Foundations of Education

R A C H E L ’ S N O T E S
Foundations of Education
Educational
Philosophies
An education philosophy is a set of educational beliefs and core values of a person and/or
organisation. It focuses on the purpose and objectives of educational planning, programmes and
processes when it comes to teaching and inspiring students to learn.
 ESSENTIALISM
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be
transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach.
The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this
educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea
that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to
become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--
and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically.
Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work,
respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive
instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to
progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist
approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are:
James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore
Sizer (1985).
Essentialism in education was a movement started by William C. Bagleyas in the

1930's. It was initiated to protest against the downfall of the standards of the
schools. Those in favor of the movement hold the view that due to the movement
the students benefitted from education standards necessary for a thriving future.
These individuals have the opinion that the purpose of attending a school is to
enable students to contribute meaningfully to the society. Essentialists do not agree
with other styles of teaching. They also believe that the Progressive way is not
helping students. The view of progressives is that education should be based on
the interests of students through practical activity. Essentialists also hold the view
that despite whether the students find a subject interesting or not, they should be
channeled towards it as it is essential for their future.
Essentialism rests upon the philosophical ideas of realism and idealism. It

demands that schools should not attempt to reshape the educational foundation of the society. Hence is refers
to 'traditional' approach to education. It is a conservative philosophy that accepts political social and economic
structure of the American society. It teaches students the 'essentials' of academic understanding and
character building. In this chain of thought, it is also believed that traditional American virtues such as respect
for authority, fidelity to duty, perseverance, and practicality should be instilled in all students.
Curriculum
The focus of coursework in essentialism is to teach the essentials of life. It teaches how to survive, how to be
productive, and how to live as proper members of the society. It includes subjects such as the study of the
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natural and surrounding environment, basic natural laws, and disciplines that encourage students to live a
happy life. It also instills patriotism within students and uses traditional approaches to develop character of
students. Essentialism firmly believes that basic subjects should be taught and impractical subjects should not
be part of the curriculum. The purpose of schools in essentialism is to teach the culture's traditions and past to
students. It also provides knowledge and skills needed to be successful in a technological and democratic
society. The subjects usually include the following:
 Natural sciences
 History
 Foreign language
 Literature
The Classroom Environment

 Most basic academic skills and knowledge should be imparted to all students
 Skills such as reading, writing, computers, and measurement should be taught to elementary students
 Subjects usually focus on creativity, apart from art and music
 In the classroom, the students are provided a bundle of information and techniques to enable them to
transition from less to more complex knowledge and skills.
 Classrooms are usually centered on the teacher, who acts as an intellectual and ethical role model for
the students.
The assessments conducted under essentialism serve a number of purposes. These enable teachers to
determine whether goals of education are being met or not. They also help teachers to evaluate whether
students pay proper attention in class and whether they understand the required course material or not.
Finally, the assessments are carried out as many aspects of a student's education are affected by them.
Pros and Cons of Essentialist Education
In the realm of educational philosophy, essentialism has long been a subject of debate. This
traditional approach emphasizes the importance of imparting core knowledge and skills, providing a clear
structure to education. Proponents argue that it instills discipline, order, and a strong foundation for students.
On the other hand, critics raise concerns about its potential to limit individuality, diversity, and critical
thinking. As we delve into the intricacies of essentialism in education, it becomes evident that there are both
advantages and drawbacks to be considered.
Key Takeaways
 Essentialism prioritizes core academic subjects, providing students with a strong educational
foundation.
 Clear learning objectives in essentialism help students understand what is expected of them and
enhance focus and engagement.
 Practical application in essentialism bridges foundational learning and problem-solving, empowering
students to apply knowledge effectively.
 Discipline and order in essentialism create a conducive learning environment, promoting academic
focus and behavioral regulation.
Clarity in Educational Goals

Clarity in educational goals is essential for effective learning. Clear learning objectives provide students with a
roadmap for their academic journey, ensuring that they understand what is expected of them.
When educational goals are aligned with students' personal aspirations, it fosters motivation and a sense of
purpose in their studies.
Clear Learning Objectives

In education, clear learning objectives serve as the guiding framework for instructional planning and
assessment, providing students with a roadmap for their educational journey.
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Alignment: Clear learning objectives ensure that instructional content, activities, and assessments
are aligned with the desired outcomes.
Measurable Outcomes: They enable educators to measure students' progress and achievement of
specific learning goals.
Motivation: Clearly defined objectives can motivate students by providing a sense of purpose and
direction in their learning.
Student Goal Alignment

Student goal alignment in education is essential for ensuring that students have a clear understanding of the
educational goals they are working towards. This alignment helps students stay focused, motivated, and
engaged in their learning. It also allows educators to tailor their teaching methods to better support students in
reaching these goals. When students are aware of the specific objectives they are aiming to achieve, it
enhances their overall learning experience.
Pros Cons
Enhanced student motivation Potential for increased pressure
Improved focus and engagement Risk of limiting student creativity
Better teacher support and guidance Possibility of rigid learning paths
Clear understanding of objectives Potential for increased stress
Development of Core Skills

The development of core skills in education is crucial for students to acquire a strong foundation of knowledge
and abilities. Skill acquisition not only involves the comprehension of theoretical concepts but also their
practical application in various contexts.
This emphasis on core skills lays the groundwork for students to navigate complex challenges and excel in
their future endeavors.
Skill Acquisition
Mastery of core skills is fundamental to a well-rounded education, laying the groundwork for students to excel
in various academic disciplines and professions.
Foundational Skills: Core skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics are essential for
academic success.
Critical Thinking: Acquiring skills like problem-solving and analysis fosters intellectual growth and
innovation.
Practical Application: Core skills enable students to apply their knowledge effectively in real-world
scenarios.
Practical Application
The development of practical application of core skills serves as a bridge between foundational learning and
real-world problem-solving. It empowers students to apply their knowledge and expertise effectively.
By integrating core skills such as critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving into practical
scenarios, students can gain a deeper understanding of how to apply these skills in real-life situations.
This approach helps students to develop a strong foundation for success in their future careers and
endeavors.
Fostering Discipline and Order

To create a conducive learning environment, fostering discipline and order within educational institutions is
essential for promoting academic focus and behavioral regulation among students. This fosters a structured
and organized environment where learning can thrive.
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Discipline and order also teach students important life skills such as time management, responsibility, and
respect for authority. Additionally, it creates a safe and respectful atmosphere that is conducive to learning.
Potential Narrowing of Perspectives

One consequence of emphasizing discipline and order in education is the potential narrowing of perspectives.
Students may be encouraged to conform to established norms and expectations, limiting their exposure to
diverse viewpoints and alternative ways of thinking.
This can lead to a lack of creativity and critical thinking skills. It hinders the development of students' ability to
adapt to new or challenging situations and problem-solving in innovative ways.
Limitation of Creativity and Innovation

The adoption of essentialism in education can inadvertently limit students' creativity and innovative thinking.
By focusing primarily on core subjects and standardized testing, there is a risk of neglecting the development
of creative skills and the exploration of new ideas.
Consequently, this approach may hinder students' ability to adapt to changing environments and contribute to
groundbreaking advancements in various fields.
Creativity Limitations
Creative limitations in education can stifle innovation and hinder the development of original ideas among
students. This can lead to a lack of diversity in thought and solutions, impacting society's ability to address
complex challenges. The constraints may also discourage students from pursuing their passions and
exploring unconventional paths. Additionally, it can limit the potential for groundbreaking discoveries and
advancements in various fields.
1. Narrow focus on predetermined outcomes.
2. Reduction in experimentation and exploration.
3. Diminished emphasis on individual expression and unconventional thinking.
Impact on Innovation
Impact on innovation in education can be profound due to the limitations imposed on creativity and original
thinking, potentially hampering the emergence of new ideas and solutions for complex societal challenges.
Essentialism's focus on traditional subjects and standardized testing may stifle out-of-the-box thinking and
experimentation. This can restrict the development of innovative skills crucial for addressing contemporary
issues and adapting to an ever-changing world.
Impact on Individualized Learning

Essentialism in education has the potential to significantly influence the customization and tailoring of learning
experiences to meet the unique needs of individual students. This impact on individualized learning can be
observed through:
1. Emphasizing foundational knowledge and skills that form the basis for personalized learning paths.
2. Providing a structured framework that allows educators to identify and address each student's specific
learning requirements.
3. Fostering a balance between essential knowledge and personalized learning approaches.
Strain on Teacher Flexibility

The emphasis on foundational knowledge and structured frameworks in essentialism can inadvertently place
a strain on teacher flexibility, influencing how educators adapt to the diverse learning needs of their students.
Challenges Impact Strategies for Mitigation

Limited time for individualized Reduced student Utilize group activities to address multiple needs
attention engagement simultaneously
Pressure to follow a rigid Hindered student Incorporate flexible teaching methods and
curriculum progress personalized learning plans
Difficulty in addressing diverse Offer alternative assessments and varied
Decreased motivation
learning styles instructional approaches
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Inability to cater to special Inequitable learning Collaborate with support staff and seek
educational needs experiences professional development opportunities
Risk of Ignoring Student Diversity

A critical concern arising from essentialism in education is the potential risk of ignoring the diverse learning
needs and backgrounds of students, which can lead to detrimental educational outcomes.
1. Limited accommodation for different learning styles and abilities.
2. Reduced focus on individual student interests and passions.
3. Neglect of cultural, socioeconomic, and linguistic diversity within the classroom.
Influence on Critical Thinking Skills

An adherence to essentialist educational principles may impact students' development of critical thinking
skills, influencing their capacity for independent analysis and problem-solving.
Essentialism's focus on traditional subject matter and basic skills may limit students' exposure to diverse
perspectives and alternative ways of thinking, potentially constraining their ability to think critically and
creatively.
This approach may hinder students' proficiency in evaluating complex issues and forming well-reasoned
judgments.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, essentialism in education has its benefits. One advantage is that it emphasizes foundational
knowledge, which is important for building a strong educational framework. By focusing on core subjects like
reading, writing, and mathematics, essentialism ensures that students have a solid understanding of the
basics that they can build upon in later years.
Another benefit of essentialism is that it fosters discipline. By implementing strict rules and expectations,
essentialist educators create a structured learning environment that teaches students the importance of
following directions, meeting deadlines, and maintaining focus. This discipline can be valuable in preparing
students for future academic and professional success.
However, despite its benefits, essentialism also has its drawbacks. One disadvantage is the potential
narrowing of perspectives. By focusing heavily on core subjects, essentialism may overlook the importance of
teaching students about diverse cultures, perspectives, and experiences. This can limit students' ability to
understand and appreciate different ways of thinking, which is crucial in today's globalized world.
Another drawback of essentialism is the strain it can put on teacher flexibility. With a rigid curriculum and
emphasis on standardized testing, essentialism can limit educators' ability to tailor their instruction to meet the
unique needs and interests of their students. This one-size-fits-all approach may not be effective for every
student and can hinder the development of critical thinking and creativity.
In light of these considerations, the question remains: at what cost do we prioritize core knowledge and skills
over individualized learning and diversity? While essentialism has its merits, it is important to strike a balance
between providing a strong educational foundation and fostering a diverse and inclusive learning environment
that meets the needs of all students.
This chapter will provide a comprehensive overview of Progressivism. This philosophy of education is rooted
in the philosophy of pragmatism. Unlike Perennialism, which emphasizes a universal truth, progressivism
favors “human experience as the basis for knowledge rather than authority” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 114). By
focusing on human experience as the basis for knowledge, this philosophy of education shifts the focus of
educational theory from school to student.
In order to understand the implications of this shift, an overview of the key characteristics of Progressivism will
be provided in section one of this chapter. Information related to the curriculum, instructional methods, the role
of the teacher, and the role of the learner will be presented in section two and three. Finally, key educators
within progressivism and their contributions are presented in section four.
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 PROGRESSIVISM
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the
content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas
by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through
experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker
who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural
context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is
used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically
and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. The Progressive
education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s.
John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should
improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in
schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics
are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRESSIVIM
Progressivism is a very student-centered philosophy of education. Rooted in pragmatism, the educational
focus of progressivism is on engaging students in real-world problem- solving activities in a democratic and
cooperative learning environment (Webb et. al., 2010). In order to solve these problems, students apply the
scientific method. This ensures that they are actively engaged in the learning process as well as taking a
practical approach to finding answers to real-world problems.
Progressivism was established in the mid-1920s and continued to be one of the most influential philosophies
of education through the mid-1950s. One of the primary reasons for this is that a main tenet of progressivism
is for the school to improve society. This was supposed to be achieved by engaging students in tasks related
to real-world problem-solving. As a result, Progressivism was deemed to be a working model of democracy
(Webb et. al., 2010).
CURRICULUM
As previously stated, Progressivism focuses on real-world problem-solving activities. Consequently, the
Progressivist curriculum is focused on providing students with real-world experiences that are meaningful and
relevant to them rather than rigid subject-matter content.
John Dewey
Dewey (1963), who is often referred to as the “father of
progressive education,” believed that all aspects of study
(i.e., arithmetic, history, geography, etc.) need to be linked
to materials based on students everyday life-experiences.
However, Dewey (1938) cautioned that not all experiences
are equal:
The belief that all genuine education comes about through
experience does not mean that all experiences are
genuinely or equally educative. Experience and education
cannot be directly equated to each other. For some
experiences are mis-educative. Any experience is mis-
education that has the effect of arresting or distorting the
growth or further experience
(p. 25).
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An example of miseducation would be that of a bank robber. He or she many learn from the experience of
robbing a bank, but this experience cannot be equated with that of a student learning to apply a history
concept to his or her real-world experiences.
FEATURES OF A PROGRESSIVE CURRICULUM

