International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 34 (3): 277-291, 2008

© NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ECOLOGY, NEW DELHI

The Sacred Groves and Their Significance in Conserving Biodiversity

An Overview

M .L. K H A N * 1, A SH A LA T A D EV I K H U M BO N G M AYU M 2 AN D R.S. T RIPAT H I 3

1
Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli 791109 (Itanagar), Arunachal
Pradesh, India (Email: khanml@ yahoo.com)
2
Department of Environmental Science, Tezpur University, Napam 784028, Assam, India (Email: khasha2001@ yahoo.com)
3
INSA Senior Scientist, National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap M arg, Lucknow 226 001, India
(Email: tripathirs@ yahoo.co.uk)
* Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

Sacred groves are tracts of virgin forest with rich diversity, which have been protected by the local people for
centuries for their cultural and religious beliefs and taboos that the deities reside in them and protect the villagers
from different calamities. Every sacred grove carries its own legends, lore, and myths which form the integral part
of the sacred grove. An inextricable link between present society and past in terms of biodiversity, culture, religious
and ethnic heritage exists in sacred groves. Sacred groves are distributed across the globe, and diverse cultures
recognize them in different ways encoding various rules for their protection. Sacred groves occur in many parts of
India viz., Western Ghats, Central India, northeast India, etc. particularly where the indigenous communities live.
These are known by different names given to them by the ethnic people. Sacred groves act as an ideal centre for
biodiversity conservation. Several plants and animals that are threatened in the forest are still well conserved in some
of the sacred groves. It has been observed that several medicinal plants that are not to be found in the forest are
abundant in the sacred groves. Further, rare, endangered, threatened and endemic species are often concentrated
in sacred groves. The sacredness, religious beliefs and taboos play a significant role in promoting sustainable
utilization and conservation of flora and fauna of the region. However, with the passage of time, considerable
changes have taken place in the extent of the sacred groves, in their vegetation structure, peoples’ perception towards
them and the religious beliefs and taboos. Therefore, a holistic understanding of the current status, structure and
function of sacred grove is essential for assessing their ecological role and formulating strategies for their
conservation. This paper briefly reviews the studies on sacred groves across the globe in general and India in
particular, highlighting that the tradition of sacred groves could provide a powerful tool for ensuring biodiversity
conservation through community participation.

Key Words: Traditional Practices, Sacred Groves, Indigenous Beliefs and Taboos, Biodiversity Conservation

INTRODUCTION expanded to meet the increasing demands of the people.

Various anthropogenic activities have altered the
Since time immemorial conservation of natural resource structure and function of different ecosystems all over
has been an integral part of diverse cultures in different the world. One of the most conspicuous effects of
ways. The traditional worship practices show the ecosystem perturbation has been the depletion of
symbiotic relation of human beings and nature. biodiversity. Disappearance of species due to habitat
Indigenous communities all over the world lived in alteration, overexploitation, pollution, global climate
harmony with the nature and conserved its valuable change and invasion of exotic species is so fast that
biodiversity. In course of time, science and technology many valuable taxa may vanish even before they are
developed and industries were established and identified and their scientific value is discovered. In
278 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.

view of the adverse effects of biodiversity degradation, sacred groves of Asia and Africa and royal hunting
ecologists, environmentalists and conser-vationists has forests are the historical examples (Chandrashekara and
made conservation of biodiversity as an issue of global, Sankar 1998, Kanowski et al. 1999). It is believed that
national and regional significance. M any areas have these sacred virgin forests date back to thousands of
been declared as protected areas and various in-situ and years when human society was in the primitive state.
ex-situ conservation practices have also been undertaken Gadgil and Vartak (1975) have traced the historical
in different parts of the world. M any laws governing the link of the sacred groves to the pre- agricultural,
biodiversity conservation have also been enacted from hunting and gathering stage of societies. Hence, these
time to time including “The Biological Diversity Act virgin forests are believed to be pre-Vedic in origin. The
2002” enacted by the Govt. of India. Besides these area of sacred groves ranges from few square meters to
formal laws, there were many traditional conservation several hectares. There exist some fascinating examples
practices of indigenous com m unities in many parts of of forest patches harbouring native vegetation, which
the world, which contributed to the conservation and have been intertwined with various aspects of indi-
protection of biodiversity. A good example of such genous, cultural and religious practices along with the
traditional practices is the conservation and protection associated taboos (Gadgil and Vartak 1976). Physi-
of small forest patches by dedicating them to the local cally, it is a piece of forest land, but culturally, it is
deities by various indigenous communities of the world. associated with deities, rituals and taboos. Sacred
Such forest patches are called “sacred groves”. Sacred groves provide the inextricable link between present
groves are the tracts of virgin forest that were left society to the past in terms of biodiversity, culture,
untouched by the local inhabitants, harbour rich religious and ethnic heritage. In the present day society,
biodiversity, and are protected by the local people due there are several endogamous populations that continue
to their cultural and religious beliefs and taboos that to practice many forms of nature worship. Various
the deities reside in them. The traditional communities of our

