that strengthen the relationship between two other variables are
called moderator variables. Mediator (intervening) variables explain that relationship. They may
be treatment- or subject-related. Controlled) variables are not independent. They are under the

10
experimenter’s control, but if their number increases or the experimenter fails to control them
they turn into confounding variables and present serious problems for internal validity. There are
slight nuances in definitions and descriptions of variables in literature, but rule of thumb is to
eliminate all sources of uncontrollable influence on DV.

Cause-and-Effect Relationship
One of the first steps in experimental research is formulating a hypothesis about
causality: The experimenter expects some effect (measured by DV) to be produced by a cause
(contained in IV), eliminating all other sources of variation or influence (confounding variables)
that might lead to rival hypotheses. A null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference
between the studied groups (with respect to DV) that can be attributed to IV. Theoretically, this
is the starting point, or the working hypothesis that the study sets out to refute. In practice,
hypotheses are usually formulated as non-directional (there is a difference between the groups)
or directional (e.g., one of the groups will have a higher value); that is, the experimenter wants
to test whether there is an effect that can be attributed to a cause (e.g., treatment) that can be
expected on the basis of experience or available literature.

Experimental Group and Control Group

Experimental and control groups are comparable in all respects except in the application
of treatment, and any difference in measurements that is found between them can be attributed
to (and only to) treatment; it actually refers to any change in IV and can include active
intervention, that is, addition to the stimulus or removal. In studies where both groups receive
(different) treatment, they are called comparison groups.

Appropriate Selection and Assignment of Subjects

Subject selection and/or assignment to groups are generally regarded as the key feature
that distinguishes true experimental designs from others. Ideally, subjects are randomly picked
from the population and assigned to the experimental or control groups (probability sampling).
Stratified sampling is a type of random sampling where the population is first divided into strata
and then participants are randomly selected from each stratum. In a proportional stratified
sample, the proportion of subjects from each stratum mirrors the proportion of the stratum in the
population. If selection is not random it is called nonprobability sampling, because not all
individuals have equal probability of being selected: Frequently, groups consist of subjects who
happen to be at hand (convenience sampling) or those who have characteristics that the
experimenter wants to study (purposive sampling). Even if selection itself is not random, the
subjects may still be randomly assigned to different comparison groups. Another method of
subject selection is matching: Subjects in the control group are chosen so as to match the
subjects in the experimental group in all aspects related to DV. In most applied research, only
non-probabilistic sampling and matching are possible or appropriate.

Replicability
Replicability means that other researchers who carry out the experiment using the same
methodology and comparable subject groups will get the same or similar results. To make this
possible, methodology should be meticulously described when presenting the study. It is
advisable that experimenters replicate their own work as part of strengthening external validity.

11
Reliability and Validity
In addition to the features listed above, every experimental design needs to be concerned
with reliability and validity.

Reliability
Reliability refers to consistency. In research designs that involve evaluation by judges
(raters), interrater reliability measures variation in scores across raters and intrarater reliability
measures variation in evaluations of the same task or token by a single rater. Test-retest
reliability primarily refers to variation in measurements of the same person on the same test on
different occasions but under identical conditions. It is also related to intrarater reliability when it
refers to variation in evaluation of the same task or token by the same rater at different times.
Intermethod reliability is exhibited by good correlation between results obtained by different
methods in the same subjects. Parallel forms reliability is an issue when test items are randomly
assigned to (at least) two tests from a pool of items of similar difficulty. High correlations on these
types of reliability are desirable because they indicate consistency of methods, instruments,
tests, and sets of measurements. Internal consistency of a test is also manifested as reliability:
A test is reliable if all of its items correlate with each other (0.60 – 0.90), that is, measure the
same thing. However, correlations higher than 0.90 are indicative of items’ redundancy.

Validity
Validity corresponds to truthfulness or appropriateness. Research that satisfies this
requirement will yield results that are comparable to similar samples and will eventually lead to
interpretations that can be applied to similar populations or situations. To achieve this, two sets
of criteria that are grouped around test validity and experimental validity have to be considered.
The former set includes questions about construct validity (does the test measure what it was
designed to?), content validity (does the test measure the entire/representative sample of
behavior that is the object of research?), and criterion validity (is the test related to the
[predefined] criterion variable?). The latter set of criteria is concerned with the procedure itself
and interpretation of results. Two major aspects are internal validity and external validity. As
mentioned above, one of the salient features of experimental research is the existence of cause-
and-effect relationship, which is covered by the notion of internal validity. If this causal
relationship satisfies the requirements of temporal precedence, covariation, and non-
spuriousness, internal validity is achieved: In an internally valid experiment, cause precedes
effect, the two are related and that relationship (covariation) cannot be explained by any other
hypothesis. In the process of designing and conducting research as well as during data analysis
and interpretation, there are factors that may jeopardize internal validity (threats). They include
the following:
➢ Attrition (mortality)—some participants fail to complete the study (needs to be accounted
for in making inferences about effect of treatment; can be remedied by pretest/posttest);

➢ Ceiling/floor effect—participants reach maximum/minimum that the test allows (can be

prevented by pilot study and improved test sensitivity and specificity);

➢ Compensatory rivalry / resentful demoralization—participants in study groups compete

and reach performance levels they would not have in a natural setting or in the absence
of the “rival” group / participants may become demoralized and don’t see any point in

12
 doing their best (can be minimized by preventing contact among participants and
awareness of group assignment; so-called blind design);

➢ Diffusion—treatment effects spread from one study group to the other (may lead to
disappearance of between-group differences; can be minimized by blind design and
preventing contact among participants);

➢ Experimenter bias / lack of implementation integrity / instrument change—experimenters

behave inconsistently in different testing conditions or with different groups / treatment is
not delivered as planned or its delivery is inconsistent / changes in any aspect of
methodology during study (can be remedied by using double-blind design, perfecting
instruments, training experimenters before testing, and avoiding changes once the
experiment is under way);

History—events that occur between pre- and post-test situations, unrelated to treatment, may
affect the outcome of the study (especially relevant in repeated-measures design and
longitudinal studies; can be minimized by using control group);

➢ Maturation—participants undergo normal changes over time

(developmental/maturational), which may affect the outcome (can be minimized by using
control group and varying presentation conditions in within-subject design);
➢ Post hoc bias—the researcher is not objectively interpreting the data (can be minimized
by peer review/comments);
➢ Regression to the mean (statistical regression) —participants who have performed
extremely well or extremely poorly on the pre-test tend to perform more like the average
on the post-test (can be remedied by using control group and randomization);
➢ Selection bias—caused by inadequate subject selection (pre-test differences between
groups are unknown to or neglected by the researcher; can be minimized by using
random subject sampling and pre-test/post-test design);
➢ Selection-maturation interaction—participants in study groups develop/change differently
over time (can be remedied by random subject selection); and
➢ Testing situation—possible practice effects (can be minimized by using control group and
excluding subjects who frequently participate in tests).
External validity is what strengthens the purpose of research: An externally valid experiment will
lead to conclusions that are transferable to similar contexts, thus satisfying the requirement of
generalizability, that is, applicability to other individuals (population validity), circumstances
(ecological validity), and times (temporal validity). To achieve this, the subjects must be
representative of the population studied, the constructs adequate, and the procedure replicable.
Most frequent threats to external validity include the following:

➢ Aptitude-treatment / selection-treatment interaction—selected participants are not

representative (exhibit features that interact with IV in atypical ways);
➢ Interaction between treatment and testing—participants are affected by the awareness
of being tested;
➢ Multiple treatment interference—participants are subjected to multiple treatments
(simultaneously or at short intervals), which may lead to cumulative effects and/or
interaction of treatments;
➢ Pretest and posttest effects—pretesting affects post-test scores (pretest sensitization);

13
 ➢ Reactivity—causal relationships would not occur in natural situations; and
➢ Situation—anything to do with the testing situation (e.g., time, place, distractions).

The best way to increase external validity is to repeat the experiment in slightly changed
conditions and with different subjects.
Internal and external validity considerations are flanked by two other types that precede
and follow the actual experiment. Intentional validity deals with the question of appropriateness
of the chosen method, and is in that respect a variation of test validity. Conclusion validity may
be defined as providing statistical evidence for the correlation between IV and DV based on the
applied experimental design and methodology. Some of the threats to conclusion validity are
statistical power, unsystematic variations in procedure, differences among subjects, unreliable
DV, multiple comparisons, and violation of assumptions of statistical tests.

Ecological validity can be regarded as part of external validity (see above) or separately.
If considered on its own, it refers to applicability of conclusions obtained in a laboratory setting
to real-life situations. It may be jeopardized by high degree of control that is characteristic of
studies with strong internal validity. Obviously, it is impossible to achieve maximum strength of
all types of validity at the same time. There are always trade-offs, particularly between external
and internal validity. Priorities will depend somewhat on the nature of the study and its expected
practical implications. Internal validity commonly takes precedence, but in applied research
external validity is very important. An experiment cannot be externally valid if it is not internally
valid, but the opposite does not necessarily apply.
With the exception of internal validity, which is most closely related with experimental and quasi-
experimental research, the rest of discussion on validity is pertinent for other types of research
methods.

Types of Experimental Research Design

Two-group post-test-only design is the simplest experimental design, good for
assessing causal relationships. It involves an experimental group and a control group formed by
random selection or matching. Groups’ means on DV are compared after treatment (applied to
experimental group only). Used outside the laboratory it may be subject to internal validity threats
caused by social interaction among the subjects. This design may be used when pretesting is
impossible and the sample of subjects is large enough (> 30 per group). It may be conducted
within groups.
Two-group pre-test – post-test design involves two groups formed by random
selection and assignment of subjects, pretest and posttest measurements in both groups, and
treatment applied to experimental group only. It is highly controlled for threats to internal validity,
but external validity may be jeopardized by the subjects’ knowledge that they are being tested.
Solomon four-group design is a combination of pre-test-post-test control group design
and post-test-only group design, with good internal and external validity. Experimental design
that involves only one group of subjects is called repeated measures design: the same group of
subjects is repeatedly measured for different DVs or for one DV at different times. It requires
fewer subjects, eliminates the issue of non-equivalent groups, and is sensitive to finding
statistical differences. Methodological concerns involve practice, fatigue, and carry-over effects.
Order effects inherent in this type of study may be resolved by counterbalancing (e.g., Latin

14
squares, randomized blocks) and increasing the time interval between
treatments/measurements.
In a combination of within- and between-subject pre- and post-test design, all
subjects are pretested and afterward randomly assigned to the experimental or control group.
Post-test measures are taken as within-subject repeated measures design in the control group
and group membership may be taken as a between-subject factor.