There are several key features that distinguish a progressive curriculum. According to Lerner (1962), some of
the key features of a progressive curriculum include:
Action Centered
 A focus on the student For example, if students in Kansas were studying Brown v. Board of
 A focus on peers Education in their history class, they might visit the Brown v. Board of
 An emphasis on growth Education National Historic Site in Topeka. By visiting the National
 Action centered Historic Site, students are no longer just studying something from the
 Process and change centered past, they are learning about history in a way that is meaningful and
relevant to them today, which is essential in a Progressive curriculum
 Equality centered
 Community centered
.
To successfully apply these features, a progressive curriculum would feature an open classroom environment.
In this type of environment, students would “spend considerable time in direct contact with the community or
cultural surroundings beyond the confines of the classroom or school” (Webb et. al., 2010, p. 74).
INSTRUCTION IN THE CLASSROOM

Project-Based Learning
Within a Progressivist classroom, key instructional methods include:
group work and the project method. Group work promotes the
experienced-centered focus of the Progressive philosophy. By giving
students opportunities to work together, they not only learn critical skills
related to cooperation, they are also able to engage in and
develop projects that are meaningful and have relevance to their
everyday lives.
Promoting the use of project work, centered around the scientific

method, also helps students engage in critical thinking, problem
solving, and decision making (Webb et. al., 2010). More importantly,
the application of the scientific method allows Progressivists to verify experience through investigation. Unlike
Perennialists and Essentialists, who view the scientific method as a means of verifying the truth (Webb et. al.,
2010).
TEACHERS ROLE
Progressivists view teachers as a facilitator in the classroom. As the facilitator, the teacher directs the
students learning, but the students voice is just as important as that of the teacher. For this reason,
progressive education is often equated with student-centered instruction.
To support students in finding their own voice, the teacher takes on the role of a guide. Since the student has
such an important role in the learning, the teacher needs to guide the students in “learning how to learn”
(Labaree, 2005, p. 277). In other words, they need to help students construct the skills they need to
understand and process the content.
In order to do this successfully, the teacher needs to act as a collaborative partner. As a collaborative partner,
the teachers works with the student to make group decisions about what will be learned, keeping in mind the
ultimate outcomes that need to be obtained. The primary aim as a collaborative partner, according to
Progressivists, is to help students “acquire the values of the democratic system” (Webb et. al., 2010, p. 75).
Some of the key instructional methods used by Progressivist teachers include:
 Promoting discovery and self-directly learning.
 Engaging students in active learning.
 Collaboration: Teacher to Student
 Integrating socially relevant themes.
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 Promoting values of community, cooperation,tolerance, justice, and democratic equality.

 Encouraging the use of group activities.
 Promoting the application of projects to enhance learning.
 Engaging students in critical thinking.
 Challenging students to work on their problem Solving skills.
 Developing decision making techniques.
STUDENTS ROLE
Students in a Progressivist classroom are empowered to take a more active role in the learning process. In
fact, they are encouraging to actively construct their knowledge and understanding by:
 Learning by Doing
 Interacting with their environment.
 Setting objectives for their own learning.
 Working together to solve problems.
 Learning by doing.
 Engaging in cooperative problem solving.
 Establishing classroom rules.
 Evaluating ideas.
 Testing ideas.
The examples above clearly demonstrate that in the Progressive classroom, the student’s role is that of an
active learner.
Mrs. Espenoza is an 6th grade teacher at Franklin Elementary. She has 24 students in her class. Half of her
students are from diverse cultural backgrounds and are receiving free and reduced lunch. In order to actively
engage her students in the learning process, Mrs. Espenoza does not use traditional textbooks in her classroom.
Instead, she uses more real-world resources and technology that goes beyond the four walls of the classroom. In
order to actively engage her students in the learning process, she seeks out members of the community to be
guest presenters in her classroom as she believes this provides her students with an way to interact with/learn
about their community. Mrs. Espenoza also believes it is important for students to construct their own learning, so
she emphasizes: cooperative problem solving, project-based learning, and critical thinking.
KEY EDUCATORS
The father of progressive education is considered to be Francis W. Parker. Parker was the superintendent of
schools in Quincy, Massachusetts, and later became the head of the Cook County Normal School in Chicago
(Webb et. al., 2010). John Dewey is the American educator most commonly associated with progressivism.
William H. Kilpatrick also played an important role in advancing progressivism. Each of these key educators,
and their contributions, will be further explored in this section.
Francis W. Parker was the superintendent of schools in Quincy,

Massachusetts (Webb, 2010). Between 1875 – 1879, Parker
developed the Quincy plan and implemented an experimental
program based on “meaningful learning and active
understanding of concepts” (Schugurensky, 2002, p. 1). When
test results showed that students in Quincy schools
outperformed the rest of the school children in Massachusetts,
the progressive movement began.
Francis W. Parker
Based on the popularity of his approach, Parker founded the Parker School in 1901. The Parker School
“promoted a more holistic and social approach, following Francis W. Parker’s beliefs that education should
include the complete development of an individual (mental, physical, and moral) and that education could
develop students into active, democratic citizens and lifelong learners” (Schugurensky, 2002, p. 2).
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Parker’s student-centered approach was a dramatic change from the prescribed curricula that focused on rote
memorization and rigid student disciple. However, the success of the Parker School could not be disregarded.
Alumni of the school were applying what they learned to improve their community and promote a more
democratic society.
JOHN DEWEY (1859 – 1952)

John Dewey’s approach to Progressivism is best articulated in his book: The School
and Society
(1915). In this book, he argued that America needed new educational systems
based on “the larger whole of social life” (Dewey, 1915, p. 66). In order to achieve
this, Dewey proposed actively engaging students in inquiry-based learning and
experimentation to promote active learning and growth among students.
As a result of his work, Dewey set the foundation for approaching teaching and
learning from a student-driven perspective. Meaningful activities and projects that
actively engaging the students’ interests and backgrounds as the “means” to
learning were key (Tremmel, 2010, p. 126). In this way, the students could more fully
develop as learning would be more meaningful to them.
WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK (1871-1965)

Kilpatrick is best known for advancing Progressive education as a result of his
focus on experience-centered curriculum. Kilpatrick summarized his approach in a
1918 essay titled “The Project Method.” In this essay, Kilpatrick (1918) advocated
for an educational approach that involves
“whole-hearted, purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment” (p. 320).
The Project Method

As identified within The Project Method, Kilpatrick (1918) emphasized the
importance of looking at students’ interests as the basis for identifying curriculum
and developing pedagogy. This student-centered approach was very significant at
the time, as it moved away from the traditional approach of a more mandated
curriculum and prescribed pedagogy.
Although many aspects of his student-centered approach were highly regarded,

Kilpatrick was also criticized given the diminished importance of teachers in his approach in favor of the
students interests and his “extreme ideas about student- centered action” (Tremmel, 2010, p. 131). Even
Dewey felt that Kilpatrick did not place enough emphasis on the importance of the teacher and his or her
collaborative role within the classroom.
 PERENNIALISM
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings
about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving
problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths
which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential
level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational
beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest
priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural
literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of
humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of
science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who
developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further developed this
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curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERENNIALISM
Perennialism is identified as a very conservative theory of education. Rooted in the following schools of
thought: idealism, realism, and neo-Thomism, the educational focus of Perennialism is on finding universal
truths and absolutes associated with reason and faith (Webb et. al., 2010). According to this theory of
education, truth is universal and does not change.
The literal definition of perennial means “everlasting” or something that “returns year after year.” As implied by
its name, Perennialism is based upon the belief that there are everlasting ideas and universal truths.
Therefore, the primary goal of education within this philosophy is to search for and disseminate truth. In
addition, this philosophy of education advocates for the cultivation of human intellect.
CURRICULUM
There are two main types of Perennialist. Ecclesiastical Perennialists and Lay (secular) Perennialists. Both
groups have had a significant influence on the type of curriculum used in Perennialist classrooms.
ECCLESIASTICAL PERENNIALISTS
Ecclesiastical Perennialists followed a Christian doctrine. Consequently, curriculum taught by this
group focused on developing intellect while stressing faith and reason by creating a relationship with
God (Webb et. al., 2010). The stress on faith was seen in the use of scriptures, catechism, and
instruction on Christian dogma. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224- 1274), who is the patron saint of Catholic
schools, colleges and universities, is a noted ecclesiastical philosopher.
LAY (SECULAR) PERENNIALISTS

Historically, Lay (secular) Perennialists emphasized a strong liberal arts curriculum that included:
“philosophy; mathematics; history; geography; political science; sociology; theology; languages and
literature; physical and life sciences; and the fine arts and humanities” (Webb et. al., 2010, p. 71). In
order for students to become truly intellectual beings, they needed to be able to master each of these
subject areas according to the Perennialist philosophy. One way to do this was by reading the Great
Books of the Western World Program. The program identified 100 of the “classic” literature books that
Perennialist argue must be taught to students to cultivate students intellect and civilization. Other
aspects of the curriculum taught by Lay Perennialists were character training and moral development.
In the last 100 years, Perennialists are more focused on using the curriculum as a context for developing
intellectual skills like those associated with the three R’s (reading, writing, and arithmetic). One of the reasons
for a more uniform approach to curriculum is the idea of a one-size-fits-all mentality. According to the
Perennialist philosophy, carefully supervised exposure to permanent studies helps to create rational,
enlightened, and intellectually stimulated citizens.
An Example in Practice
St. John’s College in Annapolis, Maryland is a great example of a University that follows a
Perennialist philosophy. At St. John’s, classes emphasize the discussion of foundational works
of philosophy, literature, history, theology, politics, economics, psychology, music,
mathematics, and laboratory sciences. The faculty promote an educational focus that privileges
intellectual engagement and they regard themselves as guides and mentors whose task is to
pose questions that further the student’s ability to think critically. Students, on the other hand,
are encouraged to formulate questions and develoP their thoughts in dialogue with one another
using strategies like Socratic circles.
INSTRUCTION IN THE CLASSROOM

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At the elementary level, a Perennialist teacher would focus on the management and teaching of basic
educational skills. To support educators in meeting this goal, they are supposed to use the “Great Books” of
Western civilization.
Socratic Circle
Adler (1984) also suggested the following three methods of instruction:
 Didactic Instruction
 Coaching
 Socratic Method
In order to prepare students for the instruction they would receive in a Perennialist classroom, they first
needed to be taught how to think critically. In addition, they would have to learn questioning strategies so that
they could engage in meaningful “dialogue” about the classical literature they would be reading (Webb et. al.,
2010).
TEACHERS ROLE
For Perennialists, the teacher is seen as the authority figure in the classroom. As the authority figure, it is up
to the teacher to disseminate the truth. The teacher can do this by acting as a seminar leader or coach.
According to Adler (1984), as a seminar leader, the teacher illustrates the power of the literature being read
through questioning. When done correctly, this questioning should help students think rationally. One of the
most popular methods for questioning students is the Socratic Method.
An Example in Practice
For an example of the Socratic Method, please watch the video titled: Socratic Seminar Strategies for the
Second Grade Classroom. As you are watching the video, think about how this teacher is acting as a seminar
leader or coach for her students.
For an example of the Socratic Method being used at the Secondary Level, please watch the video titled:
Socratic Seminar in Action in the Secondary ELA Classroom. Once again, as you are watching the video,
think about the key elements of the Socratic Method that stand out to you.
As demonstrated in the video, the coach or teacher needs to closely watch the students, offer immediate
feedback or pose additional questions to engage students in higher-level thinking. In addition, a successful
coach and teacher within this philosophy needs to:
 Be well versed in the classics
 Possess a good memory
 Be capable of the highest forms of reasoning (Webb, 2010).
STUDENTS ROLE
The students are supposed to learn the “truth” as taught to them by the teacher. Since truth does not change,
students’ interests or experiences are not reflected in what is taught in a Perennialist classroom. In fact, the
issue of diversity is not even relevant, because learning is not about diversity.
KEY EDUCATORS
Historically, this philosophy reflects the views of Plato and Aristotle. The search for truth, which is the basis of
this philosophy, can be seen in both of these famous philosophers works. Other historical philosophers who
greatly influenced the development of Perennialism were St. Thomas Aquinas (1224 – 1274) and Jacques
Maritain (1882-1973). Both of these philosophers represented the Ecclesiastic Perennialist position. As such,
they argued that intelligence alone was not sufficient to understand the universe, it was also critical to have a
relationship with a higher Spiritual being.
Lay (secular) philosophers that have influenced perennialism include: Robert M. Hutchins, Mortimer Adler,
and Allan Bloom.
ROBERT M. HUTCHINS (1899 – 1977)

Robert M. Hutchins was a chancellor of the University of Chicago who argued that
the ideal education is one that is designed to develop the mind (Webb, 2010). To
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support the development of the mind, he proposed a curriculum based on the “Great Books” of Western
civilization.
Hutchin’s believed in what he called the “permanent studies.” These were core courses in liberal arts whose
content did not change. As such, he argued that selecting 100 “Great Books” and teaching them to students
naturally aligned with these permanent studies Sample titles of the first 10 out of 54 Volumes of the “Great
Books” include:
Volume 1: The Great Conversation
Volume 2: Syntopicon I
Volume 3: Syntopicon II
Volume 4: Homer
Volume 5: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes
Volume 6: Herodotus & Thucydides
Volume 7: Plato
Volume 8: Aristotle
Volume 9: Aristotle
Volume 10: Hippocrates & Galen
MORTIMER ADLER
Mortimer Adler proposed a curriculum that would be appropriate for all students.
Within such a curriculum, students would be taught language, literature,
mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts, history, geography, and social studies
(Webb et. al., 2010).
He also advocated for the use of the “Great Books” by arguing that students
could learn a lot from the great works of the past. Both Adler and Hutchins
opposed any form of differentiated curricula (e.g., vocational, technical, or
academic) under the guise that all students in a democratic society should have
access to the same high-quality education.
ALLAN BLOOM
Allan Bloom wrote The Closing of the American Mind (1987). In this book, he
talks about “cultural illiteracy” being a crisis in today’s society. In order to
address this crisis, he advocates teaching and learning about the “Great Books”
because they provide knowledge and information that has lasting significance
(Webb et. al., 2010). He sees this crisis as being particularly significant at the
university level.
 EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom and choice,