Ethical Considerations
There are two aspects of ethical issues to consider in experimental research. The first
one is related to the experimental process itself and is often referred to as experimenter bias:
An experimenter who is familiar with the hypotheses is more likely to conduct research in a way
that will result in their confirmation. It is relatively easy to avoid by applying a double-blind design
(both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of the hypotheses and/or to which group
the subjects have been assigned). Further chance for the bias to jeopardize the objectivity of the
study is interpretation of results, when the author may be tempted to report only data that support
the hypotheses and ignore conflicting ones.
This is also referred to as post hoc bias (threat to internal validity). There are no
methodological safeguards against it—only researchers’ integrity and rigorous review process
by competent peers.
The second aspect is more complex and involves treatment of subjects and data
obtained from them. The fundamental dilemma here is the cost-benefit ratio; that is, is the
expected benefit (e.g., to science, humankind) greater than the possible harm inflicted on the
subjects during research? Here the term harm is used in the broadest sense to cover a wide
range of experimental situations in which subjects may find themselves, from mildly
embarrassing and annoying to those where individuals are, due to random selection or group
assignment, given less effective treatment or denied one altogether. Regardless of the level of
possible harm, the subjects need to be informed about research and their role in it and give
written consent. Such informed consent typically contains a general statement about the purpose
of the study, description of what the participants will be expected to do, description of possible
risks and their management, option to refuse to participate or withdraw at any time without
penalization, information about protection of privacy and confidentiality, information about the
contact person and the procedure of expressing concerns and asking questions, and information
on availability of findings. Minors’ participation must be approved by a parent or legal guardian.
If deception was used, the subjects should be debriefed. Naturally, every research has its
specificities that may be reflected in informed consent, but the above mentioned elements should
be a minimum.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research

Like any other method, experimental design has strengths and weaknesses. The most
obvious advantages are control over IVs, straightforward determination of causal relationships,
possibility of verifying results through repeatability/replicability, and the opportunity to create
conditions that are not easily observed in natural settings or would take too long. Among the
disadvantages are its unnaturalness (which may result in outcomes not otherwise found in
natural situations or not to the same degree); difficulty to generalize, that is, apply the results to
real-life situations (in part because the sample or situation may not be representative); and

15
ethical considerations. Although good experimental design is a powerful tool, it cannot be applied
to all types of research problems, and results may appear significant because of experimenter
error or the inability to control for all extraneous variables. Finally, although experimental
research reveals causality (i.e., there is an effect that can be attributed to a cause), it does not
necessarily explain why this occurred.
Apart from the already mentioned steps that researchers can take to improve particular
types of validity and take advantage of the experimental design strengths, it is advisable to use
large enough groups, collect precise and detailed background subject data including appropriate
standardized tests, and run pilot tests followed by introspection feedback from subjects. A
training session (where appropriate) will help familiarize participants with the test, eliminate
learning effects, and minimize initial differences among subjects. Where applicable, double-blind
procedures should be preferred.
(VesnaMildner:http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483380810.n242.......10.4135/9781483380810
.n242)

Experiments
Experimental designs are often touted as the most "rigorous" of all research designs or,
as the standard against which all other designs are judged. In one sense, they probably are. If
you can implement an experimental design well (and that is a big "if" indeed), then the
experiment is probably the strongest design with respect to internal validity. Why? Recall that
internal validity is at the center of all causal or cause-effect inferences. When you want to
determine whether a stimulus or treatment causes some predicted outcome or response, then
you are interested in having strong internal validity. Essentially, a researcher manipulates the
independent variable (exercise, for example) and observes any change in the dependent
variable (heart disease, for example).

Research Questions Appropriate for an Experiment

Only those problems that let a researcher manipulate conditions in a laboratory setting.
Keep in mind that researchers have been very clever in devising ways in which to expand the
traditional definition of a laboratory.

Random Assignment

a. Social researchers frequently want to compare. The cliché, “Compare apples to apples, don’t
compare apples to oranges,” is not about fruit; it is about comparisons. It means that a valid
comparison depends on comparing things that are fundamentally alike. Random assignment
facilitates comparison in experiments by creating similar groups. When making comparisons,
researchers want to compare cases that do not differ with regard to variables that offer alternative
explanations.

i. Why Randomly Assign?

Random assignment is a method for assigning cases (e.g., individuals) to groups (e.g.,
experimental and control) for the purpose of making comparisons in order to increase
one’s confidence that the groups do not differ in a systematic way.

ii. How to Randomly Assign

16
 A researcher begins with a collection of cases and then divides the cases into two or
more groups using a random mathematical process.

iii. A Useful Non-random Technique Used to Assign Cases Into Groups

1. Matching
a. A process whereby a researcher deliberately assigns cases into groups
based upon relevant characteristics (a characteristic is considered
relevant if in anyway it could affect the dependent variable during the
course of the experiment) in order to create similar groups for comparison
purposes.
b. Matching vs. Random Assignment
* Matching presents a problem: What are the relevant characteristics to match on, and can one
locate exact matches? Individual cases differ in thousands of ways, and the researcher cannot
know which might be relevant.

Experimental Logic
a. The Language of Experiments
i. Parts of the Experiment
1. Not all experiments have all these parts, and some have all seven parts plus
others.
a. Independent Variable (stimulus or treatment)
> >A condition or treatment introduced into the experiment.
b. Dependent Variable
>> Dependent variables or outcomes are physical conditions,
social behaviors, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs of subjects that
change in response to a treatment.
c. Pretest
>> The measurement of the dependent variable prior to
introduction of the independent variable.
d. Posttest
>> The measurement of the dependent variable after the
introduction of the independent variable.
e. Experimental Group
>> The group that receives the independent variable.
f. Control Group
>> The group that does not receive the independent variable.

Control in Experiments
a. Control is crucial in experimental research. Aspects of an experimental situation that are not
controlled by the researcher are alternatives to the treatment for change in the dependent
variable and undermine the ability to establish causality.
>> Techniques to Establish Control in Experiments
1. Deception
a. Occurs when the researcher intentionally misleads subjects
through written or verbal instructions, the actions of others (e.g.,
confederates or stooges), or aspects of the setting.

17
Design Notations
a. Experiments can be designed in many ways. Design notation is a shorthand system for
symbolizing the parts of experimental design. Once you learn design notation, you will
find it easier to think about and compare designs. For example, design notation
expresses a complex, paragraph-long description of the parts of an experiment in five or
six symbols arranged in two lines. It uses the following symbols: O = observation of
dependent variable;

X = treatment, independent variable; R=random assignment. The Os are numbered with

subscripts from left to right based on time order. Pretests are O1, posttests O2. When the
independent variable has more than two levels, the Xs are numbered with subscripts to
distinguish among them. Symbols are in time order from left to right. The R is first, followed by
the pretest, the treatment, and then the posttest. Symbols are arranged in rows, with each row
representing a group of subjects. For example, an experiment with three groups has an R (if
random assignment is used), followed by three rows of Os and Xs. The rows are on top of each
other because the pretests, treatment, and posttest occur in each group at about the same time.

Types of Designs
a. Researchers combine parts of an experiment (e.g., pre-tests, control groups, etc.) together
into an experimental design. For example, some designs lack pre-tests, some do not have
control groups, and others have many experimental groups. Certain widely used standard
designs have names. You should learn the standard designs for two reasons.
>> First, in research reports, researchers give the name of a standard design
instead of describing it. When reading reports, you will be able to understand the
design of the experiment if you know the standard designs.
>> Second, the standard designs illustrate common ways to combine design
parts. You can use them for experiments you conduct or create your own
variations.
1. Classical Experimental Design
a. All designs are variations of the classical experimental design, the type of
design discussed so far, which has random assignment, a pre-test and a post-
test, an experimental group, and a control group.
2. Pre-Experimental Designs
a. Some designs lack random assignment and are compromises or shortcuts.
These pre-experimental designs are used in situations where it is difficult to use
the classical design. They have weaknesses that make inferring a causal
relationship more difficult.
>> Types of Pre-Experimental Designs

1. One-Shot Case Study Design

>> Also called the one group post-test only design, the one-shot
case study design has only one group, a treatment, and a post-
test. Because there is only one group, there is no random
assignment. A weakness of this design is that it is difficult to say
for sure that the treatment caused the dependent variable. If
subjects were the same before and after the treatment, the
researcher would not know it.

18
 2. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
>> This design has one group, a pretest, a treatment, and a
posttest. It lacks a control group and random assignment. This is
an improvement over the one-shot case study because the
researcher measures the dependent variable both before and after
the treatment. But it lacks a control group. The researcher cannot
know whether something other than the treatment occurred
between the pretest and the posttest to cause the outcome.

3. Static Group Comparison (Posttest Only)

>> Also called the posttest only nonequivalent group design, static
group comparison has two groups, a posttest, and treatment. It
lacks random assignment and a pretest. A weakness is that any
posttest outcome difference between the groups could be due to
group differences prior to the experiment instead of to the
treatment.

3. Quasi-Experimental and Special Designs

a. These designs, like the classical design, make identifying a causal relationship more
certain than do pre-experimental designs. Quasi-experimental designs help researchers
test for causal relationships in a variety of situations where the classical design is difficult
or inappropriate. They are called quasi because they are variations of the classical
experimental design. Some have randomization but lack a pre-test, some use more than
two groups, and others substitute many observations of one group over time for a control
group. In general, the researcher has less control over the independent variable than in
the classical design.
>> Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs
1. Two-Group Post-test-Only Design
>> This is identical to the static group comparison, with one exception:
The groups are randomly assigned. It has all the parts of the classical
design except a pre-test. The random assignment reduces the chance
that the groups differed before the treatment, but without a pre-test, a
researcher cannot be as certain that the groups began the same on the
dependent variable.
2. Interrupted Time Series
>> In an interrupted time series design, a researcher uses one group and
makes multiple pre-test measures before and after the treatment.
3. Equivalent Time Series
>> An equivalent time series is another one-group design that extends
over a
time period. Instead of one treatment, it has a pre-test, then a treatment
and post-test, then treatment and post-test, then treatment and post-test,
and soon.
4. Latin Square Designs
a. Researchers interested in how several treatments given in different

19
 sequences or time orders affect a dependent variable can use a Latin
square design.
>> Types of Latin Square Designs

1. Solomon Four-Group Design

>> A researcher may believe that the pretest measure has an influence on the treatment or
dependent variable. A pretest can sometimes sensitize subjects to the treatment or improve their
performance on the posttest (see the discussion of testing effect to come). Richard L. Solomon
developed the Solomon four-group design to address the issue of pretest effects. It combines
the classical experimental design with the two group posttest-only design and randomly assigns
subjects to one of four groups.

2. Factorial Designs
>> Sometimes, a research question suggests looking at the simultaneous effects of more
than one independent variable. A factorial design uses two or more independent variables in
combination. Every combination of the categories in variables (sometimes called factors) is
examined. When each variable contains several categories, the number of combinations grows
very quickly. The treatment or manipulation is not each independent variable; rather, it is each
combination of the categories.

a. The Logic of Internal Validity

>> Internal validity means the ability to eliminate alternative explanations of the
dependant variable. Variables, other than the treatment, that affect the dependent
variable are threats to internal validity. They threaten the researcher's ability to say that
the treatment was the true causal factor producing change in the dependent variable.
Thus, the logic of internal validity is to rule out variables other than the treatment by
controlling experimental conditions and through experimental designs.

1. Threats to Internal Validity

a. Selection Bias
Selection bias is the threat that subjects will not form equivalent groups. It is a problem
in designs without random assignment. It occurs when subjects in one experimental group have
a characteristic that affects the dependent variable. For example, in an experiment on physical
aggressiveness, the treatment group unintentionally contains subjects who are football, rugby,
and hockey players, whereas the control group is made up of musicians, chess players, and
painters. Another example is an experiment on the ability of people to dodge heavy traffic. All
subjects assigned to one group come from rural areas, and all subjects in the other grew up in
large cities. An examination of pretest scores helps a researcher detect this threat, because no
group differences are expected.
b. History
This is the threat that an event unrelated to the treatment will occur during the experiment
and influence the dependent variable. History effects are more likely in experiments that continue
over a long time period. For example, halfway through a two-week experiment to evaluate
subject attitudes toward space travel, a spacecraft explodes on the launch pad, killing the
astronauts.

20
 c. Maturation
This is the threat that some biological, psychological, or emotional process within the
subjects and separate from the treatment will change over time. Maturation is more common in
experiments over long time periods.
For example, during an experiment on reasoning ability, subjects become bored and sleepy and,
as a result, score lower. Another example is an experiment on the styles of children's play
between grades 1 and 6. Play styles are affected by physical, emotional, and maturation
changes that occur as the children grow older, instead of or in addition to the effects of a
treatment. Designs with a pretest and control group help researchers determine whether
maturation or history effects are present, because both experimental and control groups will
show similar changes over time.
d. Testing
Sometimes, the pretest measure itself affects an experiment. This testing effect
threatens internal validity because more than the treatment alone affects the dependent variable.
The Solomon four-group design helps a researcher detect testing effects. For the first day of
class. The course is the treatment. He or she tests learning by giving the same exam on the last
day of class. If subjects remember the pretest questions and this affects what they learned (i.e.,
paid attention
to) or how they answered questions on the posttest, a testing effect is present. If testing effects
occur, a researcher cannot say that the treatment alone has affected the dependent variable.

e. Instrumentation
This threat is related to stability reliability. It occurs when the instrument or dependent
variable measure changes during the experiment. For example, in a weight-loss experiment, the
springs on the scale weaken during the experiment, giving lower readings in the posttest.

f. Mortality
Mortality or attrition arises when some subjects do not continue throughout the
experiment. Although the word mortality means death, it does not necessarily mean that subjects
have died. If a subset of subjects leaves partway through an experiment, a researcher cannot
know whether the results would have been different had the subjects stayed. For example, a
researcher begins a weight-loss program with 50 subjects. At the end of the program, 30 remain,
each of who lost 5 pounds with no side effects. The 20 who left could have differed from the 30
who stayed, changing the results. Maybe the program was effective for those who left, and they
withdrew after losing 25 pounds. Or perhaps the program made subjects sick and forced them
to quit. Researchers should notice and report the number of subjects in each group during
pretests and posttests to detect this threat to internal validity.

g. Statistical Regression
Statistical regression is not easy to grasp intuitively. It is a problem of extreme values or a
tendency for random errors to move group results toward the average. It can occur in two ways:
1. One situation arises when subjects are unusual with regard to the dependent variable.
Because they begin as unusual or extreme, subjects are unlikely to respond further in
the same direction. For example, a researcher wants to see whether violent films make
people act violently. He or she chooses a group of violent criminals from a high security
prison, gives them a pre-test, shows violent films, and then administers a post-test. To
the researcher's shock, the criminals are slightly less violent after the film, whereas a
control group of non-prisoners who did not see the film are slightly more violent than

21
 before. Because the violent criminals began at an extreme, it is unlikely that a treatment
could make them more violent; by random chance alone, they appear less extreme when
measured a second time.

2. A second situation involves a problem with the measurement instrument. If many

subjects
score very high (at the ceiling) or very low (at the floor) on a variable, random chance
alone
will produce a change between the pretest and the posttest. For example, a researcher
gives 80 subjects a test, and 75 get perfect scores. He or she then gives a treatment to
raise scores. Because so many subjects already had perfect scores, random errors will
reduce the group average because those who got perfect scores can randomly move in
only one direction-to get some answers wrong. An examination of scores on pretests will
help researchers detect this threat to internal validity.
h. Diffusion of Treatment or Contamination
Diffusion of treatment or contamination is the threat that subjects in different groups will
communicate to each other and learn about the other’s treatment. Researchers avoid it by
isolating groups or having subjects promise not to reveal anything to others who will become
subjects. For example, subjects participate in a daylong experiment on a new way to memorize
words. During a break, treatment group subjects tell those in the control group about the new
way to memorize, which control group subjects then use. A researcher needs outside information
such as post-experiment interviews with subjects to detect this threat.

i. Compensatory Behavior
Some experiments provide something of value to one group, of subjects but not to
another, and the difference becomes known. The inequality may produce pressure to reduce
differences, competitive rivalry between groups, or resentful demoralization. All these types of
compensatory
behavior can affect the dependent variable in addition to the treatment. For example, one school
system receives a treatment (longer lunch breaks) to produce gains in learning. Once the
inequality is known, subjects in the control group demand equal treatment and work extra hard
to learn and overcome the inequality. Another group becomes demoralized by the unequal
treatment and withdraws from learning. It is difficult to detect this threat unless outside
information is used (see the earlier discussion of diffusion of treatment).

j. Experimenter Expectancy
Although it is not always considered a traditional internal validity problem, the
experimenter's behavior, too, can threaten causal logic. A researcher may threaten internal
validity, not by purposefully unethical behavior but by indirectly communicating experimenter
expectancy to subjects. Researchers may be highly committed to the hypothesis and indirectly
communicate desired findings to subjects. For example, a researcher studying reactions toward
the disabled deeply believes that females are more sensitive toward the disabled than males
are. Through eye contact, tone of voice, pauses, and other nonverbal communication, the
researcher unconsciously encourages female subjects to report positive feelings toward the
disabled; the researcher's nonverbal behaviour is the opposite for male subjects. Here is a way
to detect experimenter expectancy. A researcher hires assistants and teaches them
experimental techniques. The assistants train subjects and test their learning ability. The
researcher gives the assistants fake transcripts and records showing that subjects in one group

22
are honor students and the others are failing, although in fact the subjects are identical.
Experimenter expectancy is present if the fake honor students, as a group, do much better than
the fake failing students. A commonly used technique by researchers in order to reduce the
effects of experimenter expectancy is a double-blind experiment.

1. Double-Blind Experiment
a. The double-blind experiment is designed to control researcher expectancy.
In it, people who have direct contact with subjects do not know the details of the
hypothesis or the treatment. It is double blind because both the subjects and those in
contact with them are blind to details of the experiment.
b. External Validity and Field Experiments
Even if an experimenter eliminates all concerns about internal validity, external validity
remains a potential problem. External validity is the ability to generalize experimental
findings to events and settings outside the experiment itself. If a study lacks external
validity, its findings hold true only in experiments, making them useless to both basic and
applied science.
c. Realism in Experiments
Are experiments realistic? If not, will the affects be replicated outside the laboratory? Two forms
of realism can help us answer some of these questions.

1. Experimental Realism
The degree or impact of an experimental treatment or setting on subjects; it
occurs when subjects are caught up in the experiment and are truly influenced by
it.

2. Mundane Realism
Asks: Is the experiment like the real world? Mundane realism mostly answers
questions raised about external validity.
Two aspects of experiments can be generalized. One is from the subjects: Are
the subjects similar to the general population?

Another aspect is generalizing from an artificial treatment to everyday life: Is watching a violent
horror movie in a classroom similar to watching similar shows over the course of many years?

Reactivity
1. Subjects may react differently in an experiment than they would in real life because
they know that they are in a study.
Types of Reactivity

i. Hawthorne Effect – is a specific kind of reactivity. The name comes from a series of
experiments by Elton Mayo at the Hawthorne, Illinois, plant of Westinghouse Electric during the
1920’s. He serendipitously discovered that the act of monitoring an individual may produce
changes in the dependent variable.

ii. Novelty Effect – another kind of reactivity that produces changes in the dependent
variable as a result of something new being introduced to the subjects.

23
 iii. Demand Characteristics –subjects may pickup clues about the hypothesis or goal
of an experiment and they may change their behavior to what they think is demanded of them.

d. Field Experiments
This section has focused on experiments conducted under the controlled conditions of a
laboratory. Experiments are also conducted in “real life” or field settings where a researcher has
less control over the experimental conditions. The amount of control varies on a continuum. At
one end is the highly controlled laboratory experiment, which takes place in a specialized setting
or laboratory; at the opposite end is the field experiment, which takes place in the "field"-in natural
settings such as a subway car, a liquor store, or a public sidewalk. Subjects in field experiments
are
usually unaware that they are involved in an experiment and react in a more natural way.

e. Practical Considerations
Every research technique has informal tricks of the trade. They are pragmatic and based
on common sense but account for the difference between the successful research projects of an
experienced researcher and the difficulties a novice researcher faces.

Three are discussed here:

1. Planning and Pilot Tests

All social research requires planning, and most quantitative researchers use pilot tests.
During the planning phase of experimental research, a researcher thinks of alternative
explanations or threats to internal validity and how to avoid them. The researcher also develops
a neat and well-organized system for recording data. In addition, he or she should devote serious
effort to pilot testing any apparatus (e.g., computers, video cameras, tape recorders, etc.) that
will be used in the treatment situation, and he or she must train and pilot test confederates. After
the pilot tests, the researcher should interview the pilot subjects to uncover aspects of the
experiment that need refinement.

2. Instructions to Subjects
Most experiments involve giving instructions to subjects to set the stage. A researcher
should word instructions carefully and follow a prepared script so that all subjects hear the same
thing. This ensures reliability. The instructions are also important in creating a realistic cover
story when deception is used.

3. Post-Experiment Interview
At the end of an experiment, the researcher should interview subjects, for three reasons:
i. First, if deception was used, the researcher needs to debrief the subjects, telling
them the true purpose of the experiment and answering questions.

ii. Second, he or she can learn what the subjects thought and how their definitions
of the situation affected their behavior.

iii. Finally, he or she can explain the importance of not revealing the true nature
of the experiment to other potential subjects.

24
f. A Word on Ethics
Ethical considerations are a significant issue in experimental research because
experimental research is intrusive (i.e., it interferes). Treatments may involve placing people in
contrived social settings and manipulating their feelings or behaviors. Dependent variables may
be what subjects say or do. The amount and type of intrusion is limited by ethical standards.
Researchers must be very careful if they place subjects in physical danger or in embarrassing
or anxiety-inducing situations. They must painstakingly monitor events and control what occurs.
Deception is common in social experiments, but it involves misleading or lying to subjects. Such
dishonesty is not condoned as acceptable and is acceptable only as the means to achieve a
goal that cannot be achieved otherwise. Even for a worthy goal, deception can be used only with
restrictions. The amount and type of deception should not go beyond what is minimally
necessary, and subjects should be debriefed.

What Is It

An Introduction to Experimental Research

What is Experimental Research? Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a
scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the
researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated and compared. Most importantly,
experimental research is completed in a controlled environment. The researcher collects data
and results will either support or reject the hypothesis. This method of research is referred to a
hypothesis testing or a deductive research method (Babbie 4).
What is the Purpose of Experimental Research? Experimental research seeks to determine
a relationship between two (2) variables—the dependent variable and the independent variable.
After completing an experimental research study, a correlation between a specific aspect of an
entity and the variable being studied is either supported or rejected.

What type of Data are Collected in Experimental Research?

Data in experimental research must be able to be quantified, or measured. Data collected could
be acidity/alkalinity, area, circumference, density, electrical current/ potential/ resistance, force,
growth (time, weight, volume, length/width), heat, humidity, light intensity, mass, pressure, sound
intensity, temperature, time, velocity, volume or weight. However, the entity should be carefully
observed qualitatively, or described using words and photographs. How does the entity look,
smell, sound, feel, and taste (when appropriate)? These types of observations help supplement
the measurements taken throughout the experiment.

25
What Types of Experiments are Considered Experimental Research Projects?
Forensic Studies—Studying splatter (a physics/math study), decomposition (an entomology
study), damage to objects (a physics/engineering study), can be done in a controlled
environment and be measured.