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and the inherent meaninglessness of life. It has been a popular topic in academic circles for
many years but has only recently begun to make its way into mainstream education.
This is due to the fact that existentialism can be seen as a response to existential angst – a
Themes of existentialism
There are several existentialist themes, including freedom, choice, and responsibility. These themes are
often explored through literature and philosophy, two subject’s integral to existentialist thought.
One of the central themes of existentialism is freedom. Existentialists believe that humans
are free to choose their own paths in life and that they are responsible for their own choices.
Another central theme of existentialism is choice. Existentialists believe that humans have the
power to choose their own lives and that they are responsible for their own actions. This theme is
often explored in literature, where characters must make difficult choices that determine their fate. In
philosophy, existentialists focus on the concept of choice, and how it relates to human existence.
A third central theme of existentialism is responsibility. Existentialists believe that humans are
responsible for their own choices and actions. This theme is often explored in literature, where
characters must face the consequences of their decisions. In philosophy, existentialists focus on the
concept of responsibility, and how it relates to human existence.
Famous existentialism philosophers

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom and choice, and the inherent
meaninglessness of life. It was born out of the existential crisis of the 20th century, which was marked by two
world wars, the Holocaust, and other tragedies.
Famous existentialist philosophers include Jean-Paul Sartre, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Martin Heidegger.
These thinkers have had a profound influence on existentialism in education.
Jean-Paul Sartre was one of the most famous philosophers of the 20th century. He was a leading figure in
existentialism and Marxist theory. He argued that humans are free and responsible for their own choices and
that there is no inherent meaning in life.
Friedrich Nietzsche was another important philosopher of the 20th century. He believed in the concept of “the
will to power,” which holds that humans are driven by a desire to dominate and control their environment. He
also argued that there is no objective truth, only interpretations that vary from person to person.
Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher who is considered one of the founders of existentialism. He
developed the concept of “being-in-the-world,” which holds that humans always exist in relation to their
surroundings. He also argued that existence precedes essence, meaning that people do not inherit
predetermined roles or identities, but must create their own meanings in life.
What existentialism teaches us

Existentialism can be seen as a liberating philosophy, as it emphasizes individual freedom and choice. It
allows us to take control of our own lives and gives us the power to create our own meaning. This can be an
empowering prospect, especially when we feel lost or overwhelmed.
Existentialism also encourages us to face death and our own mortality head-on. This can be a daunting task,
but it can also be liberating. It helps us to realize that life is precious and that we should make the most of it
while we can.
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Finally, existentialism teaches us that life is ultimately meaningless. This may seem like a negative thing, but it
can actually be quite freeing. It means that we are not bound by tradition or convention – we can create our
own meaning in life, based on our own values and beliefs.
Existentialism in education
Though existentialism has been around for quite some time, it has only recently begun to make its way into
mainstream education. This is due to the fact that existentialism can be seen as a response to existential
angst – a feeling of anxiety and despair that comes from the realization of our own mortality.
Many people find existentialism to be a helpful philosophy when it comes to making sense of life. It allows us
to confront the fact that life is ultimately meaningless, and yet we still have the power to create our own
meaning. This can be a liberating realization, as it puts the responsibility for our lives squarely on our own
shoulders.
Existentialism can also be helpful in terms of understanding our own emotions and motivations. It teaches us
that we should not necessarily try to suppress or ignore our feelings, but rather should face them head-on and
try to understand what they are telling us.
Overall, existentialism can be a valuable tool for both educators and students. It can help us to better
understand ourselves and the world around us, and it can provide us with a framework for creating our own
meaning in life.
Conclusion
So, what is existentialism? In short, it’s a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom and
choice, and the inherent meaninglessness of life.
It has been a popular topic in academic circles for many years but has only recently begun to make its way
into mainstream education. This is due to the fact that existentialism can be seen as a response to existential
angst – a feeling of anxiety and despair that comes from the realization of our own mortality.
Although there are many different interpretations of existentialism, all variants share one common belief: that
humans must create their own meaning in life, as there is no inherent meaning given by God or nature. Some
people view this as a bleak outlook on life, while others see it as an opportunity for liberation and growth.
 NATURALISM
Naturalism is also termed as materialism. According to this philosophy, the basis of the world is matter.
Mind is also a form of matter or an element of matter or a synthesis of both. Naturalistic philosophy
defines life in terms of material and chemical laws and emphasizes the relationship between power,
speed and matter as of the nature of casual relationship.
Naturalism does not believe in spiritualism. It denies the existence of a spiritual universe — the universe of
ideas and values.
According to naturalism, the material world is the only real world. It is the only reality. This material world is
being governed by a system of natural laws and the man, who is the creation of the material world, must
submit to them. The naturalists have regard for actual facts, actual situations and realities. For them nature is
everything. It is the whole reality.
Behind everything there is Nature. It denies the existence of anything beyond nature. Naturalism believes that
everything comes from nature and returns to nature. Nature, according to naturalism, is a self-sufficient entity.
It is self-determined and governed by its own laws.
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The naturalists see things as they are. They apprehend reality as it is in its own nature. They do not believe
that there are any spiritual values or absolute truths. Naturalism takes recourse to such concepts as appetites,
emotions, instincts and evolution. According to naturalists, instincts are responsible for all our activities —
biological, psychological or social. To them there is no absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life,
according to naturalism, are created by the human needs. Man creates them when he reacts to — or interacts
with — his environment. He must adapt himself to the environment.
According to the naturalists there is inherent goodness in man. In man there is an innate capacity for morality.
Man is born rational. The naturalists, thus, have idolized man. Nature, according to the naturalists, is complete
in itself, having its own laws. It does not, therefore, require us to have insight or intuition to understand Nature.
Naturalism believes that mind is an accident in the process of evolution and it can be explained in terms of
nature. Mind is a function of the brain which is material in nature. Mind is not the source of knowledge; all
knowledge is acquired from without, and senses are the gateways of all knowledge.
The personality of the child, according to the naturalists, is fashioned by:

(a) Endowment and
(b) Environment.
Environment is of two types:

1. The material or physical environment
2. The mental or psycho-social environment.
According to the naturalists, society is meant for the individual and not the individual for society as they
believe that man is born good. He is corrupted by the society. Man must remain away from the society if he
wants to remain pure and unadulterated.
Forms of Naturalism:
Naturalism exists in different forms.
From an educational point of view naturalists may be grouped in two forms:
1. Physical Naturalists (Instinctivists):

It is also known as material naturalism. This type of naturalism lays emphasis purely on physical
nature. It believes only in the reality of material objects and the laws of mass and motion. Man is only
one of the objects of physical nature, a creature of mass and motion.
According to this form of naturalism, mind has no existence apart from the body. This universe is
governed by natural laws. Physical naturalists also assert that man is also governed by these laws.
They also believe that not only the external world but also human conduct is governed by scientific
laws. Thus emphasis is laid on the external nature.
The inner or spiritual nature of man is less emphasised. But education is a mental activity rather than
a physical one. Hence physical naturalism has little impact on educational theory and practice. The
naturalists advocate the development of child without any restriction. Instincts must have their own
way. The development of the child should be from within and not from without. Let the child learn by
himself in the lap of nature. The nature is a great book to him.
The interests and aptitudes of children should determine the educational programmes. Rousseau’s
Emile was to be educated according to the laws of nature, away from society. Children should learn
from their sensory experiences because the senses are the gateways of knowledge. Let them learn
by their own experiences.
2. Biological Naturalists (Darwinians):

Darwin (1809-1882) and Lamarck (1744-1829) are the greatest exponents of ‘biological naturalism’. It
derives its data and first principles from the biological rather than the physical sciences. With a great
faith in biological evolution, it accepts man as the highest form of living organism in the evolutionary
process.
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Henri Bergson (1859-1951), the Noble Laureate French philosopher, developed this idea to a higher
dimension. Bergson holds that man is endowed with life-force, elan vital, will-to-power, will-to-live, a
‘creative impulse’. The biological nature of man consists’ of impulses, instincts and emotions,
tendencies and propensities. This he shares with animals. This is his true nature. It unfolds and
develops spontaneously from within.
The basic standpoints of biological naturalism are two:

1) Each creature has an urge to live and
2) He struggles to exist.
In the struggle for existence those that are fit, survive, and those that are not, die. The theory is best known as
the ‘survival of the fittest’ — a term coined by Herbert Spencer (1820-1903).
According to biological naturalism self-preservation is the first law of nature. Life, according to the biological
naturalists, is dynamic, ever-changing and ever-developing phenomenon. Man, therefore, must adjust himself
to the changing life. Education should be for change rather than for stability. Such an education should be
systematic, evolutionary and inter-related.
The biological naturalists have raised a very pertinent question: Is a man shaped by Iris environmental forces
or by inherited equipment’s? The answer is ‘by both’. Both environment and heredity have their role in shaping
human beings. Man is the product of inter-play of both the forces. In short, man is a “compromised
personality”.
The biological school of naturalism lays great stress on “intelligence”. Intelligence is very helpful in dealing
with experiences of life. It helps in solving the problems of life and in adjusting the individual to the
environment. This form of naturalism has a great impact on the theory and practice of education It maintains
that real education lies in the modification and training of man’s instincts and emotions. This view is generally
acceptable to the modern educators.
Some Basic Principles of Naturalism:

1. Nature is the final reality. All things originated from matter, all are ultimately to be reduced to matter.
Matter takes different forms.
2. Mind is the brain functioning and brain is matter.
3. All types of mental activities – imagination, thinking, reasoning etc. are the functions of the brain.
4. The entire universe is governed by the laws of nature which are unchangeable Science reveals the
mysteries of nature; hence only that knowledge is true that is derived from science.
5. There is no God or Spirit. Therefore, there is no religion. There are no higher or eternal values. There
is no spiritual goal or ideal of human life. Man himself creates values in interaction with the
environment in which he is placed.
6. “Follow Nature” is the greatest slogan of naturalism in education. Natural development of the child, the
naturalists believe, takes place in the natural environment rather than in artificially designed
atmosphere of the school. In the field of education “Nature” is used in two senses – one conveying the
physical nature and second the “nature of the child” i.e., tendencies, impulses, instincts of the child
with which he is born.
(1) The first is the outer nature; the second is the inner nature. In educating the child, his whole
nature should be taken into consideration. “The child’s nature is not static, it grows and develops.”
It is dynamic education which has to help the growth and development of the child.
7. The child occupies the central position in the educative process. The child should be educated
according to his nature. “It is the child himself rather than the educator, the school the book or the
subjects of study that should be in the foreground of the educational picture.” Unnecessary
interference on the part of parents or teachers should be avoided.
(2) Children should be treated as children and not as small adults. Instead of imposing adult ideas on
them, let them have the opportunity of formulating their ideas through personal experiences.
Modern education is pedo-centric.
8. The naturalists advocate freedom in education. Only under freedom, the naturalists believe, the child
can grow in his natural way. Freedom should be the pivot round which the educational program
should revolve. “Child is a good, not an evil being; being born good he remains good when all
opportunity to fear and hate is abolished.”
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9. Instincts should be the main instruments of education. They must be exploited fully to modify the
behaviour of man from “animal behaviour ‘to’ human behaviour.”
10. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Real knowledge comes through the senses and, therefore,
the sensory experiences should be provided for effective learning.
(3) Naturalism in Education:
(4) Naturalism as a philosophy of education has exercised a great influence on the theory and
practice of education. “It decries all external restraint in education and it condemns all
unnecessary formalities in education.
In the naturalistic system of education there is no place for class-room, textbooks, time-table, formal lessons,
curricula or examination. The ‘chalk and talk’ method has no scope. The teacher has no significant role to
play. External discipline has no place in naturalistic system of education.
The only discipline applied in this system is the discipline of natural consequences. Naturalism has no faith in
formal education. To the naturalists, formal education is artificial and vicious. Good education can be had only
by a direct contact with nature.
Naturalism in education stands for the doctrine of “follow nature” in education. It wants all education to be in
strict conformity with the nature of the child. It stands for complete freedom to be given to the child in learning.
He is to be left alone, absolutely free. Let him learn from the pages of nature without interference from any
quarter. He is to be thrown into Nature as an explorer and discoverer.
Naturalism emphasises free and spontaneous self-expression of the child. Its watchword is “Back to Nature”
as expounded by Rousseau and Gandhiji. Thus, the whole of the child’s learning will come from his own
experiences and their natural consequences. His whole education will be according to the natural laws of
human development.
Much of the Naturalistic movement finds its root in the pages of Rousseau. He brought the child into the
foreground of the educational arena and pleaded that educational material should be the facts and
phenomena of nature.
Naturalism and Aims of Education:

1. Naturalists differ with regard to the aim of education. Under the naturalistic school of philosophy the
aim of education is self-expression. Some naturalists consider man as a machine and they opine that
the aim of education is to make the human machine as perfect and efficient as possible.
2. According to Spencer, self-preservation and self-satisfaction constitute the highest good in life and,
hence, the primitive instincts and natural impulses should be used in such a way that this highest
good can be achieved.
3. McDougall (1871-1938), the famous exponent of the Naturalistic school of psychology, does not
accept the theory of pleasure. He holds that our instincts are to be directed towards certain natural
goals. Hence the aim to education, according to him, is the sublimation of the native instincts and
energies of the individual — the redirection, coordination and harmonious working of the native
impulses.
4. According to the Darwinian school of naturalists, the aim of education should be to “equip the
individual for struggle for existence and thus to ensure his survival.” According to the Lamarckians,
education should enable the individual to adjust himself to the environment. The individual must be “in
harmony with and well-adapted to his surroundings.”
5. T. P. Nunu considers “harmonious, natural and autonomous development of the individual in natural
setting” as the central aim of education. Thus he regards the development of individuality as the
supreme aim of education.
6. In support of this he says “the proper goal of human life is perfection of the individual.” But, at the
same time, he considers that this development of individuality should not be at the cost of social
interests. Every individual has a social self. Individuality develops in and through society. Hence
individual and social interests can be compromised by the recognition of universal values in man.
7. Rousseau’s statement of naturalistic aim of education is the most comprehensive and lucid.
Education, he holds, should aim at the development of the child in conformity with his nature.
Naturalism and Curriculum:

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The naturalistic aims of education are reflected in its curriculum. The naturalists strongly advocate inclusion of
natural sciences — such as physics, chemistry, zoology, botany — in the curriculum. As regards language
and mathematics they opine that only such knowledge of these subjects should be acquired as is essential for
scientific studies. They also want that the pupil should not be plunged into poetry and literature.
The naturalists not only emphasise the present but also the past and the future. They are in favour of inclusion
of history in the curriculum as it deals with the cultural heritage of the race. History helps to understand the
present in the light of the past and leads to the future.
Naturalism does not attach much importance to spiritualism or religion in the curriculum. At the same time it
does not include music and painting in the curriculum.
The naturalists differ in their opinion in respect of curriculum. Comenius wanted that all subjects should be
taught to all men. But Locke did not agree with this view, and said it is not possible to teach all subjects to all.
Hence only those subjects should be taught which are necessary. Spencer advocates that only those subjects
should be included in the curriculum which minister to self-preservation as it is the first law of life.
He gives a very high place to science. He attaches no importance to cultural subjects. T. H. Huxley does not
agree with Spencer, for giving undue importance to science. He wants that literary and cultural subjects be
imparted to children. Rousseau pleaded negative education for children and was not in favour of formal text-
books. The naturalists, in general, contend that the child’s present experiences, interests and activities should
determine the choice of studies.
Naturalism and Methods of Teaching:

In methods of teaching, naturalism is a revolt against the old, traditional and bookish system of education. It,
therefore, attaches no importance to formal schools and textbooks as these hinder the natural development of
children. It condemns note-learning and encourages learning by doing. They emphasise auto-education and
self-development, and learning through personal experience of the child.
The creed of the naturalists is “follow nature” as it supplies all laws of learning. The naturalist method is to
gather direct experience from nature, men and things. Rousseau’s advice was: “Give your scholar no verbal
lessons, he should be taught by experience alone.” All knowledge must emerge out of actual life situation and
experience.
According to the naturalists the proper method of imparting scientific knowledge is through observation and
experimentation. They decry “chalk and talk method”. Let the child discover the truth. This was the advice of
the naturalists. They advocated a heuristic method. Pedocentricism was the key-note of the naturalistic
method.
The naturalists say that there are two methods of teaching — the positive and the negative. When systematic
and sustained efforts are made to impose knowledge on the child without considering his interests and
aptitudes, it is called positive method of teaching.
In the words of Rousseau positive education is “one that tends to form the mind prematurely and instructs the
child in the duties that belong to man. It is negative education when the child is left free to develop his body
and senses.
Rousseau defines negative education as “one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of
knowledge. A negative education does not mean a time of idleness; far from it. It does not give virtue, it
protects from vice; it does not inculcate truth; it protects from error. It disposes the child to take the path that
will lead him to truth.”
The naturalists do not want to superimpose anything on the children. They want the children to acquire
everything with their own efforts. “The naturalistic educator allows the child to follow the lines of his natural
interests and to have free choice of activity, with no interference or thwarting.”
The naturalists want an “ideal environment of freedom for the development of the growing child.” Coercive
methods are not permitted for imparting knowledge. The way of the naturalist is “auto-education or self-
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education.” They do not advocate much teaching but emphasise much learning experience of the pupils. They
attach great importance to creative activities and self-expression.
The greatest attraction of the child is play. The naturalists, therefore, have given a prominent place to the play-
way method. It is play which helps the child to express himself fully. It is in his free play that the child most
clearly reveals his nature and the lines of his natural development.
Play is nature’s mode of education. The principal aim of education should be an integrated growth of the child.
This is possible if each child is permitted freedom to grow at his own pace and according to his own nature.
Naturalism and the Teacher:

The educator should not interfere in the natural development of the child. He should not impose ideals or
ideas on him. He is only to help the child in the discovery of truth. He should a have critical and scientific bent
of mind and supreme reverence for truth. The educator must see that the child develops freely. He should not
make an artificial effort to educate the child.
He has to provide suitable opportunities and create conditions which are conducive to the natural
development of the child. The place of the educator is not primary but secondary. He is an observer of the
child’s development rather than a giver of information. The child’s education is the free development of his
interests and motives.
The role of the educator is that of a friend, philosopher and guide. Such a role of the teacher is advocated by
all the modern educators and in all the modern methods of teaching. Rousseau, Fichte, Montessori and Ross
are in favour of non-intervention of the teacher in the education of the child.
They contend that the child’s nature is essentially good, and any intervention is, therefore, harmful. Ross is of
the opinion that the teacher has only “to set the stage, supply the materials and opportunities provide an ideal
environment and create conditions conducive to natural development”, and then he is to “recede in the
background.”
Naturalism and Discipline:

For harmonious development of the child, he should be given freedom to plan his own activities. But this
freedom means individual freedom and not social freedom. To regulate the school society, government is
required, but it must be self-government. Naturalists have no faith in discipline based on external force. They
condemn corporal punishment as it represses the impulses and instincts of the children.
Naturalism stands for a “hands-off’ policy in education. The only discipline to be applied is the discipline of
natural consequences. The child should be left perfectly free to act in any way he likes and then face the
consequences of his actions.
If the consequences of his action turn out to be pleasant and favourable, it would be repeated and, therefore,
learnt. On the contrary, if the consequences of an action are found to be unpleasant, it shall be given up.
Thus, the forces of pleasure and pain will effectively teach discipline to the child.
Rousseau is of the opinion that children should never be punished for their wrong deeds. Nature spares none.
Every action is inevitably followed by its natural consequences. All immoral or undesirable actions will result in
unpleasant consequences and these unfavorable results will make the individual avoid the repetition of such
actions in future. Herbert Spencer also supports the doctrine of natural discipline.
He wishes that children should be left to suffer the natural unpleasant consequences of their wrong actions
and learn from them. But Spencer does not wish to apply this principle during infancy. He says, “A three-year-
old urchin, playing with an open razor, cannot be allowed to learn by this discipline of natural consequences,
for the consequences may be too serious.”
Limitations of Naturalism:
1. Naturalism has its own limitations and disadvantages. It altogether ignores the spiritual and moral
aspects of human nature. It totally neglects the moral development of the child.
2. Naturalism takes into account only the present needs of the child and ignores his future needs and the
ultimate goals and purposes of man’s life.
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3. Naturalism leaves the child purely to the discipline of natural consequences which, often, involves
grave risks.
4. Naturalism throws the teacher with superior knowledge and experience into the background. He takes
secondary position in the educative process.
5. Naturalism allows complete freedom to the child from the very start of his life, even when he has no
yet learnt the right use of freedom. This is no doubt a very risky experiment inasmuch as sometimes
absolute freedom degenerates into licence. In the early state of life some guidance is necessary.
6. Naturalism attaches too much importance to the animal nature of man — his instincts, impulses and
emotions, and completely ignores the spiritual and cultural values of life.
7. Naturalism gives too much emphasis on the heredity of the child and neglects the influence of
environment on “raw” nature.
Contribution of Naturalism:
Naturalism has tremendously influenced the modern educational theories and practices.
Its permanent contributions in the field of education may be summed up:
1. “Follow nature” is the watch-word of naturalism. The innate nature of the child should be developed in
natural environment and not in the artificial atmosphere of the school.
2. Instincts, impulses and emotions should form the basis of all education of the child. According to the
naturalists, instincts should be the main instrument of education.
3. Pedocentricism is another important contribution of the naturalists in the field of education. In the
educative process the child takes the pivotal position. “It is the child himself rather than the educator,
the school, the book or the subjects of study that should be in the foreground of the educational
picture.” Children should be treated as children and not as adults in miniature.
4. The freedom of the child is another important feature of naturalistic education. The child should grow
freely according to his own nature and pace without interference from the educator or the parents.
True education takes place when the nature, powers and inclinations of the child are allowed to
develop freely with a minimum of guidance. The naturalists strongly advocate freedom for the child.
5. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Education is very much effective when it comes through
sensory channels. As such, naturalists consider the training of senses very important.
In conclusion we can say that naturalism has secured freedom for the child and has further succeeded in
freeing the child from many a tyranny of rigidity, interference and strict discipline. Naturalism has given an
impetus to new psychological methods in education.
Self- expression, follow nature, auto-education, play-way, Pedocentricism, sense-training, self- discipline and
learning by doing are some of the main characteristics of modern education.
Meaning, Definition, Principles and Characteristics of Naturalism
Meaning of Naturalism
Naturalism is also termed as materialism. According to this philosophy, the basis of the world is matter. Mind
is also a form of matter or an element of matter or a synthesis of both. Naturalistic philosophy defines life in
terms of material and chemical laws and emphasizes the relationship between power, speed and matter as of
the nature of casual relationship.
According to Naturalism, only nature is every thing. Nothing is before and beyond it. Hence, man should
investigate the truths of Nature by scientific methods with all his capacities and resourcefulness. Naturalists
believe that due to the advancement of human civilization and development of society, man has gone away
from Nature. If he comes nearer to nature, his development will be natural and normal.
Thus, according to Naturalists, the ultimate reality is of nature or matter. It may be noted that Naturalists do
not believe in spiritual development. They deny the existence of any such things as the supremacy of God.
immortality of soul and the freedom of will. To them there is nothing else than matter, which is ultimate reality
and the ultimate truth. Protagonists of Naturalism are Aristotle, Comte, Hobbes, Bacon, Darwin, Lamark,
Huxley, Herbert Spencer, Bernard Shaw, Samuel Butler, Rousseau, etc.
Definition of Naturalism
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1. According to Joyce, "Naturalism is a system whose silent characteristic is the exclusion of whatever
is spiritual or indeed whatever is transcendental of experience from our philosophy of Nature and
man."
2. According to R.B. Perry, "Naturalism is note science but an assertion about science. More specifically
it is the assertion that scientific knowledge is final, leaving no room for extra-scientific or philosophical
knowledge."
3. According to J.S. Ross, "Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of
training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the manipulation of the actual life of the
educated."
Naturalism in Education
In the field of education, Naturalism means the development of child according to his inherent nature. The
credit of introducing Naturalism in education goes to Comenius and Bacon, but Rousseau brought this
movement to the Zenith, Herbert Spencer and Basedow, Salzman and Campe of Germany are its notable
protagonists.
The world Nature has two interpretations: (1) Physical Nature and (2) Nature or psychology of child. Physical
Nature is external and Nature of the child is internal which means the basic instincts, impulses, tendencies,
capacities and other inborn potentialities of the child. According to Naturalism, the external laws of Nature
should correspond and co-operate with the internal Nature of the child for his full natural development.
Characteristics of Naturalistic Education