“The Effect of _____ on_____” Studies

—All experimental studies look to determine how one thing affects another.
Product Effectiveness—If a specific aspect (active ingredients, size of crucial components etc…)
of several products can be determined to be in different quality or quantity, this makes for a great
experimental project. (For example the different levels of Ethyl Alcohol within antibacterial hand
sanitizers.)
Microbiology—bacteria (and some protists) grow quickly, change in population is easily
measured and therefore make for a good experimental study.

An Introduction to Exploratory Research

What is Exploratory Research? Exploratory research is a study that seeks to answer a

question or address a phenomenon. The nature of the entity being studied does not allow a
variable to be manipulated by the researcher, it cannot be completed in a controlled environment,
or most likely, the researcher can’t determine all the influences on the entity, therefore a more
exploratory look at the topic is more beneficial. This type of research seeks to identify general
principles to explain data and observations, and is also known as the inductive method (Babbie
4).

What is the Purpose of Exploratory Research? The purpose of exploratory research is to

investigate a specific phenomenon. Exploratory research seeks to learn as much as possible
between two variables— the dependent variable and the independent variable. The exact nature
of the dependent variable may not be known or understood before the experiment begins, and
therefore, is observed and recorded more holistically. After completely an exploratory research
study, a description of the relationship between the two variables is explained. It is likely that
from an exploratory study, an experimental study could be done, because the relationship
between the variables has been established.

What type of Data are Collected in Exploratory Research?

The types of data collected for an exploratory research are likely the same as an experimental
study. However, exploratory research is unique because the data are either collected “in the
field” or the data already exists, and must be organized in a way that has not been done before.
It is important to note here that a study that includes collecting field data does not necessarily
mean the study must be exploratory. Additionally, depending on the nature of the study, it is
possible that data be collected through interviews or surveys. Large volumes of data are
collected for exploratory research, because the data must then be analyzed from many different
perspectives, looking for possible relationships between the variables. The observations/data of
exploratory research are what leads to an inductive conclusion, rather then the acceptance or
rejection of a hypothesis, like experimental research. Instead, the results are considered a
tentative conclusion because the observations made are not a test of the pattern, but the source
of the pattern identified (Babbie 59).

26
Consider the possibility of using data that is available free on the web. Organizations,
government agencies as well as private corporations often make raw data available and
accessible to the public. In this case, your research wouldn’t focus on how you obtain the data;
rather, it focuses on what you choose to do with the data, and how you compare it to your
variable. The purpose here is to look for patterns that may lead to a new previously unknown
correlation.

What Types of Experiments are Considered Exploratory Research Projects?

Product effectiveness—you might not know how to define effectiveness, or have any way to
manipulate a variable, so by doing an exploratory study, you seek to describe the relationship
holistically.
Long-term studies—while you don’t have time to do a longitudinal study yourself, you might be
able to find data that already exists, that you can use to investigate a specific phenomenon. Talk
to a librarian about existing databases, or contact an expert in the content area.

Experimental Design: Statistical Analysis of Data

Purpose of Statistical Analysis

Before examining specific experimental designs and the way that their data are analyzed,
we thought that it would be a good idea to review some basic principles of statistics. We assume
that most of you reading this book have taken a course in statistics. However, our experience is
that statistical knowledge has a mysterious quality that inhibits long-term retention. Actually,
there are several reasons why students tend to forget what they learned in a statistics course,
but we won’t dwell on those here. Suffice it to say, a chapter to refresh that information will be
useful. When we conduct a study and measure the dependent variable, we are left with sets of
numbers. Those numbers inevitably are not the same. That is, there is variability in the numbers.
As we have already discussed, that variability can be, and usually is, the result of multiple
variables. These variables include extraneous variables such as individual differences,
experimental error, and confounds, but may also include an effect of the independent variable.
The challenge is to extract from the numbers a meaningful summary of the behavior observed
and a meaningful conclusion regarding the influence of the experimental treatment (independent
variable) on participant behavior. Statistics provide us with an objective approach to doing this.

Descriptive Statistics

Central Tendency and Variability In the course of doing research, we are called on to
summarize our observations, to estimate their reliability, to make comparisons, and to draw
inferences. Measures of central tendency such as the mean, median, and mode summarize the
performance level of a group of scores, and measures of variability describe the spread of scores
among participants. Both are important. One provides information on the level of performance,
and the other reveals the consistency of that performance. Let’s illustrate the two key concepts
of central tendency and variability by considering a scenario that is repeated many times, with
variations, every weekend in the fall and early winter in the high school, college, and professional
ranks of our nation. It is the crucial moment in the football game. Your team is losing by four
points. Time is running out, it is fourth down with two yards to go, and you need a first down to
keep from losing possession of the ball. The quarterback must make a decision: run for two or

27
pass. He calls a timeout to confer with the offensive coach, who has kept a record of the outcome
of each offensive play in the game.

A frequency distribution shows the number of times each score (in this case, the number
of yards) is obtained. We can tell at a glance that these two distributions are markedly different.
A pass play is a study in contrasts; it leads to extremely variable outcomes. Indeed, throwing a
pass is somewhat like playing Russian roulette. Large gains, big losses, and incomplete passes
(0 gain) are intermingled. A pass 10 - 4 doubtless carries with it considerable excitement and
apprehension. You never really know what to expect. On the other hand, a running play is a
model of consistency. If it is not exciting, it is at least dependable. In no case did a run gain more
than ten yards, but neither were there any losses. These two distributions exhibit extremes of
variability. In this example, a coach and quarterback would probably pay little attention to
measures of central tendency. As we shall see, the fact that the mean gain per pass and per run
is the same would be of little relevance. What is relevant is the fact that the variability of running
plays is less. It is a more dependable play in a short yardage situation.

Central Tendency and Variability

A. Measures of Central Tendency : Mean; Median ; Mode

The Mean. Two of the most frequently used and most valuable measures of central tendency in
psychological research are the mean and median. Both tell us something about the central
values or typical measure in a distribution of scores. However, because they are defined
differently, these measures often take on different values. The mean, commonly known as the
arithmetic average, consists of the sum of all scores divided by the number of scores.
Symbolically, this is shown as n X X å = in which X is the mean; the sign å directs us to sum the
values of the variable X. (Note: When the mean is abbreviated in text, it is symbolized M).
Returning to Table 10.1, we find that the sum of all yards gained (or lost) by pass plays is 80.
Dividing this sum by n (20) yields M = 10 - 5 4. Since the sum of yards gained on the ground is
also 80 and n is 20, the mean yards gained per carry is also 4. If we had information only about
the mean, our choice between a pass or a run would be up for grabs. But note how much
knowledge of variability adds to the decision-making process.

When considering the pass play, where the variability is high, the mean is hardly a precise
indicator of the typical gain (or loss). The signal (the mean) is lost in a welter of static (the
variability). This is not the case for the running play. Here, where variability is low, we see that
more of the individual measures are near the mean. With this distribution, then, the mean is a
better indicator of the typical gain. It should be noted that each score contributes to the
determination of the mean. Extreme values draw the mean in their direction. Thus, if we had one
running play that gained 88 yards, the sum of gains would be 160, n would equal 21, and the
mean would be 8. In other words, the mean would be doubled by the addition of one very large
gain.

The Median. The median does not use the value of each score in its determination. To find the
median, you arrange the values of the variable in order—either ascending or descending—and
then count down (n + 1) / 2 scores. This score is the median. If n is an even number, the median
is halfway between the two middle scores. Returning to Table 10.1, we find the median gain on
a pass play by counting down to the 10.5th case [(20 + 1) / 2 = 10.5)]. This is halfway between
the 10th and 11th scores. Because both are 0, the median gain is 0. Similarly, the median gain

28
on a running play is 3. The median is a particularly useful measure of central tendency when
there are extreme scores at one end of a distribution. Such distributions are said to be skewed
in the direction of the extreme scores. The median, unlike the mean, is unaffected by these
scores; thus, it is more likely than the mean to be representative of central tendency in a skewed
distribution. Variables that have restrictions at one end of a distribution but not at the other are
prime candidates for the median as a measure of central tendency. A few examples are time
scores (0 is the theoretical lower limit and there is no limit at the upper end), income (no one
earns less than 0 but some earn in the millions), and number of children in a family (many have
0 but only one is known to have achieved the record of 69 by the same mother).

The Mode. A rarely used measure of central tendency, the mode simply represents the most
frequent score in a distribution. Thus, the mode for pass plays is 0, and the mode for running
plays is 3. The mode does not consider the values of any scores other than the most frequent
score. The mode is most useful when summarizing data measured on a nominal scale of
measurement. It can also be valuable to describe a multimodal distribution, one in which the
scores tend to occur most frequently around 2 or 3 points in the distribution.
B. Measures of Variability: Range ; Variance and standard deviation
We have already seen that a measure of central tendency by itself provides only a limited
amount of information about a distribution. To complete the description, it is necessary to have
some idea of how the scores are distributed about the central value. If they are widely dispersed,
as with the pass plays, we say that variability is high. If they are distributed compactly about the
central value, as with the running plays, we refer to the variability as low. But high and low are
descriptive words without precise quantitative meaning. Just as we needed a quantitative
measure of centrality, so also do we require a quantitative index of variability.

The Range. One simple measure of variability is the range, defined as the difference between
the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Thus, referring to Table 10.1, we see that the
range for pass plays is 31 – (–17) = 48; for running plays, it is 10 – 0 = 10. As you can see, the
range provides a quick estimate of the variability of the two distributions. However, the range is
determined by only the two most extreme scores. At times this may convey misleading
impressions of total variability, particularly if one or both of these extreme scores are rare or
unusual occurrences. For this and other reasons, the range finds limited use as a measure of
variability.

The Variance and the Standard Deviation. Two closely related measures of variability
overcome these disadvantages of the range: variance and standard deviation. Unlike the range,
they both make use of all the scores in their computation. Indeed, both are based on the squared
deviations of the scores in the distribution from the mean of the distribution. Table 10.2 illustrates
the number of aggressive behaviors during a one-week observation period for two different
groups of children. The table includes measures of central tendency and measures of variability.
Note that the symbols and formulas for variance and standard deviation are those that use
sample data to provide estimates of variability in the population.

The Importance of Variability

Why is variability such an important concept? In research, it represents the noisy
background out of which we are trying to detect a coherent signal. Is it not clear that the mean
is a more coherent representation of the typical results of a running play than is the mean of a
10 - 9 pass play? When variability is large, it is simply more difficult to regard a measure of

29
central tendency as a dependable guide to representative performance. This also applies to
detecting the effects of an experimental treatment. This task is very much like distinguishing two
or more radio signals in the presence of static. In this analogy, the effects of the experimental
variable (treatment) represent the radio signals, and the variability is the static (noise). If the
radio signal is strong, relative to the static, it is easily detected; but if the radio signal is weak,
relative to the static, the signal may be lost in a barrage of noise. In short, two factors are
commonly involved in assessing the effects of an experimental variable: a measure of centrality,
such as the mean, median, or proportion; and a measure of variability, such as the standard
deviation.
Broadly speaking, the investigator exercises little control over the measure of centrality.
If the effect of the treatment is large, the differences in measures of central tendency will
generally be large. In contrast, control over variability is possible. Indeed, much of this text
focuses, directly or indirectly, on procedures for reducing variability—for example, selecting a
reliable dependent variable, providing uniform instructions and standardized experimental
procedures, and controlling obtrusive and extraneous experimental stimuli. We wish to limit the
extent of this unsystematic variability for much the same reasons that a radio operator wishes to
limit static or noise—to permit better detection of a treatment effect in the one case and a radio
signal in the other. The lower the unsystematic variability (random error), the more sensitive is
our statistical test to treatment effects.

Tables and Graphs

Raw scores, measures of central tendency, and measures of variability are often
presented in tables or graphs. Tables and graphs provide a user-friendly way of summarizing
information and revealing patterns in the data. Let’s take a hypothetical set of data and play with
it. One group of 30 children was observed on the playground after watching a TV program without
violence, and another group of 30 children was observed on the playground after watching a TV
program with violence. In both cases, observers counted the number of aggressive behaviors.
The data were as follows:
Program with no violence: 5, 2, 0, 4, 0, 1, 2, 1, 3, 6, 5, 1, 4, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 5, 3, 4, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3, 7,
3, 6, 3, 3 Program with violence: 5, 3, 1, 4, 2, 0, 5, 3, 4, 2, 6, 1, 4, 1, 5, 3, 7, 2, 4, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6, 3,
4, 4, 5, 6, 5 Take a look at the raw scores. Do you see any difference in number of aggressive
behaviors between the groups? If you are like us, you find it difficult to tell. 10 - 10 One of the
first ways we might aid interpretation is to place the raw scores in a table called a frequency
distribution and then translate that same information into a graph called a frequency histogram
Thinking Critically About Everyday Information

Inferential Statistics
From Descriptions to Inferences
The Role of Probability Theory
The Null and Alternative Hypothesis
The Sampling Distribution and Statistical Decision Making
Type I Errors, Type II Errors, and Statistical Power
Effect Size
Meta-analysis
Parametric Versus Nonparametric Analyses
Selecting the Appropriate Analysis: Using a Decision Tree

30
Using Statistical Software
Case Analysis

Inferential Statistics From Descriptions to Inferences

We have examined several descriptive statistics that we use to make sense out of a mass
of raw data. We have briefly reviewed the calculation and interpretation of statistics that are used
to describe both the central tendency of a distribution of scores or quantities (mean, median, and
mode) and the dispersion of scores around the central tendency (range, standard deviation, and
variance). Our goal in descriptive statistics is to describe, with both accuracy and economy of
statement, aspects of samples selected from the population. It should be clear that our primary
focus is not on the sample statistics themselves. Their value lies primarily in the light that they
may shed on characteristics of the population. Thus, we are not interested, as such, in the fact
that the mean of the control group was higher or lower than the mean of an experimental group,
nor that a sample of 100 voters revealed a higher proportion favoring Candidate A. Rather, our
focus shifts from near to far vision; it shifts from the sample to the population. We wish to know
if we may justifiably conclude that the experimental variable has had an effect; or we wish to
predict that Candidate A is likely to win the election. Our descriptive statistics provide the factual
basis for the inductive leap from samples to populations. In the remainder of this chapter, we will
take a conceptual tour of statistical decision making. The purpose is not to dwell on
computational techniques but rather to explore the rationale underlying inferential statistics.

The Role of Probability Theory

Recall the distinction between deductive and inductive reasoning. With deductive
reasoning, the truth of the conclusion is implicit in the assumptions. Either we draw a valid
conclusion from the premises, or we do not. There is no in-between ground. This is not the case
with inductive or scientific proof. Conclusions do not follow logically from a set of premises.
Rather, they represent extensions of or generalizations based on empirical observations. Hence,
in contrast to logical proof, scientific or inductive conclusions are not considered valid or invalid
in any ultimate sense. Rather than being either right or wrong, we regard scientific propositions
as having a given probability of being valid. If observation after observation confirms a
proposition, we assign a high probability (approaching 1.00) to the validity of the proposition. If
we have deep and abiding reservations about its validity, we may assign a probability that
approaches 0. Note, however, we never establish scientific truth, nor do we disprove its validity,
with absolute certainty. Most commonly, probabilities are expressed either as a proportion or as
a percentage
However, how do we define probability when the variables are continuous—for example,
weight, IQ score, or reaction time? Here, probabilities can be expressed as a proportion of one
area under a curve relative to the total area under a curve. Recall the normal distribution. The
total area under the curve is 1.00. Between the mean and 1 standard deviation above the mean,
the proportion of the total area is 0.3413. If we selected a sample score from a normally
distributed population, what is the probability that it would be between the mean and 1 standard
deviation above the mean? Because about 34% of the total area is included between these
points, p = 0.34. Similarly, p = 0.34 that a single randomly selected score would be between the
mean and 1 standard deviation below the mean. Figure 10.2 shows areas under the standard
normal curve and permits the expression of any value of a normally distributed variable in terms
of probability. Probability looms large on the scene of inferential statistics because it is the basis
for accepting some hypotheses and rejecting others.

31
The Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Before beginning an experiment, the researcher sets up two mutually exclusive
hypotheses. One is a statistical hypothesis that the experimenter expects to reject. It is referred
to as the null hypothesis and is usually represented symbolically as Ho. The null hypothesis
states some expectation regarding the value of one or more population parameters. Most
commonly, it is a hypothesis of no difference (no effect). Let us look at a few examples: 10 - 15
· If we were testing the honesty of a coin, the null hypothesis (Ho) would read: The coin is
unbiased. Stated more precisely, the probability of a head is equal to the probability of a tail: Ph
= Pt = ½ = 0.5. ·
The alternative hypothesis (H1) denies the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis states
that there is no difference in the population means from which two samples were drawn, the
alternative hypothesis asserts that there is a difference. The alternative hypothesis usually states
the investigator’s expectations. Indeed, there really would be little sense embarking upon costly
and time-consuming research unless we had some reason for expecting that the experimental
variable will have an effect. Let’s look at a few examples of alternative hypotheses: · In the study
aimed at testing the honesty of a coin, the alternative hypothesis would read: H1: Ph ¹ Pt ¹ 1/2;
the probability of a head is not equal to the probability of a tail, which is not equal to one-half. ·
In the effect of a drug on reaction time, the alternative hypothesis might read: The administration
of a given dosage level of a drug affects reaction time.

The Sampling Distribution and Statistical Decision Making

Now that we have stated our null and alternative hypotheses, where do we go from here? Recall
that these hypotheses are mutually exclusive. They are also exhaustive. By exhaustive we mean
that no other possibility exists. These two possible outcomes in our statistical decision exhaust
all possible outcomes. If the null hypothesis is true, then the alternative hypothesis must be false.
Conversely, if the null hypothesis is false, then the alternative hypothesis must be true.

What does research design mean?

At the beginning of every meaningful research, a researcher chooses a framework of methods
and techniques to be used and applied in the research process. This framework is usually
referred to as the research design. It allows the researchers to decide on the research
methodology that is suitable for the topic of their study and to properly set up their research.
Research design also supports the specific type of research (experiment, survey, review, case
study, correlation, and so on) that needs to be done.

Key Elements of Research Design

As all research design types have certain common characteristics, here are the top elements
every good design should have or at least touch upon.
➢ Purpose statement
➢ Techniques for data collection
➢ Methods for research analysis
➢ Type of research methodology
➢ Probable objections to conducting research
➢ Research study settings
➢ Timeline
➢ Analysis measurement

32
 Of course, the exact elements depend on the type of research design you opt for. So, here’s
a preview of the most common research design types.

Essential characteristics of good research design

Any type of research design is valid only if its results are reliable. Nevertheless, a lot of
companies nowadays make vital decisions based on unreliable research. In many cases, this is
because they fail to account for various types of bias in research.

To get accurate data from your research, you need to do everything in your power to
protect your research results against bias and achieve utmost neutrality. Also, the outcome of
your research should be applicable to an entire population and not just a limited sample. To
ensure that’s the case, make sure you got your sampling right and take into account the potential
margin of error just to be
on the safe side.

5 Most Common Research Design Types

There are numerous ways to classify research design. Based on the purpose and method, we
could distinguish among 5 research design types:

1. Descriptive research design

This is a theory-based design, where the researcher is primarily interested in describing the topic
that is the subject of the research. It is applied to case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys,
and so on. This method includes data collection, analysis, and presentation. It lets the researcher
clearly present the problem statement in order to allow others to better understand the need for
this kind of research. Without a clear problem statement, you’re not doing descriptive but
exploratory research.

2. Correlational research design

Just as its name suggests, correlational design allows the researcher to establish some kind of
a relation between two closely related topics or variables. It’s a non-experimental research
design type that requires at least two groups of data. It can be applied to case-control studies
and observational studies, for example.

3. Experimental research design

Whether it is a field experiment, a controlled experiment, or a quasi-experiment, this is one of
the research design types that establishes a relation between the cause and effect of a particular
happening. Here, the researcher observes the influence of an independent variable on the
dependent one. For instance, you can observe the impact of the price (an independent variable)
on customer satisfaction (a dependent variable).
Usually, this type of research design contributes to solving a particular problem by manipulating
the independent variables to observe the change they have on the dependent one. For example,
you can experiment with changing the price and observe the effect it has on customer
satisfaction.

33
4. Diagnostic research design
Diagnostic research is one of the research design types that aims to examine the underlying
cause of a certain situation or phenomenon. It can help you find out more about the factors that
lead to specific issues or challenges your customers might be facing.
This design usually consists of three research phases – (1) problem inception, (2) problem
diagnosis, and (3) problem solution.

5. Explanatory research design

Again, the name is self-explanatory. Explanatory research design is used to further expand,
explore, and explain the researcher’s ideas and theories. This type of research design is used
to elaborate on the unexplored aspects of a particular topic and try to explain the missing pieces.

Quantitative vs. qualitative research design

Quantitative research design

Quantitative research aims to give answers to questions like who, what, when, where, and how
many? Due to the fact that they use close-ended questions, the results of quantitative surveys
can easily be transformed into numbers, stats, graphs, and charts. This is why businesses often
use quantitative surveys to learn about their customers and drive their decisions using the data
obtained.
For example, you can use a quantitative survey such as NPS survey* to easily
measure your customer satisfaction on a scale of 1-10.

*This survey template (+77 other templates) is available for free to all the LeadQuizzes users.

Qualitative research design

Qualitative research, on the other hand, aims to give answers to why and how something is
happening. Qualitative research most commonly revolves around open-ended survey questions
and highly descriptive answers that are hard to quantify and express through numbers. It’s a
great way to collect more complex information and explore people’s thoughts and behavior. It’s
often used to find ideas, formulate predictions, and explain the numbers. If you’re looking to learn
more about these two types of design, we have prepared a guide to help decide whether you
should collect quantitative or qualitative data for your business research.

Fixed vs. flexible research design

Another distinction can be made between fixed and flexible research design. Often, these
two research design types coincide with quantitative (fixed design) and qualitative (flexible
design) data collection. With a fixed research design, the design of the research is pre-
determined and known even before you start collecting data. Flexible designs, on the other hand,
allow for more freedom when collecting data – for example, you don’t offer predetermined
answer options, so the respondents have to type in their own answers.