The following are the characteristics of Naturalistic education-
1. Back to Nature:- Out of three essential factors of education. namely Nature, man and objects,
Naturalism gives prime importance to Nature. Hence, its call is "Back to Nature. According to
Naturalists, the best teacher of child is Nature. Hence, to develop the child according to his nature,
education should provide natural environment. In the 18th century the rebelled against formalism,
verbalism and the artificiality of education and exhorted one and all to return to education which brings
about the natural and normal development of the individuality. Rousseau firmly believed that life
became artificial by coming in contact of social institutions. Thus, he decided to educate his imaginary
child 'Emile' in the laps of Nature.
2. Opposition to Bookish knowledge:- The second characteristic of Naturalistic education is its
opposition to mere academic knowledge and verbalism of books. The prevalent education meant
mere cramming of Greek and Latin literature. Naturalists opposed this education calling it artificiality,
snobbery and mere show. They emphasized real education to be according to the nature of the child
through natural interests and activities. Rousseau was such a staunch supporter of education by
nature that he did not prescribe anything for mental development of the early childhood except the
reading of 'Robinson Cruso' because this novel narrates the exploits of the hero in natural
surroundings guided by his own natural tendencies. To him all education, even the early childhood
should be self-learning or learning by doing.
3. Progressive:- The third characteristic of Naturalistic education is that education should be
progressive. Prevalent education prepares the child for his future adult life. It believed the gospel-
Child is the father of man. As such, more and more knowledge used to be forced down into the mind
of the child to prepare him to face the problems of adult life. This, the Naturalist thought as cruel and
unjust behaviour towards a child. Naturalistic education believes that a child is a child and not an adult
in the making. As a child, he is a dynamic individual who develops gradually. This development
passes through four stages namely infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood.
4. Negative Education:- The fourth characteristic of Naturalism is negative education. J.S. Ross is right
when he says- "A negative education does not mean a time of idleness, far from it. It does not give
virtue, it protects from vice. It does not inculcate truth, it protects from error. It disposes the child to
take the path that will lead him to truth when he has reached to understand it, and goodness, when he
has acquired the faculty of recognizing and loving it."
5. Central Position of Child:- The fifth characteristic of Naturalistic education is to put the child at the
center of the educational process, Naturalists believe that education is meant for the child. Thus, it
should be so organized that child learns by his own activities, observations and experiences without
any guidance.
6. Freedom of the Child:- The sixth characteristic of Naturalistic education is to allow full freedom to the
child to develop himself according to his natural tendencies. The school, the time-table, the books and
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the teacher should not condition his experiences in any way as per-planning or preconditioning spoils
his natural growth and stunts his normal development. The child should be put under no restraints, no
interference, no difficulties and no confusions. He should be completely free to structure his own
plans, activities, observations and experiences. Rousseau emphatically exhorts "God makes all things
good. Man meddles with them and they become evil."
7. Emphasis on the Training of Senses:- Naturalistic education emphasizes the training of senses.
Nothing is acquired by force from outside, Our senses are the gate-ways of knowledge. These senses
need training to discharge their function with efficiency. In this connection Rousseau has well said-
"Education should prepare the way for reason by the proper exercise of senses."
1. Aims of Education According to Naturalism
2. All Naturalists do not agree on the formulation of education aims Different Naturalists have expressed
different views about the aims of education. Yet the main aims as propounded by all Naturalists are as
under-
(1) To perfect the human machines:- Naturalists regard the whole universe as a huge machine.
Man is a part of this huge machine and is a complete machine in himself also. Hence, the first
aim of education is to make the individual work very efficiently as a part of the huge machine
and also work as a very efficient machine himself.
(2) Attainment of Present and Future Happiness:- Biological Naturalism advocates the
attainment of happiness of the individual. This should be in the present life as well as in the
life to come. Education should be co-operative in this process and bring it to success.
But McDougall asserts that happiness and misery come according to the natural
consequences and as such no voluntary seeking after them will be of any use.
(3) Preparation for struggle of existence:- Darwin believed in the principle of struggle for the
existence and survival of the fittest. According to this principle, man has evolved from lower
forms of animal life. One has to struggle constantly with the environment for survival. Those
who lose, decay and disappear. Hence, education should develop the capacities o of the
individual so that he comes out victories in the struggle of life and existence in this world.
(4) Adaptation to environment:- New Lamarchians also believe in the Darwinian theory but
assert that a human being, unlike the other animals, has a power to adapt himself to the ever
changing environment This is a natural capacity. Thus, the aim of education should be to
strengthen this capacity of adaptation of the individual. Reinforcement by education will give
the individual added capacity and efficiency to this task of adaptation.
(5) Improvement of Racial Gains:- Some Naturalists believe that the racial heritage of cultural
and civilizational achievements cannot be transferred from generation to generation by a
mere natural process of inheritance. As such, education should conserve and preserve this
cultural heritage and develop it further. J.S. Ross aptly remarks-"Education, then, is the
preservation the handing and the enhancement of the racial gains generation by generation."
(6) Self-expression and Self-preservation:- While idealism emphasized 'self realization' as the
main aim of education but it ie different from self-expression. Self expression is gratification
only on instinctive level. The child should be provided suitable environment for the free
development of his natural instincts. Similarly self-preservation is also necessary to survive in
this world.
(7) Natural Development:- Rousseau has emphatically declared that making the child physically
healthy and strong, and in view of the individual differences, education should develop the
child according to his inborn tendencies, interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities in a
free environment. Such development will be a development according to Nature in the real
sense of the term.
Metaphysics of Naturalism
1. Idea of Reality:- One of the main concerns in which a student of philosophy of education must be
interested about a school of philosophy is its idea of reality. Naturalists believe that nature is the
ultimate reality and is propelled by her own laws and consequently determined by them. For the
naturalists reality and nature are identical. They have no belief in a supernatural reality.
As Hocking writes, "Naturalism denies the existence of anything beyond nature, behind nature, other
than nature such as the supernatural or other-worldly."
2. Concept of Mind and Body Relationship:- Another significant issue that distinguishes one school
from another is the concept of the mind. As naturalists do not believe in anything that is spiritual they
do not make a distinction between mind and body. This position of the naturalist is in contradiction to
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that of the idealists for whom the mind is spiritual and the body is just matter which is and through
which the mind manifests. Because man has mind, for idealists man is spiritual in essence. But for the
naturalists man is also matter, his mind is the result of his brain function.
1. Epistemology of Naturalism
1. Theory of Knowledge:- One of the other main concerns of philosophical enquiry which has a bearing
on the principles and practices of education is epistemology or the theory of knowledge. The
fundamental questions that has been raised many time and again in the history of philosophical
thought which has a direct relation to curriculum theory and practice is "What knowledge is of most
worth?" The naturalists in answer to this question would highlight the value of scientific knowledge as
a utmost worth. Herbert Spencer said that scientific knowledge must be the content of living.
2. Method of Acquiring Knowledge:- The method of acquiring knowledge advocated by the naturalists
is the inductive method; it is the method of science. It involves the following stages meticulous
observation, exhaustive collection, careful classification, accurate description, intelligent, interpretation
and cautioned generalisation. Francis Bacon is considered to be the father of the inductive method,
So naturalists believe that knowledge gained primarily through observation is of utmost worth.
Axiology of Naturalism
1. Pleasure and Life:- Another significant realm of philosophy where the naturalist position is distinct
from other school is axiology or the theory of value. Naturalists have no belief in spiritual values. They
behave that values are resident in nature. To realise the values of nature one has to live in harmony
with nature. For example, one has to avoid physical pain and suffering as they are not natural.
2. Social Values of Life:- For naturalists man is basically an off-spring of nature and not a segment of
society. They would not agree with the pragmatists who say that man is a social animal. Therefore,
social values need to be for the good of the individuals who live in society.
Naturalism and Curriculum

Naturalists regard religious educations as useless. According to them, curriculum should consist of subjects
and items which reflect the inborn tendencies, natural interests, natural activities, individual differences and
sex problems of children so that they develop their individuality naturally and normally. As such, curriculum
should contain Games, Sports, Physical culture, Biology, Physics, Nature study, Language, History,
Geography, and other allied subjects.
Herbert Spencer, a staunch Naturalist advocates 'Complete Living Aim of education and to achieve this aim,
curriculum should contain Physiology, Biology, Physical culture, Chemistry, Arithmetic, Home Science and
other scientific subjects as main subjects whereas Language, Literature, Art and other cultural subjects as
subsidiary subjects.
Naturalism and Methods of Teaching

In the field of methodology, Naturalism has made very significant contribution. In the traditional system of
education, the same type of education was imparted to a group of individuals at a time. Naturalistic educations
opposed this traditional system and advocated the system of developing inherent tendencies by providing
conducive experiences and the children imbibing knowledge according to their interests and aptitudes by their
own efforts, observations and experimentation. Discarding the old system as stagnant Naturalism prescribed:
(1) Learning by Doing. (2) Learning by Experience and (3) Learhing by play as the basis of teaching.
Naturalism and Teacher

Rousseau thought the child as pure inherently. His natural development takes place only when he is allowed
to develop freely without any hindrance or interference from outside. Naturalists do not like that children
should be taught in classes by teachers who are spoiled by the artificial atmosphere of society. To them,
Nature is the only supreme teacher, in whose close contact the child develops normally and naturally. In the
process of education, the place of the child is more important and central than the teacher.
The teacher should not impose upon the child and thing under his own authority or supremacy. The teacher
should so sympathetically and affectionately behave towards the child that he feels full freedom to develop
himself according to his natural qualities, interests and capacities. The teacher is only to set the stage and
allow the child to act freely according to his inherent capacities and the teacher is only to act as a sympathetic
observer and guide.
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Naturalism and Discipline

In the field of discipline also, Naturalists depend upon Nature and advocate the theory of 'discipline by Natural
consequences. According to them, Nature will punish the child if he contravents the law of Nature and thus he
will learn by the consequences of his own actions, Thus, nobody should interfere in this process of Nature.
The child should be allowed full freedom to indulge in the activities of his choice.
The teacher should provide such experience for free activity. Any interference is likely to create mental
complexes in the sub-conscious mind of the child. Thus, the Naturalists decry all kinds of external interference
and allow full freedom to the child to think and act according to his interests, inclinations, aptitudes and
capacities.
Naturalism and School

According to Naturalists, the organization of school is rigid, controlled and artificial and as such the growth
and development of children is stunted and spoiled. Thus, they assert that school environment should be
completely free, flexible and without any rigidity. There should not be any fixed time-table and no forcing from
above the ready-made dozes of knowledge into the minds of children. Nature will do all the planning and
processing for the natural development of children.
Not only this, Nature itself structures all the free and desired experiences and also develops the feeling of self-
learning and self-discipline. The Summer Hill School of Heel and Tagore's Vishwa Bharti are models of such
free schools where children are given full freedom to plan their own thinking and activities according to their
own interests and natural tendencies. These creative and self creative activities go to develop the character
and the personality of the individual through self-discipline and freedom to experiment. All modern and
progressive schools adopt this concept of self-discipline to promote self-development.
Evaluation of Naturalism
Correct evaluation of Naturalism is in the following lines-
(1) One-sided and unsatisfying aims of education:- Naturalism concentrates about natural
environment and natural development by Nature. Scholars hold that if the child is developed
according to his nature in the lap of Nature only, the child will become unsocial with no feeling of
social service or social good. He will develop into a pure animal. In fact, the child has animal instinct
at the time of birth. If his animal tendencies are to be socialized through education, then social
environment is greatly essential. Thus, the aims of naturalistic education are one-sided and
unsatisfying.
(2) Emphasis on present needs:- Naturalism lays, stress on the solution of present needs and
problems of an individual. It advocates no concern for spiritual values and the remote future. Actually
life and education should have an ultimate goal. unless there is a goal before a child, his intellectual,
aesthetic and spiritual thirst cannot be quenched. This will lead to continue lack of satisfaction in
human life. Thus, no education worth the name can avoid spiritual values and preparation for future
life.
(3) Ignores Books:- Naturalism emphasizes that education of the child should be based on his activities
and life experiences. But only activities and experiences cannot ensure the total development of the
child's personality. How can we leave those books which contain valuable knowledge and
experiences of others forming the cultural treasure of humanity? No nation can afford to neglect or be
indifferent to books. Natural activities as well as books all contribute their share in the development of
total personality.
(4) Undue emphasis on Physical education:- Naturalism lays too much emphasis on the development
of the physique and the physical senses. It is for this reason that Rousseau advocates natural
education for twelve years to be given to a child, only then moral education may be imparted. This is
an unbalanced process of education. Social, moral and. spiritual development is an important and
essential as physical development. According to Pestalozzi-"Specialized development of one side of
human nature is unnatural and false... To consider any one capacity exclusively is to destroy man's
natural equillibrium."
(5) More importance to scientific subject in curriculum:- Naturalism emphasizes scientific education.
Herbart Spencer, a staunch naturalist has given prime importance to scientific subjects and
secondary place to humanities in the curriculum. In fact the curriculum should show. a balance of the
two categories of subjects as both are equally important and essential in the development of child's
personality.
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(6) No Importance of Teacher:- Naturalism assigns to the teacher the role of a mere guide and
observer. He is to be a sympathetic guide and helper in structuring experiences for the child and
observe the activities undergone. He is not to interfere or plan any teaching directly. This attitude is
not considered very healthy and desirable in modern democratic countries where various social,
moral and spiritual qualities, are to the inculcated by the educational process in children. Without
these qualities, it will not be possible to become a dynamic citizen promoting good to the self and
welfare of the nation.
 IDEALISM
Idealism is a school of philosophy that emphasizes that “ideas or concepts are the essence of all that is
worth knowing” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 87). In other words, the only true reality is that of ideas. Based
on the writings of Plato, this school of philosophy encourages conscious reasoning in the mind.
Furthermore, idealists look for, and value, universal or absolute truths and ideas. Consequently, idealists
believe that ideas should remain constant throughout the centuries.
Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origins go back to ancient India in the East, and
to Plato in the West. Its basic viewpoint stresses the human spirit as the most important element in life. The
universe is viewed as essentially nonmaterial in its ultimate nature. Although Idealist philosophers vary
enormously on many specifics, they agree on the following two points; the human spirit is the most important
element in life; and secondly the universe is essentially nonmaterial in its ultimate nature. Idealism should not
be confused with the notion of high aspirations that is not what philosophers mean when they speak of
Idealism. In the philosophic sense, Idealism is a system that emphasizes the pre-eminent importance of mind,
soul, or spirit. It is possible to separate Idealism into different schools, but for our purposes we shall be
content to identify only the most general assumptions of the Idealists in metaphysics, epistemology, and value
theory, without regard to the idiosyncrasies of the various schools.
If we study the basic principles, Idealism puts forth the argument that reality, as we perceive it, is a mental
construct. It means that experiences are result of sensory abilities of the human mind and not because reality
exists in itself, as an independent entity. In the philosophical term this means that one cannot know the
existence of things beyond the realm of the intellect. Plato describes “reality” in his Theory of Forms. For him
the “Form” is actual substance of 'Things' which 'Formed' matter and perceptible reality. Plato wants convey
the message that matter is real and can be experienced as a rational living entity; it is not a mere projection of
consciousness. According to Knight (1998) Augustine (354-430), Rene Descartes (1596-1650), George
Berkeley and the German philosopher Immanuel Kant and George William Hegel are the prominent names
who represent idealism. Berkeley and Kant have interpreted idealism in very different ways. Kant described
idealism as transcendent, whereas Berkeley called it 'immaterialism' which is commonly termed as subjective
materialism. George Berkeley says that the material world exists because there is a mind to perceive it and
that things which are not within the conceptual framework of the human mind cannot be deemed real.
Berkeley admits that objects exist, but their presence in the physical realm is as long as there is a mind to
perceive them. For this Berkeley has used a Latin phrase 'Esse est percipi' (to be perceived).On the other
hand Kant is of the opinion that reality exists independently of human minds but its knowledge is inherently
unknowable to man because of sensory filters in our consciousness. These filters slow down our ability to see
the 'thing in itself'. Thus our ultimate perception of things is always through the mind's fixed frame of reference
(Shahid, 2008).
Idealism and curriculum

According to idealism the teacher is the symbol or model of good character, he is the masters of all sort of
knowledge, so the teacher has the central role in the teaching-learning (Singh, 2007). The teacher has right to
choose suitable content from the available literature and to teach. The student is a passive receptor, who has
to gain the knowledge transferred by the knowledge. The teacher certifies the disciple at the successful
completion of education as per the above given age levels (Singh).
Idealism and aim of education
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Plato says that to become a philosopher or king, a person has to go through all the processes of education.
He describes the aim of education as to drag every man out of the cave as far as possible. Education should
not aim at putting knowledge into the soul, but at turning the soul toward right desires continuing the analogy
(similarity) between mind and sight. The overarching goal of the city is to educate those with the right natures;
so that they can turn their minds sharply towards the Form of the Good. The philosophers must return
periodically into the cave (society) and rule there. Aristotle says that education is essential for complete self
realization as he says, “The supreme good to which we all aspire is the happiness. A happy man is the one
who is educated. A happy man is virtuous, virtue is gained through education.” Plato says that Education is for
the individual’s personal betterment and that of the society.
Idealism and stages of education

Plato has also divided the process of education into five major steps;
1. Age 7 to 18; study general mathematic, music, astronomy and so on,
2. Age 18 to 20; considers best for physical training,
3. Age 20 to 30; study of logic, knighthood, and mathematics
4. Age 30 to 35; study of dialectics
5. Age 35 to 50; practice of dialectics in various official affairs in the state
6. 50 years +; a person can become a philosopher or king as his tern comes.
Plato says that in each step the person is given with different sort of education. He suggests screening those
in each step who cannot perform well. The ones who can successfully pursue all the six stages can be called
philosophers who have the understanding of the form of good.
Idealism and method of teaching

idealism is traditional philosophy of education in which teacher has centeral role who has to be role model so
that the students will adopt his model to become good citizen. In idealism the lacture method is considered the
most important one in which a delivers lecture and students listen to the teacher. Teacher selects any topic or
issue for teaching first he teaches the topic then asks the questions about that topic. Students answer the
asked questions, Teacher provides the feedback and students improve themselves according to the teacher’s
feedback. This is teacher centered approach therefore students do not participate in a well manner and do not
understand the taught content. This method of teaching is not suitable for young or elementary level of
students because they are not habitual for listening long time. This method is only used for adults. Because
their mind is mature and they can understand easily. The second method that suits idealism the most is the
Socratic Method in which the teacher involves the students in learning activities. The teacher raises an issue
and the students are encouraged to discuss it in a dialogue form and reach to a conclusion.
Idealism and assessment

In idealism Assessment is a means for focusing teachers’ collective attention, examining their assumptions,
and creating a shared culture dedicated to continuously improving the quality of higher learning. Assessment
requires making expectations and standards for quality explicit and public; systematically gathering evidence
on how well performance matches those expectations and standards; analyzing and interpreting the evidence;
and using the resulting information to document, explain, and improve performance. In idealism teacher has
the central role then the child, so he can assess the child’s learning by asking him certain questions based on
the information that has been provided by teacher’s lecture or from the text book used in the teaching learning
process.
Conclusion
From the above stated discussion it can be concluded that idealism is an important philosophy which has
played an important role in the field of education. It provides a complete guideline for the students, teachers,
learning activities and many more. In current age idealism has been week as much emphasis of the education
is put on the realistic approaches, still it has its impacts in our education system.
Meaning, Definition, Principles and Characteristics of Idealism
Meaning of Idealism
The word, "Idealism" may be derived from 'ideals'. Ideas or higher values are essences. They are of ultimate
cosmic significance. They are more important in human life than anything else. They are eternal and
unchanging. They have no dimension such as length of breadth and as such different from material forces.
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Definitions of Idealism
1. According to J.S. Ross, "Idealistic philosophy takes many and varied forms, but the postulate
underlying all this is that mind of spirit is the essential world stuff, that the true reality is of a mental
character."
2. According to Brubacher, "Idealists point out that it is mind that is central in understanding the world.
To them nothing gives a greater sense of reality than the activity of mind engaged in trying to
comprehend its world."
3. According to Harold Titus, "Idealism, asserts that reality consists of ideas, thoughts, minds, or selves
rather than materials, objects and force."
Idealism in Philosophy
1. Metaphysics:- Metaphysics deals with reality Idealism believes that mind is real. The basic reality
consists of or closely related to mind. ideas, thoughts or selves. Mind is the controller and explainer of
phenomena. World is the creation of the mind and not a natural phenomena. The universe can be
comprehended through the mind, because both mind and the universe are reconstructed of the same
elements, intellect and spiritual essence. Spirit is the fundamental constituent for the universe.
True reality is spiritual.
Idealism believes that the Universal Mind or God. He is the Creator and all others are the created. he
is the Infinite Mind and the source of all human values. We all exist for Him. The goal of all human
activities is the realisation of the Infinite Mind.
2. Epistemology:- Epistemology deals with the problem of knowledge and truth. According to idealism,
knowledge is the ultimate reality and that is the highest and the worthiest. Knowledge is obtained
through the medium of concepts, ideas or the mind. Mind is the store house of knowledge, a reservoir.
Real knowledge cannot be obtained through the methods of observation and experimentation etc.; it
can be obtained with an understanding of the inner self. Pragmatists advocate that the sources of
attaining knowledge are intuition, authority, revelation, meditation, and salvation, etc.
Features of Idealism
1. Priority of mind and the self:- Idealism emphasise the priority of the mind and the self. Mind,
according to idealism, is prior to matter. Whereas materialism says that matter is real and mind is an
accompanying phenomenon, idealism believes that mind is real and matter is in sense a by product.
The basic reality consists of or is closely related to mind, ideas, thoughts or selves. Mind is the
controller and the explainer of phenomena. World is the creation of the mind and not a natural
phenomena.
2. The universe exists in spirit:- According to idealism, the spirit is the fundamental constituent of the
universe. True reality is spiritual or thought. Thought, experience, value and personality are more real
than the material things of the external world. Matter in its essence is also spiritual and every atom
has life, mind and energy.
3. Distinctive nature of man:- Idealism believes that man is not a mere animal. He is a superior
creation. He possesses dignity and distinctiveness. He has certain powers which are manifested in his
intellectual attainments, his culture, art, morality, religion and so on. He is not a helpless creature in
his environment. He has the power to mould it according to his need. According to Ross, "Human
personality is supreme and constitutes the noblest work of God."
Idealism and Aims of Education

In the words of Shakespeare, man is the 'Paragon of creation'. He has in him an individuality, a pattern of self
inborn with him. Education ought to make this pattern perfect. Idealism has given us very lofty aim of
education. Some of the important aims of education propounded by idealists are as under:
1. Self Realisation or Exaltation of Personality:- Idealism emphasise the work of main's personality
and spiritual nature. Man's soul is more important than his material structure. Man is merely soul. The
entire creation is conceptual. Nature is complete in itself. There is the soul of the universe behind it.
Man's soul is a part of this soul of the universe. The real structure of the soul is magnificent. The aim
of human life, according to idealism, is to acquire the knowledge of the soul. Therefore, self-realisation
is admitted as the aim of education according to idealism. It has been said in Indian literature that
education is real education which is meant for Mukti.
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3. Idealists do not ignore the social aspect of human personality. Social cause is inherent in the
individual development. Therefore, Self-realisation involves a balance between the individual and
social aims.
2. Development of will power:- Self-realisation requires development of will power. Development of will
power pours enthusiasm, courage, determination and optimism into the personality and further leads
him to be good and healthy creator of heredity and environment. Man is the make of his destiny. So
the teachers should lay down their emphasis on the development of will power. "Man is everything.
environment is nothing."
3. Universal education:- Idealism believes that every man is equally the noblest work of God. There
should, therefore, be made no exception is the education of children. Education should be universal,
without distinction of wealth or status, creed, caste or colour. It should not be for a favourite few. This
is the idealistic character of universal education.
4. Preservation and enrichment of cultural environment:- The child's environment is not merely
physical or material like that of Ramu, the wolf boy. but human, spiritual or cultural also. To idealism,
the spiritual or cultural environment is an environment of man's own making. it is the fruit of man's
own creative activities; it is the product of ages and it is always in the process of growth. It belongs to
all and it is the common heritage to the best of his capacity; preserve it an unprove upon it.
5. Development of moral sense and character:- Fourthly, the aim of education according to idealism
is to develop the child's moral sense and thus enable him to distinguish right from wrong, to love good
and despise evil. The goal of life as well as of education should be the realisation of moral values by
developing the spiritual character of the child.
Idealism and Curriculum

Idealists insist on emphasis being placed on the study of humanities such as literature, art, relation, morality,
etc. Plato has suggested the inclusion of all those subjects of discipline which help in the realization of truth,
beauty and goodness. Most significant among man's activities are the intellectual, the aesthetic and moral.
Idealism and Methods of Teaching

Idealism as a philosophy exercised more influence on the aims of education and on its general philosophy
rather than on methods. It speaks of the general nature of teaching methods; it does not emphasise any
particular method of teaching. Idealism has shown its indifference in the field of methods. Different idealists
have adopted different methods, some of which are as under:
 Question method:- Socrates had adopted the question method. He used to go to the market and
there he asked questions on important subjects and demanded answers from the audience.
 Conversational method:- Plato changed the questioning method into dialectic (conversation)
method.
 Inductive and deductive method:- Aristotle imparted education through inductive and deductive
methods. Hegal again adopted the logical methods.
 Simple to complex:- Descrates showed his interest in proceeding from simple to complex.
 Concrete to abstract:- Comenius showed his interest in proceeding from concrete to abstract.
Idealism and Discipline

Idealism believes in the strict form of discipline. According to the idealists, a disciplined mind can tend towards
the highest good-that is God. Truth, Beauty and Goodness are chief values of life. These values can be
cultivated through disciplined mind. Discipline must be the product of our moral and cultural standard. We
should be internally disciplined.
Idealism believes in that type of discipline which may make the pupil the captain of his own soul. Idealism
does not believe in a discipline of external control of the military type. Force-bearing discipline is not at all
permanent and desirable. It is momentary and short lived. Discipline must take the form of self-discipline, self-
insight and self-analysis. Freedom is essential for discipline but that must be guided and well-versed.
Child's activities are controlled in the school. Physical punishment and external restraints are not the methods
of achieving this. It is better realized through developing such qualities, as self-renunciation, obedience,
humanity, politeness, etc. Froebel believes that it is better to encourage self-control and self-guidance in the
child through sympathy. He believes that the child should not be sumitted to any external pressure.
Idealism and the Teacher

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The place of teacher in idealism is very high. The child is not complete in himself; he is proceeding towards
perfection. The teacher guides him. He carries the child from darkness to light. He can save the children from
many mistakes and wastage of energy. The most precise explanation of the teacher's role has been
suggested by Froebel. According to him, the school is a garden, the teacher is a cautious gardener and the
child is a tender plant. The plant can grow no doubt without help but the good gardener sees that the plant
grows to the finest possible perfection.
Through teacher's guidance the child can make his natural development into a process leading to perfection
and beauty. Ross explains, "The naturalist may be contented with briars but the idealists wants fine roses"
Idealists want fine roses to grow and they work for it. Clearly, the idealists attach more value to the teacher
than the naturalists. The function of the teacher is to lead the children to their perfect development-self
realization or the realization of truth, beauty and goodness.
Idealism and Pupil

Idealism believes that the pupil is a spiritual being. Pupils are not mere bodies without spirit. The pupil is a
personality, whose foundation is not the body alone but also a deep underlying spiritual reality. According to
Indian idealism, the pupil is Atma (Spiritual Self) and the function of education is to enable the pupil to
recognise his real nature. The pupil is a finite soul and he has to become infinite soul through education. The
pupil must obey his teacher. He must have qualities like respect towards teacher, concentration, discipline,
consciousness, sense of surrender, and sense of discrimination between right and wrong, and good and bad.
There must be positive and congenial relationship between teacher and taught.
Idealism and School