34
Research Design Types by Grouping
Yet another classification of research design types can be made based on the way
participants are grouped. In most cases, grouping depends on the research hypothesis and the
way participants are being sampled. For example, In a typical study based on experimental
research design, there’s usually at least one experimental and one control group. In medical
studies, let’s say, one group could be receiving treatment, while the other would be given no
treatment. You get the idea. Based on participant grouping, we can distinguish among 4 types
of research design:

1. Cohort study
A cohort study is a type of longitudinal research that samples a cohort (a group of people with a
shared characteristic) while doing a cross-section at specific time intervals. It is a type of panel
study where the individuals in the panel share a common characteristic.

2. Cross-sectional study
A cross-sectional study is common in social science, medical research, and biology. This type
of research design analyzes data either from a population, or from a representative sample, at
a specified point in time.

3. Longitudinal study
A longitudinal study is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same
variables over short or long periods of time. It is often a type of observational study, although
they can also be structured as longitudinal randomized experiments.

4. Cross-sequential study
Cross-sequential research design combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research design,
aiming to compensate for some of the issues inherently present in the two aforementioned
designs.
Conclusion
Ok, now that we’ve presented you with 5 main research design types (along with key elements
and characteristics and several sub-divisions), you can more confidently proceed with data
collection and analysis. If you’re looking for a reliable and engaging way to collect data, you
should give our quizzes and surveys.

What are the main types of quantitative approaches to research?

It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you

consider how the Researcher designs for control of the variables in the investigation. If the
researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a
design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed. Connections amongst
variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however are designs which
include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly
established. In the middle, with experiment design moving from one type to the other, is a
range which blends those two extremes together.

35
There are four main types of Quantitative research:

• Descriptive
• Correlational,
• Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and
• Experimental Research.
Descriptive research seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These
research projects are designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon. The
researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after
collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the hypothesis.
Systematic collection of information requires careful selection of the units studied and careful
measurement of each variable.

Examples of Descriptive Research:

• A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation
• A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers
• A description of how parents feel about the twelve-month school year
• A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming
• A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes,
and how frequently each occurs
• A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives.

Correlational research attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or

more variables using statistical data. In this type of design, relationships between and among
a number of facts are sought and interpreted. This type of research will recognize trends and
patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observed
patterns. Cause and effect is not the basis of this type of observational research. The
data,relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. Variables are not
manipulated;they are only identified and are studied as they occur in a natural setting.

• Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive research, and

not as its
own type of research, as no variables are manipulated in the study.

Examples of Correlational Research:

• The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem
• The relationship between diet and anxiety
• The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course
• The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades
• The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement
• The covariance of smoking and lung disease

Causal-comparative/quasi-experimental research attempts to establish cause-effect

relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments,
but with some key differences. An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by
the experimenter, and effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are

36
 measured. The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are
naturally formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control groups exposed to the treatment
variable are studied and compared to groups who are not.

When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as
other variables, both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome. A causal-
comparative designed study, described in a New York Times article, "The Case for $320,00
Kindergarten Teachers," illustrates how causation must be thoroughly assessed before firm
relationships amongst variables can be made.

Examples of Correlational Research:

• The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade
• The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism
• The effect of gender on algebra achievement
• The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students
• The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude
• The effect of age on lung capacity

Experimental research, often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to
establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. The
true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a
laboratory setting has nothing to do with it. A true experiment is any study where an effort is
made to identify and impose control over all other variables except one. An independent variable
is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables. Subjects are randomly
assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally occurring groups

Examples of Experimental Research:

• The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer
• The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school
• The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on
students’ achievement
• The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled for
surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation
• A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on
computational skill

What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design?

The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It uses
deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms a hypothesis, collects data in an investigation
of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is made and
conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false. The basic procedure of a
quantitative design is:
1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new.
Investigate current theory surrounding your problem or issue.
2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations.

37
 3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your
prediction.
4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the
hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on
your new knowledge.
5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an
appropriate form for your audience.

Lesson Experimental Research Design:

2 Materials and Methods Preparation

Design

The materials and methods section describe in detail all the materials that have been
used to conduct a study as well as the procedures that are undertaken. As research writing
should be orderly and organized therefore the materials in each of its sub-section should be
presented in a logical manner. The materials and methods outline WHAT WAS DONE and HOW
IT WAS DONE. There should be enough detail so that someone else could repeat your study. It
is generally recommended that the materials and methods should be written in the past tense,
either in active or passive voice. In this section, ethical approval, study dates, number of subjects,
groups, evaluation criteria, exclusion criteria and statistical methods should be described
sequentially.
Research materials are materials that will help someone understand their topic and
prepare a valid argument or explanation. The following are some basic tips to help locate
research materials: For quick facts use reference materials such as encyclopedias, almanacs,
or dictionaries.
The materials and methods section gives readers and fellow researchers information on where
they can access the materials that you used in your research. It also includes information on
how you approached your research – and why.

What Is the Meaning of the Materials and Methods Section?

One of the most complex and sizable projects that students in any area of study must
complete in their academic career is the dissertation. The dissertation is a large body of work
that takes months and sometimes even years. It compiles much research, and works to either
solve a problem or express a new method of doing so.

Of the many parts included in a thesis, there are is one section that lays out your plans
and what materials were used to come to your conclusion. This is important for establishing

38
 yourself as a reliable researcher – and lending your overall dissertation more credibility and
weight within the department and study area.

Materials and Methods Section

The materials and methods section gives readers and fellow researchers information on
where they can access the materials that you used in your research. It also includes information
on how you approached your research – and why.
• Materials: the materials you used are an important part of your overall effort to establish
a plan of action or answer an important research question. Regardless of the outcome,
the items you relied on to come to your conclusion will determine whether or not your
project was credible. Credible sources and properly documented materials and sources
will lend your dissertation much more weight in the field – and the process should be
taken seriously.
• Methods: the methods you used to get your information and make an end-argument or
establish a solution is also important. Whether your methods are traditional or non-
traditional, you must detail them so that they can be considered and possibly even
replicated by other researchers and leaders in the field.

Credibility and the Materials and Methods Section

Your dissertation serves many purposes. One is to get you through graduation – and
highlight your successes as a researcher and student. This is important, but so are the other
purposes.For study purposes, your dissertation can help provide more information on an
important subject, or even provide direction for students down the road. Exceptional
dissertations even have the possibility of formal publication and can be the trajectory of your
career. There are many helpful uses for your research within the field – and as such it is
important that you set yourself at a standard that shows how serious you took your project.
Correctly detailing your sources (and choosing credible ones), and documenting your methods
of study and research are both important parts of doing so.

How to Write Materials and Methods in Research

The materials and methods section describe in detail all the materials that have been
used to conduct a study as well as the procedures that are undertaken. As research writing
should be orderly and organized therefore the materials in each of its sub-section should be
presented in a logical manner. In each section of the materials and methods start with the most
important procedure and go on to the least important. Also provide headings and subheading to
make each sub part of the materials and methods section clear and understandable. There are
various reasons why you should state all the materials and methods in detail:

1. it enables the readers to evaluate the appropriateness of your research methodology,

2. it helps you prove the reliability and validity of your results,
3. it enables other researchers to replicate your research exactly the same way you did it,

Identify subsections

39
 Begin with identifying the subsections of the materials and methods section of the
research paper. You have to first write the materials that have been used in the research and
then you need to write the methods and procedures employed. The first part of the materials and
methods section should state the subjects or the participants involved in the research. This sub-
section usually deals with the population parameters, sample size, sample selection criteria, and
sampling precision. The other part should state the procedures used in the research. The
procedures used include the research design, methods of data collection, instruments used to
collect data, data analysis techniques, and the statistical procedures used in the research.

Subject characteristics
Identify the criteria for the selection or non-selection of specific participants of your
research. It not only helps the readers understand your study but other people in replicating the
study. It makes your study more generalizable and valid. If the sample consists of human being
inform the readers about the demographic characteristics of the population. This will enable the
readers to understand the nature of the sample and its impact on your research outcomes. The
demographic characteristics include the age, income, socioeconomic status, education, height,
weight, gender, and language. You can provide as much detail about the respondents as is
required according to the topic of your research paper.

Sampling procedure

Dan Kernler [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], from Wikimedia Commons

The sampling procedure includes the type of sampling technique that you have used in
your research. The sampling technique can be random or non-random. Also explain in between
random or non-random what sampling procedure did you use for your research. Let the readers
know the outcomes of your research in light of the sampling technique and its characteristics.

Sampling precision and size

Also discuss the sample size you have used for your research. Your sample size
influences your research in many ways. While selecting sample size you have to make
agreement between the reliability of the research as well as the resources available to undertake
your study. Provide the rationale for selecting a particular sample size.

Standard deviation, variance, and covariance are the measures of the precision of the sample
size. The measure that you have used to measure the precision of your sample size should be

40
mentioned. A low variance shows that there is high precision and high certainty of the sample
and sampling procedure.

Measures and data collection

Describe in brief about the type of measures used to collect data. The measures used
can be a questionnaire, interview, observations, experiments, or a combination of more then one
of these. Describe in details about the additional measures you have taken to enhance the quality
of your data instrument.
If interview, questionnaire, or observation method is used tell the readers about the
respondent characteristics that we have discussed above in the subject characteristics.
Information like how the respondents were grouped, where did you record your data, was it a
group administered technique or individual observation, how long did it take to administer the
questionnaire and get them back? These and other such questions should be answered in the
methods section.
In case you have collected data using experiments you should provide the following
details. Provide details about the place where you performed your experiments it may be a public
laboratory, your institution laboratory, or your personal apparatus. Also provide details about the
model number and names of the apparatus involved. If you used specific parameters of the
apparatus in your study to gain specific results do mention them as well. You can do observe an
experiment in a naturalistic settings or you can do it in a laboratory so also mention what method
you have used.
Whatever tools, instruments, measures, techniques you have used in your research data
collection you should state them clearly. Also tell the readers about any specific training or
expertise you gained to collect data. This will help other researchers replicate the same study.
This will also help them know about the validity of your research.

Materials and Methods

Generally, this section should include a concise description of the materials, procedures,
and equipment used, including how the study was conducted, how data were collected, and
what statistical and/or graphical analyses were undertaken. The materials and methods
outline WHAT WAS DONE and HOW IT WAS DONE. There should be enough detail so that
someone else could repeat your study. It should be arranged in a logical manner (i.e., keep
related ideas together and write chronologically where possible). This section must be written in
paragraph form so you must include the materials within the logical and/or chronological order
of use.
You would include items such as:
• brand names of equipment,
• concentrations and quantities of solutions,
• the organisms(s) studied,their scientific name(s),numbers, size, sex, etc.
• location of study site(s), if any, noting size of site(s) and other physical characteristics
and geography
• primary materials used
• techniques and methods (e.g. for measuring, counting); provide references to
techniques used (if applicable)
• diagrams of methods or site maps (as Figures) may be included
• any formula, decision-making tree, algorithm, or ‘weird’ calculation

41
 • statistical analyses (e.g. t-tests, 1-way ANOVA, values used in the analyses, visual
charts and plots etc.).

If you follow directions from a book or other research study, cite and reference those details
accordingly. You need not repeat them in your paper. However, in most cases, the directions
given in a lab manual are a recipe to complete the work and are not a good synthesis of the
procedures. In this case, it is often good practice to include (write out) the general procedures
and reserve referencing for specific aspects of the procedures that you obtain from the course
lab manual(s). If you change the procedure from the lab manual or from another study, you
should explain why you did so and exactly what you did differently.Do not include the rationale
for your work in this section. Also, be sure to report your procedure as a past event rather than
writing this section as a set of directions to your reader. You do not need to report attempts at
the experiment with techniques that failed unless these techniques are very likely to be tried by
other people in the future.