Idealists attach importance to the school. This is clearly enunciated by the Froeblian metaphor i.e., the school
is a garden, the teacher is a cautious gardener and the child is a tender plant. The school is a uniquely
thinking institution, in the sense that it gives leadership and guidance in thinking. It is the medium through
which the community expresses itself It is the mind of the society. It should transmit social and cultural
heritage to the younger generation.
It should influence moral and spiritual development of children. It must provide stimulating experiences to
bring into play the potentialities of the children. T.P. Nunn has glanced at the idealistic conception of the
school and remarked, "The school is to consolidate the nation's spiritual strength, to maintain its historic
continuity, to secure its achievements and to guarantee its future." Thus the school is a place where high
spiritual ideals and values are gained through proper guidance of teacher.
 REALISM
Etymologically Realism means 'About a thing' or 'Concerning some object.' Hence, it is an angle of
vision according to which things as we see and perceive are realities. Realists firmly hold that knowledge
acquired through senses only is true. Hence, what we perceive and see by our own senses is real in
nature and the only true entity of the world.
Difference Between Realism and Naturalism:- Both Naturalism and Realism believe in the truth and reality
of the material world. The difference between the two is mainly that while Naturalism emphasizes the ultimate
truth and reality of the matter and material objects, Realism does not bother about the ultimateness of the
reality of material objects. It is concerned with them as they are in existence.
Difference Between Realism and Pragmatism:- Both Realism and Pragmatism emphasize the importance
of experience. Like Pragmatism Realism also firmly holds that real knowledge cannot be gained without
experience. The difference is that Realism believes in traditions and facts with which the true and real
knowledge is linked up, while Pragmatism is a dynamic process and gains true knowledge of the material
world by activity and consequent experience.
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Chief protagonists of Realism are Irasmus, Rebellias, Milton, Lord Montaigne, John Locke. Mulcaster, Bascon,
Ratke, Comentous, White-head and Bertrand Russel.
Definition of Realism
1. According to Butler, "Realism is the reinforcement of our common acceptance of this world as it
appears to us."
2. According to Swami Ram Tirth, "Realism means a belief or theory which looks upon the world as it
seems to us to be a mere phenomenon."
3. According to J.S. Ross, "The doctrine of realism asserts that there is a real world of things behind
and corresponding to the objects of our perceptions."
Forms of Realism
The following are the four forms of Realism-
 Humanistic Realism.
 Social Realism.
 Sense Realism.
 Neo-Realism.
Fundamental Principles of Realism

The fundamental principles of Realism are given below-
1. Phenomenal World is True:- Realists believe in the truth and reality of the matter. To them, there is
no world beyond this. Hence, unlike Idealists who believe in another world, the Realists have no faith
in other world beyond this life. J.S. Ross has rightly said "Realism simply affirms the existence of
an external world and is therefore the antithesis of subjective Idealism."
2. Senses are the Doors of Knowledge:- Realism believes that senses are the doors or gateways of
knowledge. The impressions and sensations which result from our contacts with external world
through our senses result in knowledge which is true and real. The neo-realist Bertrand Russell, in his
book 'Analysis of Mind', writes- "I contend that ultimate constituent of matter are not atoms... but
sensation. 1 believe that the stuff of our mental life... consists wholly of sensations and
images."
3. Theory of Organism:- According to Realists conscious and unconscious things form an organism.
Thus, Whitehead writes "The universe is a vibrating organism in the process of evolution.
Change is the fundamental feature of this vibrating universe. The very essence of real
actuality is process. Mind must be regarded as the function of the organism."
4. Opposition of Idealism:- There is no place for imagination in Realism at all. Thus, Realista assert
that there are no such entities as God, Soul or the other world. They are mere figments of human
imagination. Hence, having no faith in the existence of God, Soul and their interrelationship, Realists
assert that the scientific realities of matter and its attributes are true and real.
Characteristics of Realistic Education

The chief characteristics of realistic education are given below-
1. Based on Science:- The supporters of Realism emphasized the importance of useful and purposive
education. They advocated the inclusion of scientific subjects in the curriculum and in place of
academic and artificial education, they laid stress on the natural education which gave birth to
Naturalism. Thus, the emphasis on scientific education is the first characteristic of realistic education.
2. Emphasis on Present Life of Child:- The second characteristic of realistic education is to make the
present life of child as the focal point of educational system. As we know the fact that Realism was
born as a reaction to excessive Idealism, it opposed the academic education of mere ideals and
values and emphasized the immediate real and practical problems of day to day living which only can
promote individual good and welfare. In other words, the present life of the child is the centre of all
ducational activities.
3. Emphasis on Experiment and Applied Life:- The third characteristic of realistic education is
emphasis on experiments, experiences and application of knowledge learnt. It lays great stress on
learning by doing, by developing creativity and urge of practical work in children so that they are able
to solve their immediate practical problems and read a real successful life.
4. Opposition of Bookish Knowledge:- Realists decry mere academic, theoretical and bookish
knowledge which develops only rote memory and encourages cramming. It does not enable the child
to understand the realisties of external things and natural phenomena. According of Realists,
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education should inculcate in the child an understanding of both the things and the environment.
Thus, the slogan of realistic education is 'Not words but things. Such type of education promotes
intelligence and a sense of judgement which the bookish education does not do.
Realism and Aims of Education

The following are the aims of realistic education-
1. Preparing the Child for a Happy and Successful Life:- The first aim of realistic education is to
prepare the chiled to lead successful and happy life. Thus, education should be such that the child is
able to solve his problems of life successfully and lead a happy life promoting the welfare of society as
well.
2. Preparing the Child for a Real Life:- The second aim of realistic education is to prepare the child for
a real and practical life. Realists believe in the reality of knowledge of external material world gained
through senses. Thus, they wish to prepare the child for the real life of material world.
3. Developing the Physical and Mental Powers of Child:- According to Realism, mind as well as the
physical organs together constitute an organism composed of matter. Hence, according to this
idealogy, the third aim of education is to develop the physical and mental powers of the child so that
with the help of his developed intelligence, discrimination and judgement, he is able to solve all the
problems of life successfully.
4. Developing and Training of Senses:- Realists believe that unless the senses of the child are
developed fully well, he will not be able to have full knowledge about the external world. Thus, the
fourth aim of realistic education is to develop and train the senses of the child through varied
experiences.
5. Acquainting the Child with Nature and Social Environment:- According to Realism, a child is
related both to the external nature and the social environment. Hence, the fifth aim of education is to
provide the child full knowledge of both the society and the external Nature so that he is above to
strike a balance between the two.
6. Imparting Vocational Education:- According to Realism, education should be to practical utility of
child. Since the problem of livelihood is the main problem of life these days, so according to this
ideology, the sixth aim of education is to provide vocational education to the child.
Realism and Curriculum

Realists insisted that only those subjects and activities should be included in the curriculum which prepare
children for actual day to day living. Accordingly, considering the real situations, conditions and circumstances
of the present day life of human beings, realists emphasized to give prime place to Nature, Science and
vocational subjects whereas secondary place to Arts, Literature and Languages.
It is to be noted that Realists have recommended about thirty subjects for the curriculum. They have also
advocated free choosing by the children from among these subjects. At the same time they have made clear
that teaching of mother-tongue is the foundation of all development and vocational subjects which are
essential for livelihood. Hence, the essential subjects in the curriculum should be language and vocational
subjects.
Realism and Methods of Teaching
Traditional system of education gave to the child only bookish knowledge which was purely academic and
wordy. Hence, it failed to prepare the child for real life. Realists changed that system of teaching to gain
knowledge through sense according to the child's nature and capacity by way of observation and experience.
Emphasizing that objects are real, the Realists insisted to impart knowledge of objects and external
phenomena through senses. In their opinion objects should be first shown and allowed to be handled if need
be arise and then only they be interpreted and explained to the child. This encouraged the use of audio-visual
aids in education.
Realism and Teacher

The role of teacher according to Realists is neither as high and important as the Idealists advocate nor so
negligible as the Naturalists speak out, it is fairly important. The teacher, according to Realists, is expected to
have full knowledge of the content and the needs of children. Not only this, he must also be capable to
present before children the content in a clear and intelligible way by employing psychological and scientific
methods.
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It is the duty of teacher to tell children about scientific discoveries, researches and inventions by others in
various fields of knowledge. He himself should also be engaged in some research work or experimentation. At
the same time he must inspire children to undertake wide and close observation and experimentation
themselves so that they are able to find out new facts. Not only this, the teacher must understand well the
amount of knowledge-to be provided to each child at a specific time. Hence, Realists insist upon the training
of teachers before they engage themselves in the teaching work in an effective way.
Realism and Discipline

Realists emphasize moral and religious education of the child. For this type of education, discipline is
essential and a pre-requisite condition. But what type of discipline? The upholders of this ideology decry
repressionistic discipline. They advocate self-discipline of effective smooth adjustment of the child with
external environment, the teacher only inspiring and encouraging sympathetically. According to Comenius the
school should be like the lap of mother, full of affection, love and sympathy. In short, Realists advocate a
synthetic form of impressionistic and emancipatory forms of discipline.
Realism and School

Realism has different views about school. Some realists do not feel any need of school at all. They prescribe
wide travelling, tours and teaching by private tutors as the best means of education. On the contrary, other
Realists emphasize the importance of school and class teaching. They regard school as a mirror of society
reflecting its true state of affairs. As such, the school should not only include, in its work, all the activities going
on in society, but it should also be well-furnished and equipped with all the necessary aids and devices for
effective observation and experimentation by children.
According to them, the school in an agency which meets the needs of the child and the demands of society as
well. In short, it is school only which provides for the fullest development of the child according to his nature
and needs. Not only this, school is the only agency to provide vocational education to prepare the child for
some livelihood. In the words of Comenius "School are true foregoing places of men."
Philosophical Basis of Realism

1. Realism in metaphysics:- Realism believes that the universe is made of dynamic matter. We can
identify the regular activities of the world on the basis of our experiences. Matter is in motion and
exists therefore it is true.
2. Realism in epistemology:- Realists believe that the real world exists. We know the real thing
because it exists. We can say that if the object exists in the real world then it is true. Any statement is
acceptable only after analysis. The mind accepts the existence of knowledge.
3. Realism in Values:- Realists believe in natural laws. They say that a person can lead a virtuous life
by following these rules. Nature is full of beauty. A beautiful art-work is a reflection of the order and
logic of the universe or nature. Art should be appreciated.
Major Features of Realism

Realistic education did not have musch impact on the traditional education. Only in England and Germany
some schools were opened to insist on religious education and mother-tongue as medium. Gradually the
ideals of Realistic education permeated the social thinking and beliefs of educationists. Now, we discuss
below the cheif merits of Realistic education-
Realism emphasizes that education should be practical and utilitarian. Now impractical and useless education
has come to be regarded as waste of time, energy and resources.
Realism prescribed realistic and useful aims of education. Such aims are directly related to the needs of the
individuals and demands of society.
Because of Realistic education, scientific subjects have found an important place in the curriculum. Thus,
people of this age have begun to believe that without science, no country can develop and progress.
Realistic education has brought about revolutionary changes in the methods of teaching. In modern
education, the Inductive method has replaced the traditional Deductive method. In addition, Heuristic,
Experimental and Correlation devices have come in the field and accepted by all to be really effective
methods.
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In place of repressionistic discipline, a synthetic form of impressionistic and emancipatory disciplines is being
accepted by educationists today.
 PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism is “a process philosophy that stresses evolving and change rather than being” (Johnson et.
al., 2011, p. 91). In other words, pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing so we learn best
through experience.
According to pragmatists, the learner is constantly conversing and being changed by the environment
with whom he or she is interacting. There is “no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what
works” (Cohen, 1999, p.1). Based on what is learned at any point and time, the learner or the world in
which he or she is interacting can be changed.
According to J. S. Ross, pragmatism is a humanistic philosophy that affirms people’s active role in forming
their values. It acknowledges that reality is a work in progress that will eventually be finished. Within this
context, pragmatism admits that our truths are human creations that are prone to some degree of
uncertainty & change.
James B. Prett further delves into the dimensions of pragmatism, revealing its comprehensive nature. In
addition to giving us a theory of meaning that sheds light on how we perceive the world, pragmatism also
offers us insights into truth by highlighting the practical and experiential nature of knowledge. Moreover,
pragmatism encompasses a theory of reality, recognizing the dynamic & evolving nature of our existence.
Pragmatism in Education: Elements

The curriculum should emphasise practical skills & real-world applications, according to pragmatism in
education. Even if knowledge in fields like mathematics and science is useful in everyday life, pragmatism
supports that a wider range of courses should be covered in school to foster all-around development (growth).
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It fosters the personal growth of students or learners in addition to dispensing material. Let’s look at the
primary elements of pragmatism in education.
Recently, universities and institutions have begun to recognise the value of social emotional learning (SEL). In
order to help students deal with conflict, navigate daily life, and control their emotions, SEL courses aim to
provide them with the tools they need. By encouraging SEL and improving students’ preparation for both
academic success & personal well-being, schools can provide students with a well-rounded education.
Dynamic Aims of Education: Adapting to Changing Needs

Pragmatists acknowledge the dynamic nature of life and argue that educational aims should align with the
evolving needs of society. They believe education should address students’ biological Plus social needs while
empowering them to create new values. By emphasizing adaptability & experiential learning, education
becomes a catalyst for developing problem-solving abilities essential for future success.
Holistic Development: Nurturing Well-Rounded Individuals
Pragmatic thought places a high importance on holistic development, which encompasses the mental,
physical, social physicological, and aesthetic aspects. The purpose of education should be to develop well-
rounded individuals who can effectively manage life’s various problems plus hurdles because they have the
knowledge, abilities, skills, and morals to do so. Education can promote personal development including a
broader awareness of the world by covering a range of topics, including experience, events, and activities.
Types of Pragmatism in Education
There are three primary types of pragmatism, each of which gives a unique viewpoint on reality & truth.
Humanistic Pragmatism: Celebrating Human Essence

Humanistic pragmatism holds that truth resides in principles that fulfill human needs, aspirations, and
objectives, ultimately contributing to the well-being of humanity. It asserts that only that which satisfies the
nature of humankind can be deemed true and real. In essence, humanistic pragmatists embrace the belief
that truth lies in whatever aligns with their purpose, satisfies their desires, and fosters personal growth.
Experimental Pragmatism: Validating Truth through Experimentation

Experimental pragmatism takes a pragmatic approach to truth, asserting that a concept or principle can be
deemed true if it can be verified through experimentation. According to this perspective, truth is found in what
can be practically tested and proven. The guiding principle of experimental pragmatism is that whatever can
be experimentally verified holds inherent truth or, in simpler terms, “what works is true.”
Biological Pragmatism: Adapting and Thriving in the Environment
John Dewey’s biological pragmatism emphasises the worth and importance of human abilities that allow
people to adapt to their environment or change it to suit their needs. The core idea is that the capacity to
adjust and transform one’s surroundings according to personal requirements holds immense importance.
John Dewey believed that the role of thought, which helps the human body adapt to its environment, is the
true test of pragmatism.
Pragmatism and the Aims of Education

Pragmatists believe that education must adapt to the dynamic nature of life, as it is subject to constant
change. They assert that education should fulfill the biological and social needs of individuals, empowering
them to create new values. Pragmatists contend that supporting pupils in the formation of their own values is
the primary responsibility of educators. According to pragmatism, education should have the following
objectives:
Creating new values: Pragmatists reject the notion of fixed educational aims. They believe that education
should foster the creation of new values, enabling individuals to develop their own.
Facilitating experiential learning: To generate new values, practical experience and activity are essential.
Education should offer physical, intellectual, moral, & aesthetic activities as vehicles for value creation.
34 | F N D 5 0 2
Promoting self and societal adjustment: Another significant aim of pragmatism in education is to help
students adapt to themselves and society.
Encouraging the reconstruction of experiences: Individuals face diverse complex problems in life, and
education should equip them with an outlook that enables them to tackle these challenges successfully.
Fostering all-round development: Pragmatism emphasizes holistic development encompassing physical,

mental, social, plus aesthetic aspects.
Contribution of Pragmatism to Education:

The core of every educational process is activity. The child’s action is the cornerstone of all teaching.
Pragmatism views education as preparation for life, making individuals socially efficient. It encourages
students or pupils to actively participate in their learning process Plus set goals based on their requirements &
interests. Pragmatism recognizes the importance of individual differences and encourages education tailored
to each student’s aptitudes and abilities. By respecting and catering to the inclinations and capacities of
individuals, pragmatism promotes personal growth and development.
Pragmatism offers several contributions to education:
 Dynamic Aims of Education
 Adjustment and Social Integration
 All-Round Development
Pragmatism and the Curriculum

In curriculum development, pragmatism suggests the following principles:
Principle of Utility:
 The curriculum should include subjects, activities, and experiences that are useful to the present
needs of students while also preparing them for future adult life. This includes subjects such as
language, physical well-being, physical training, geography, history, science, agriculture, & home
science.
 Principle of Interest:
 The curriculum should focus on activities and experiences that capture students’ interests.
Pragmatism recognizes four varieties of interest: conversation, investigation, construction, and
creative expression. At the primary stage, the curriculum should include writing, counting, art,
craftwork, natural science, and other practical work that align with these interest varieties.
Principle of Experience:
Pragmatism emphasizes the integration of the child’s activity, vocation, and experience in the curriculum.
Learning experiences should promote original thinking and the development of social and purposeful
attitudes. By providing diverse learning experiences, the curriculum enables students to reorganize and
reconstruct their knowledge.
Principle of Integration:
Pragmatism advocates for a flexible, dynamic, and integrated curriculum that caters to the changing needs
and demands of students & society. Integration of subjects and activities allows for a comprehensive
approach to education, facilitating the development of well-rounded individuals.
Pragmatism and the Method of Teaching

A learner-centered approach to teaching and learning is emphasised by pragmatic thinking. The method of
teaching in pragmatism revolves around the child, prioritizing action over theory. The aim is to foster practical,
hands-on learning experiences. Pragmatists believe that every child has a unique mind, and therefore, a fixed
method of teaching cannot be universally applicable. A few essential components of the pragmatic method of
instruction include:
Learning by Doing:
Pragmatism places a strong emphasis on learning through action. All learning should come as a product of
action, making individuals creative, confident, and cooperative. The project method and active engagement in
35 | F N D 5 0 2
purposeful and cooperative projects and activities are significant contributions of pragmatism to modern
education.
Discovery and Inquiry:

An strategy that prioritises research and inquiry is encouraged by pragmatic thinking. Students (pupils) are
encouraged to look at, think about, Plus explore the world around them. By allowing students to engage in
practical experimentation, inquiry, Plus problem-solving activities, the teacher must assist this process.
Students get a deeper comprehension of the subject matter, the capacity for critical thought, and these
abilities via exploration and inquiry.
Flexibility and Adaptability:

Flexibility in teaching is important, according to pragmatic thinking. Every student’s needs and preferences
should be taken into account in the teaching strategy. Based on the particular traits of their students, teachers
should be willing to modify their approaches and methods. This adaptability enables individualised instruction
and a more productive learning environment.
Integration of Knowledge:
Pragmatism emphasizes the integration of knowledge across different subjects and real-life experiences.
Learning is not seen as isolated pieces of information but rather as a connected and meaningful whole.
Pragmatist teachers encourage interdisciplinary learning, where students can see the connections between
different subjects and apply their knowledge in practical contexts.
Social Interaction and Collaboration:

Pragmatism values social interaction and collaboration in the learning process. Students are urged to
collaborate, exchange ideas, plus gain knowledge from one another. In the classroom, this promotes social
skills, interpersonal abilities,communication abilities, teamwork, and a sense of community. Pragmatist
teaching frequently employs collaborative exercises, group discussions, and projects to encourage social
interaction and active learning.
Reflective Thinking:
Pragmatism promotes reflective thinking as a vital aspect of the learning process. Students are urged to
consider their past experiences, consider their choices, and assess the outcomes. This develops cognitive
skills, self-awareness, plus the capacity to draw lessons from the past. Pupils who engage in reflective
thinking are better equipped to link theory to practise and have a deeper knowledge of their own learning.
Characteristics of Pragmatic Education

The primary characteristics of pragmatic education are as follows:
Lifelong learning:
Pragmatists disapprove of conventional education because they see it as ineffective and lifeless. They
emphasise that only through activities, experiments, and actual life experiences can one truly learn
knowledge. Through active engagement in their learning, this method fosters students’ curiosity and a
vigorous pursuit of information.
Learning as Growth:
Pragmatism maintains that society is constantly evolving. Education must adapt in order to stay up with these
developments and support both individual growth and societal progress. In order to best prepare students for
a constantly changing world, pragmatic education attempts to coordinate its operations and structure with the
changing demands and needs of society.
Education as Continuous Reconstruction of Experiences:

Pragmatism recognizes that education is a process of development rather than the accumulation of fixed
knowledge. Knowledge is not static or predetermined but changes with the times and circumstances.
Pragmatic education encourages learners to critically examine & reconstruct their experiences, enabling them
to adapt and thrive in diverse situations.
Examples of Pragmatism in Education

Experiential, Experimental, and Project-Based Learning:
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In the world of pragmatism, education thrives through firsthand experiences. Pragmatists firmly believe that
students grasp concepts best when they engage in experiential, experimental, and project-based learning.
Students are encouraged to engage in active discovery rather than boring rote memorization. They delve into
hands-on experiments, tinker with materials, and embark on scientific projects that ignite their curiosity.
Writing tasks that connect to their lives & practical mathematical problems that they can apply outside the
classroom become the norm, paving the way for meaningful learning experiences.
Play-Based Learning:
Pragmatic educators understand the inherent power of play in a child’s development. Play-based learning
takes center stage, especially in early childhood classrooms. Pragmatists recognize that through play,
children naturally immerse themselves in the world, discovering and learning without even realizing it. It
becomes a gateway to endless exploration, where children experiment, socialize, and develop a deeper
understanding of themselves & their surroundings. In this realm, learning intertwines with joy, fostering holistic
growth in young learners.
Group Work and Negotiation

In the pragmatic realm of education, the pursuit of practical outcomes outweighs the pursuit of perfection.
Collaboration, negotiation, and compromise take center stage. Group work becomes the norm, cultivating a
sense of teamwork and cooperation among students. Pragmatic teachers play a vital role in explicitly teaching
these essential skills. They design learning environments in the classroom that encourage group problem-
solving & judgement. By leading students through the complexities of collaboration, teachers provide them
useful tools to deal with issues outside of the classroom.
By way of these examples, pragmatism’s fundamentals are brought to life in the context of education,
transforming pupils into proactive, adaptive, and socially capable persons prepared to handle the challenges
of daily life.
Teacher and Children Role

The Role of the Pragmatic Teacher:
In pragmatic education, the teacher serves more as a facilitator than as the exclusive source of information.
They create resource-rich classrooms and design project-based lessons that promote active learning. The
pragmatic teacher guides students in setting and accomplishing tasks, encouraging them to find practical and
effective solutions through their own exploration and problem-solving abilities.
Pragmatists perspectives on children
Children are active, competent, and capable learners, according to pragmatics. They think that kids have the
intrinsic aptitude to look for answers to the problems they run into. With this viewpoint, kids may take charge
of their education and acquire the abilities they need to face challenges.
Summary of Pragmatism in Education

 Understanding Pragmatism: Pragmatism in education emphasizes teaching practical skills and
tackling real-world issues rather than conforming to set theories or norms. It values the application
of education to the real world and the growth of individuals.
 Meaning of Pragmatism: Pragmatism combines activity or work with practicability or utility. It
emphasizes the importance of engaging in activities or experiments to achieve practicality and
utility. Pragmatism views truth, reality, goodness, and badness as relative and validated through
personal experiences.
 Pragmatism in Education: Pragmatic education focuses on learning with real-world relevance. It
promotes practical skills, social-emotional learning (SEL), dynamic aims of education, holistic
development, and the adaptation to changing needs.
 Contribution of Pragmatism to Education: Pragmatism contributes to education through dynamic
aims, adjustment and social integration, and fostering all-round development. It recognizes the
importance of individual differences and supports personal growth and development.
 Pragmatism and the Curriculum: Pragmatism suggests a curriculum that is useful, captures
students’ interests, integrates experiences, and is flexible and integrated. It aims to prepare
students for future adult life while catering to their changing needs and demands.
 Pragmatism and the Method of Teaching: Pragmatic teaching emphasizes learner-centered
approaches, learning by doing, discovery and inquiry, flexibility and adaptability, integration of
knowledge, social interaction and collaboration, and reflective thinking.
37 | F N D 5 0 2
 Characteristics of Pragmatic Education: Pragmatic education focuses on lifelong learning,

learning as growth, and the continuous reconstruction of experiences. It adapts to societal changes
and encourages critical thinking and adaptation to diverse situations.
 Examples of Pragmatism in Education: Play-based learning, project-based learning, experiential
learning, and group work and negotiation are all components of pragmatic education. These
instances encourage inquiry-based learning, socialisation, and useful problem-solving abilities.
 The function of the pragmatic educator: As facilitators, pragmatic teachers help students design
and complete tasks while encouraging active learning, curiosity, and problem-solving skills. They
develop classrooms that are resource-rich and inspire students to explore real-world problems and
solutions.
 Practical Viewpoints on Children: Children are seen by pragmatism as engaged, capable
learners who can do their own research and take care of their education. It recognizes the inherent
talent children possess as well as their capacity to overcome obstacles and learn vital skills.
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R A C H E L ’ S N O T E S

Essentialism in education was a movement started by William C. Bagleyas in the

Essentialism rests upon the philosophical ideas of realism and idealism. It

The Classroom Environment

Pros and Cons of Essentialist Education

Clarity in Educational Goals

Clear Learning Objectives

Student Goal Alignment

Development of Core Skills

Fostering Discipline and Order

Potential Narrowing of Perspectives

Limitation of Creativity and Innovation

Impact on Individualized Learning

Strain on Teacher Flexibility

Challenges Impact Strategies for Mitigation

Risk of Ignoring Student Diversity

Influence on Critical Thinking Skills

FEATURES OF A PROGRESSIVE CURRICULUM

INSTRUCTION IN THE CLASSROOM

Promoting the use of project work, centered around the scientific

 Promoting values of community, cooperation,tolerance, justice, and democratic equality.

Francis W. Parker was the superintendent of schools in Quincy,

JOHN DEWEY (1859 – 1952)

WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK (1871-1965)

The Project Method

Although many aspects of his student-centered approach were highly regarded,

LAY (SECULAR) PERENNIALISTS

INSTRUCTION IN THE CLASSROOM

ROBERT M. HUTCHINS (1899 – 1977)

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom and choice,

Famous existentialism philosophers

What existentialism teaches us

The personality of the child, according to the naturalists, is fashioned by:

Environment is of two types:

1. Physical Naturalists (Instinctivists):

2. Biological Naturalists (Darwinians):

The basic standpoints of biological naturalism are two:

Some Basic Principles of Naturalism:

Naturalism and Aims of Education:

Naturalism and Curriculum:

Naturalism and Methods of Teaching:

Naturalism and the Teacher:

Naturalism and Discipline:

Meaning, Definition, Principles and Characteristics of Naturalism

Characteristics of Naturalistic Education

Naturalism and Curriculum

Naturalism and Methods of Teaching

Naturalism and Teacher

Naturalism and Discipline

Naturalism and School

Idealism and curriculum

Idealism and aim of education

Idealism and stages of education

Idealism and method of teaching

Idealism and assessment

Idealism and Aims of Education

Idealism and Curriculum

Idealism and Methods of Teaching

Idealism and Discipline