Materials & Methods Formatting

• past tense, passive or active voice (e.g. “We weighed the tissue ….” and “The tissue was
weighed…” are both acceptable)
• paragraphs only (no lists!)
• usually 1-2 pages (can be longer or shorter)
How to Write a Materials and Methods Section of a Scientific Article?
Up to the 18th Century scientific researches were performed on a voluntary basis by certain
scientists. However from the second half of the 19th century, scientific development has gained
momentum with the contributions of numerous scientists including Edison, Fleming, and Koch.
In parallel with these developments, apparently each scientific field, and even their branches
made, and still making magnificent progressions from the end of the 18th century. Secondary to
these developments, scientific researches have been implemented systematically by
universities, and various institutions in every part of the world as an integral component of
national strategies.
Naturally, the number of researchers who performed scientific investigations or sponsored
by various institutions increased considerably. Also, as is known very well, all over the world
scientists, and researchers move from one place to another to disseminate scientific knowledge.
All of these scientific efforts, and activities reflect on clinical practice, and hundreds of thousands,
and millions scientific articles which we can currently gain access into all of them online. As
indicated by the investigator Gerard Piel, “Without publication, science is dead” which explains
the importance of publication.

In other words, if you don’t share your investigation and knowledge, they don’t mean
anything by themselves. Although sharing the knowledge is essential for writing a scientific
paper, nowadays writing a scientific article is mostly learnt as a master-apprentice relationship,
and therefore certain standards have not been established. This phenomenon creates serious
stress especially for young investigators in their early stage of writing scientific papers. Indeed
investigators receiving their residency training confront this reality finally during writing of their
dissertations. Though sharing knowledge is known as a fundamental principle in writing a
scientific paper, it creates difficulties in the whole world. Relevant to this issue, in the whole world
investigations have been performed, and books have been written on the subject of how to write
a scientific paper. Accordingly, in our country mostly local meetings, and courses have been

42
organized. These organizations, and investigations should be performed. Indeed, nowadays, in
the first assessments, the rejection rate of the journals by internationally acknowledged scientific
indexes as “Science Citation İndex (SCI)” and

“Science Citation İndex Expanded (SCI-extended” which have certain scientific standards,
increases to 62 percent. As a matter of fact only 25% of Class A journals have been included in
the lists of SCI, and SCI-extended. As we all know very well, scientific articles consist of sections
of summary, introduction, material, and methods, discussion, and references. Among them,
conventionally Materials and Methods section has been reported as the most easily written or
will be written section. Although it is known as the most easily written section, nearly 30% of the
reasons for rejection are related to this section per se. Therefore due care, and attention should
be given to the writing of this section. In the writing process of the ‘Material and Methods’ section,
all achievements performed throughout the study period should be dealt with in consideration of
certain criteria in a specific sequence. Since as a globally anticipated viewpoint, ‘Materials and
Methods’ section can be written quite easily, it has been indicated that if difficulties are
encountered in writing a manuscript, then one should start writing from this section. In writing
this section, study design describing the type of the article, study subjects to be investigated,
methods, and procedures of measurements should be provided under four main headings.

Accordingly, in brief, we can emphasize the importance of providing clear cut, adequate,
and detailed information in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section to the scientists who will read
this scientific article. Meeting these criteria carries great importance with respect to the
evaluation of reliability of the investigation by the readers, and reviewers, and also informing
them about procedural method, design, data collection, and assessment methods of the
investigation, Priorly, as is the case in all scientific investigations, one should be reminded about
the importance, and indispensability of compliance with certain standard writing rules.

Accordingly, rules of grammar should be obeyed, and if possible passive voice of simple
past tense should be used. Related to these rules, use of verbs ‘investigated’, ‘evaluated’ or
‘performed’ will be appropriate. Recently, expressions showing the ownership of the investigation
as ‘we performed’, ‘we evaluated’, ‘we implemented’ have taken priority. Since the important
point is communication of the message contained in the scientific study, the message should be
clearly comprehensible. While ensuring clarity of the message, use of flourishing, and irrelevant
sentences should be avoided. According to another approach, since our article will be read by
professionals of other disciplines, it is important to comply with certain rules of writing. To that
end, standard units of measurements, and international abbreviations should be used.
Abbreviations should be explained within parentheses at their first mention in the manuscript.
For instance let’s analyze the following sentence” .

The patients were evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination, complete
urinalysis, PSA, and urinary system ultrasound” The abbreviation PSA is very well known by the
urologist. However we shouldn’t forget that this article will be read by the professionals in other
medical disciplines. Similarly this sentence should not be written as: “The patients were
evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination, complete urinalysis PSA
(prostate-specific antigen), and urinary system ultrasound.” Indeed the abbreviation should
follow the explanation of this abbreviation. Then the appropriate expression of the sentence
should be. “The patients were evaluated with detailed medical history, physical examination,
complete urinalysis, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and urinary system ultrasound.” In addition
to the abovementioned information, in the beginning paragraphs of

43
‘Materials and Methods’ section of a clinical study the answers to the following questions should
be absolutely provided:
1. The beginning, and termination dates of the study period
2. Number of subjects/patients/experimental animals etc. enrolled in the study
3. Has the approval of the ethics committee been obtained?
4. Study design (prospective, retrospective or other).[1,2,4-7] Still additional features of the
study design (cross-sectional) should be indicated.
Apart from this, other types of study designs (randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled or
double-blind, parallel control etc.) should be revealed. The heading of the section “Materials and
Methods” can be changed in accordance with writing rules of the journal in question. Indication
of starting, and termination dates of a clinical study will facilitate scientific interpretation of the
article. Accordingly, outcomes obtained during development phase of a newly implemented
method might be considered differently from those acquired during conventional use of this
method. Besides, incidence of the diseases, and number of affected people might vary under
the impact of social fluctuations, and environmental factors.
Therefore with this justification study period should be specified. Number of cases
included in the study should be absolutely indicated in the ‘Materials and Methods’ section. It will
be appropriate to determine study population after consultation to a statistician -and if required-
following “power analysis” Accordingly, the need for a control group will be indicated based on
the study design. Nowadays, as a requirement of patient rights, obtainment of approval from
ethics committee should be indicated with its registration number. In addition, acquirement of
informed consent forms from patients should be indicated. Ethics Committee approval should be
obtained in prospective studies performed with study drugs. Otherwise in case of occurrence of
adverse effects, it should be acknowledged that in compliance with Article #90 of the Turkish
Criminal Law, a 3-year prison sentence is given to the guilty parties. Since issues related to the
Ethics Committee are the subject of another manuscript, they won’t be handled herein.

Sample Work Plan on the Research Section of “MATERIALS AND METHODS” on how to
state an outlined.(use past-tense)

Research Project Title:

Phytochemical Screening and Larvicidal Activity of Peel extracts of Arachis hypogaea
against Chikungunya and Malarial Vectors

Proponents / Researchers / Authors:

K. Velu, D. Elumalai, P. Hemalatha, M. Babu, A. Janaki, P. K. Kaleena

Correspondence:
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Presidency College, Chennai-600 005, Tamil-
nadu, India,
Journal Published:
International Journal of Mosquito Research IJMR 2015; 2 (1): 01-08 © 2015 IJMR Received: 22-
09-2014 Accepted: 19-11-2014
Abstract: (250-300 WORDS OR LESS)

44
CHAPTER –I INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-II MATERIALS and METHODS:

1 Preparation of plant Extract

Arachis hypogaea peels were collected and dried under shade at room temperature for
about 20 days. The dried peels were powdered and sieved to get fine powder using an electric
blender. 70 g of the powder was filled in the thimble and extracted successively with chloroform,
acetone, ethanol, methanol and aqueous using Soxhlet extractor for 10 h. All the extracts were
concentrated using rotary flash evaporator and preserved at 5 o C in an airtight bottle until further
use.

2 Phytochemicals screening
The phytochemical screening was carried out using standard procedure . By this
analysis, the presences of several phytochemicals listed were tested.

3 Separation of bioactive compounds using TLC

a) Preparation of extract. 10 mg / ml of the extract in methanol solvent was used for
TLC examination. The same procedure was followed for methanol and chloroform extract
preparation .
b) TLC Plate preparation. The silica gel 60 F 254 coated aluminum sheets were cut in
size 1.5X5.5cm. Prepared methanol extract was loaded in silica plate and air dried.
c) Mobile phase preparation. The extracts were standardized in ethyl acetate with
acetone and finally chloroform: ethyl acetate: methanol (3; 1.5; 0.5) ratio showed
separated bands.

4 Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectroscophy Analysis

GC–MS analysis were carried out an SHIMADZU QP 2010T which comprised of an auto
sampler and gas chromatography interfaced to a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) instrument
employing the following condition: capillary column −624 ms (30 m × 0.32 mm × 1.8 m) operating
in an electron mode at 70 eV; helium (99.999%) was used as carrier gas at a constant flow of
1.491 ml/min and injection volume of 1.0 ml, injector temperature was 140 ° C; ion source
temperature of 200 ° C. The oven temperature was programmed from 45 ◦ C. Mass spectra were
taken at 70 eV.

5 GC-MS Identification of compounds

Interpretation of mass spectrum GC–MS was conducted using database of National
institute standard and technology having more than 62,000 patterns. The spectrum of the
unknown compounds are stored in the NIST library. The compound prediction was based on Dr.
Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Database by Dr. Jim Duke of the agricultural research
service/USDA. The names of the components of the test material were ascertained.

6 Selection of Mosquito species

The mosquito species selected for the present study were, A. stephensi and A. aegypti.
A. stephensi is a vector of malaria in India and larvae of these species are generally found in

45
distinctly different habitat. These are nocturnal and crepuscular in nature and also transmit the
filarial worm causing filariasis Aedes aegypti (L) mosquito spreads yellow fever, dengue fever
and chikungunya. A. aegypti is a vector for transmitting several tropical fevers and the female
bites for blood which she needs to mature her eggs.

7 Mosquito culture
All tests were carried out against laboratory reared A. stephensi and A. aegypti free of
exposure to insecticides and pathogens. Cyclic generation of vector mosquitoes was maintained
at 25-29 o C in the insectariums. Larvae were fed on larval food (powdered dog biscuit and yeast
in the ratio 3:1) and adult mosquitoes on 10 per cent glucose solution. Adult female mosquitoes
were periodically blood-fed on restrained albino mice for egg production.

8 Larvicidal Bioassay
A total of three trials were carried out with five replicates per trial against vector
mosquitoes for the following bioassays. Toxicity assays of the crude peel extract was conducted
separately using the fourth instar larvae of A. stephensi and A. aegypti. Stock solution (1000
ppm) was prepared by dissolving 100 mg of crude extract in 1 ml acetone and volume raised to
100 ml with distilled water. From this different dilution of 25 ppm, 50 ppm, 75 ppm, 100 ppm and
150 ppm were prepared in 200 ml de-ionised water in 250 ml beaker and 25 fourth instar larvae
were released in it and mortality was scored after 24 h. The beakers were kept in a temperature
control room at 28 o C ± 2 o C and the larvae were exposed to 200 ml water containing 0.1ml of
acetone served as control. Each treatment was replicated five times .

9 Larval susceptibility tests

The larval susceptibility tests were carried according to standard WHO procedure [20].
The extract solutions of different concentrations were prepared and the fourth instar larvae of A.
stephensi and A. aegypti were placed in each test solution to observe the larvicidal property as
per the following procedure. Groups of 25 larvae were placed in 200 ml of the extract solution.
Control experiments without extract were run in parallel. The larvae in each solution were then
left for 24 h, the numbers of dead larvae were counted after 24 h of exposure, and the percentage
mortality was reported from the average of five replicates. Mortality was recorded when control
mortality ranged from 5 – 20 percent, and was corrected by Abbott’s formula.

10 Histopathological studies

The morbid larvae in the treatment and control were fixed in 10% formalin. The tissues
were dehydrated with ethyl alcohol for 5 hours, after which they were placed in xylene for tissue
clearing. They were then embedded and blocked by paraplast and sectioned with a microtome.
Sections were stained using hematoxylin and eosin according to routine staining methods.
Untreated larvae were also investigated in the same manner.

11 Statistical analysis

The average larval mortality data were subjected to probit analysis for calculating LC50,
LC90 and other statistics at 95% confidence limits of upper confidence limit lower confidence
limit and chi-square values were calculated using the SPSS 11.5 (Statistical Package of Social
Sciences) software. Results with P.

46
 What’s More

MATERIALS AND METHODS PREPARATION: Sequencing Events and Logical

Procedure on

“Phytochemical Screening Analysis of the Solvent Extracts of Carica papaya leaf as

Larvicidal Toxicity Assay on Fourth In-star Larvae of Aedis albopictus.”

(Juice extract pinuga gikan sa dahon sa Kapayas para pamatay sa Guyo-guyo)

(Note: Assign a number 1—10 and arranged the process accordingly).

__ A. Quantitative and qualitative phytochemical screening

__ B. Larvicidal Bio-assay
__ C. Plant Identification
__ D. Lethality Test for Toxicity
__ E. Statistical Treatment and Analysis
__ F. Plant Collection
__ G. Plant Preparation (air drying, grinding, pulverizing, solvent treatment)
__ H. Range-finding Test
__ I. Mosquito Culture and Selection
__ J. Total Liquid Chromatography Identification of Compounds

What I Have Learned

The process of preparing a research paper for academic or employment purposes can
be a difficult task. There are some basic tips for how to locate research materials such as
online, books, periodicals, etc.

Research Materials
Have you ever been assigned a paper for school or work and had no idea how to locate
your research materials? The good news is that in this lesson, we will cover some basic tips
for locating research materials in order to produce a professional and credible paper. First of
all, before you begin writing a research paper, it is important to understand the assignment. If
you have any questions, you should talk to your professor or boss. The next step is to develop
a good topic idea through brainstorming, which is a spontaneous list of ideas, or by searching
the Internet.

2
 Our experienced writer and psychology student, Beth, has been assigned a research
paper. She is first searching online to find an interesting topic. Once these initial steps have
been completed, her next task is to locate the appropriate research materials. These are
materials that will help someone understand the topic and prepare a valid argument or
explanation. It is important to use current source information - nothing older than 10 years.
Beth has some tips for locating research materials using the specifics of her topic on addiction.

Locating Research Materials

A researcher is in need of some quick facts on addiction for her paper. Her first tip is
to use reference material such as encyclopedias, almanacs or dictionaries. These types of
sources are available at local libraries or via Internet sites such
as Dictionary.com, Encyclopedia.com or Britannica.com. Beth was able to get an excellent
definition on addictive behavior from a medical encyclopedia.

Number two: In order to offer credible, current and well-documented research, Beth
highly recommends academic journals, or peer-reviewed journal articles that are written by
scholars and researchers for a specific discipline (such as the Journal of Psychology). They
are published at fixed intervals such as weekly or monthly. These journals are usually
accessed through library databases such as EBSCO. Most universities offer free online
access to these databases as part of tuition.

Beth has access to academic journals through her university website. The business
and academic communities expect that papers will include this type of research material. Beth
was able to find some great academic research to support her claim that obsessions are worse
than addictions.

Tip number three: Beth tries to avoid magazines unless she can't find information in
academic journals or books. Magazines are written by journalists and published for the
general audience. They are not peer-reviewed and usually are not as well received for
supportive documentation. They can be found in library catalogs or online library databases
through universities. In addition, most magazines such as Time offer previously published
editions through their online website in their archive section.

Number four: Another tip from Beth is to balance a paper with credible sources from books
and e-books. These materials are used for in-depth research but usually do not have the
most current information. They can be found in print at your local or university library. Books
can also be rented or bought through online e-book databases. Beth was able to find a new
book called Obsessions Are.

3
 What I Can Do

Design a Plan on How to Perform the research paper section “MATERIALS AND
METHODS” in Experimental Research Design.
( Design your own method, please refer to Sample Work plan and also at What’s More section
on how to do it or to prepare).

Assessment

1. A research team measured ambient noise levels in patient rooms. They also observed
patient stress levels and the duration of visits by family and friends. The team found that high
ambient noise was associated with high patient stress and short family visits. This is an
example of which type of study?

a. Correlational b. Retrospective c. Experimental d. Ethnographic

2. In addition to research design, what factor gives the MOST impact in the choice of data
analysis tools?
a. Research methodology. b. Amount of funds available.
c. Preferences of the researcher. d. Ability to do a pilot study.

3.When designing a hospital using an evidence-based approach, which of the following is the
MOST important to remember?
a. To evaluate and collect baseline data.
b. To include users in identifying design strategies.
c. To consider the impact of confounding variables.
d. To make the connection between design and outcomes.

4. What is the PRIMARY reason to review the budget and estimated return on investment
during the design development phase?
a. To validate alignment with the project’s evidence-based design goals.
b. To gather and review baseline financial data to inform post-occupancy evaluations.
c. To determine the cost to conduct research after the project is completed.
d. To identify first-time costs for new capital equipment.

5. When developing the preliminary research plan during conceptual design, what is the
PRIMARY purpose for creating a hypothesis?

4
 a. To determine the appropriate research methodology.
b. To identify the baseline data that needs to be collected.
c. To evaluate the outcomes for the various design options.
d. To establish a link between the design concept and intended results.

6. In the early phases of the project, when the scope of the project has been reviewed and the
team is developing the estimated budget, what should be documented to justify evidence-
based design features?
a. Strategic goals b. Research methodology c. Business case d. Master plan

7. As soon as the project scope is defined, which of the following should kick-off the research
process?
a. Identify research questions b. Conduct a literature review
c. Document a hypothesis d. Establish performance metrics.

8. As the project team begins to develop their design strategies for the emergency room, they
want to locate the most relevant research. What is the BEST place for them to locate this
information?
a. Trade journals b. Indexing service c. Websites d. Databases

9. As the research project team begins their work, they should establish guiding principles
and design guidelines that will lead to the creation of design concepts. What is the BEST
source of information for the team to use when developing their guiding principles?
a. Relevant literature
b. Experiential knowledge
c. Current healthcare regulations
d. Institutional report

10. When measuring or evaluating results, various methodologies can be used independently.
They may have limitations. Which of the following describes the use of multiple methods to
strengthen the validity and reliability of the research project?
a. Triangulation
b. Correlation
c. Qualitative research
d. Applied research

11. After construction is completed, the research team is preparing to collect the post-
occupancy data. What should the team do PRIOR to collecting the data?
a. Create the research hypothesis. b. Validate the research tools.
c. Define the performance metrics. d. Review the business case.

12. During the design development, the project team finalized the proposed design features.
The team is now starting to create hypotheses for their research study. What MUST the team
include in the hypotheses to properly evaluate their design features?
a. Research design and methodology
b. Baseline data
c. Prediction of expected relationships
d. Primary focus of the research

5
13. During the design process, personnel participated in a visioning session to identify
perceived problems and to suggest improvements. Research followed to see if credible
evidence could be found to support the suggested improvements. The findings were discussed
with the staff. What was the PRIMARY reason for doing this?
a. To discuss existing workflow
b. To meet union requirements
c. To encourage support and buy-in.
d. To make an informed decision

14. Baseline measures are taken ____.

a. before any manipulations are made.
b. immediately following the manipulation.
c. only on the experimental group.
d. only on the control group.

15. Which of the following is TRUE for experiments in field settings?

a. They cannot draw causal inferences.
b.They can provide only observations of contingencies.
c. They can allow causal inferences.
d. They can generate hypotheses but not test them.

Answer Key

Pre-test / Assessment:
Multiple Choice: 1C 2C 3C 4B 5A 6B 7D 8B 9D 10C 11A 12C 13A 14D 15B
What’s More: Sequencing Events: 1F 2C 3G 4A 5H 6I 7B 8D 9J 10E
Post-test / Summative Assessment:
Multiple Choice: 1A 2A 3D 4A 5D 6C 7A 8D 9A 10A 11B 12C 13D 14D 15D

6
References
Experimental Research Contributors: Vesna Mildner ,Jack S. Damico & Martin J. Ball
Access Date: May 8, 2019 Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks, CA,USA DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483380810.n242 pages: 728-732
© 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Barnes, L, Hauser, J., Heikes, L., Hernandez, A. J., Richard, P. T., Ross, K., Yang, G. H., & Palmquist, M.
(1994–2012). Experimental and quasi-experimental research [Writing guide]. Writing@CSU. Colorado
State University.
RetrievedJanuary20,2021,fromhttps://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=64
Blakstad, O. (2008, March 10). Research methodology. Retrieved October 3, 2017, from https://ex-
plorable.com/research-methodology
Campbell, D.T.,& Stanley,J.C.(1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.
Chicago, IL: Rand McNally College Publishing.
Mildner, V. (2013). Experimental and quasi-experimental research in clinical linguistics and phonetics. In
N. Müller & M. J. Ball (Eds.), Research methods in clinical linguistics and phonetics: A practical guide
(pp. 28–47). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Research methods knowledge base ( 2nd ed.). Retrieved from
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/ (version current as of October 20, 2006).
Barnes, L, Hauser, J., Heikes, L., Hernandez, A. J., Richard, P. T., Ross, K., Yang, G. H., & Palmquist, M.
(1994–2012). Experimental and quasi-experimental research [Writing guide]. Writing@CSU. Colorado
State University. Retrieved January 20, 2017, from
https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=64
Blakstad, O. (2008, March 10). Research methodology. Retrieved October 3, 2017, from https://ex-
plorable.com/research-methodology
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.
Chicago, IL: Rand McNally College Publishing.
SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference Page 7 of 8 The SAGE Encyclopedia of Human
Communication Sciences and Disorders
Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association. American Psychological Association: 6TH Ed. Washington D.C. 2009. Pp-29-32.
“Measures of
Precision”.UniversityofSt.Andrews.Retrievedfromhttps://workshops.distancesampling.org/online-
course/lecturepdfs/Ch2/L2-4%20Measures%20of%20Precision.pdf. Retrieved on 2019/2/12.
http://researcharticles.com/index.php/how-to-write-materials-and-methods-in-a-
researchpaper/#:~:text=The-materials-and-methods-section,presented-in-alogical-manner.
https://biology.acadiau.ca/materials-and-methods.html
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4548564/pdf/tju-39-supp-10.pdf
https://www.nanoscienceexchange.com/the-materials-and-methods-section-for-dissertations-and-
thesis

For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – Carcar City Division (Learning

Resources Management Secrion)
P. Nellas St., Poblacion III, Carcar City, Cebu, Philippines
6019
Tel. No.4878495
Email Address: [email protected]