Figure 1. Relationships between ecological values, religious beliefs and traditional values, and causes of degradation of sacred
groves (modified from Khumbongmayum et al. 2004)
34: 277-291 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves 279

country follow nature worship in their own ethnic ways, and ethical practices developed through indigenous
based on the premise that all creations of nature have knowledge of generations (Ramakrishnan and Ram
to be protected. The concept of sacred groves could be 1988, Godbole et al. 1998, Godbole and Sarnaik 2004,
traced to such communities as have preserved several Tiwari et al. 1998a,b, Singh et al. 1998). Thus, tradi-
virgin forests in their pristine form by dedicating them tional nature worship practices as followed in different
to the ancestral spirits or deities. As a result, sacred parts of world do contribute to the promotion of the
groves still possess a great heritage of diverse gene pool regional/national goals of conservation of biodiversity.
of many forest species. Some of the species present in
sacred groves are considered as sacred. These ‘sacred’ Existence of Sacred Groves Across the Globe
species have socioreligious concept of the sacred groves
intertwines carefully with various socio - cultural and In India as well as in parts of Asia and Africa, care and
religious beliefs, and taboos, and ecological services of respect for nature has been influenced by religious
sacred groves. People’s changing attitudes, erosion of beliefs and indigenous practices. The existence of sacred
traditional beliefs, and human impact have caused groves has been reported in many parts of Asia, Africa,
degradation of sacred groves over the years (Figure 1). Europe, Australia and America by Hughes and Chandra
Gadgil and Berkes (1991) have m entioned that various (1998). Groves are also reported from Ghana, Nigeria,
traditional approaches to conservation of nature require Syria, Turkey and Japan (Gadgil and Vartak 1976). A
a belief system which includes a number of prescrip- document of M AB (1995) has described the sacred
tions and proscriptions for restrained resource use. groves present in Ghana, Senegal, and Sumatra. Several
D afni (2006) elaborated the typology and worship small size sacred groves were reported from Nepal by
status of sacred trees in the middle east and mentioned Ingles (1994). Various sacred sites associated with rich
about 24 known reasons for the establishment of sacred vegetation in Bangladesh w ere reported by Hussain
groves. (1998).
All forms of vegetation in the groves are supposed The Dubla Island sacred grove in Sundarbans
to be under the protection of reigning deity of that mangrove forest in Bangladesh harbours rich vegetation
grove, and the rem oval of even a small twig is a taboo and is a place of worship for low caste Hindus, who
(Vartak and Gadgil 1973). Collection and removal of visit it once in a year for prayer (Islam et al. 1998). In
any material from the sacred groves is prohibited (Khan Afghanistan, after advent of Islam, the creation and
et al. 1987, Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan 1989). conservation of sacred grove became a part of historical
Sacred groves can be used as indicators for potential and geographical tradition of the rural people
natural vegetation (Schaaf 1998) and are vital for well (M ohamed 1998). The positive role of sacred groves in
being of the society. Sacred groves or sacred trees serve the socioeconomic and cultural lives of many rural folks
as a home for birds and mammals, and hence, they in Ghana has been possible because of the collective
indirectly help in the conservation of living organisms efforts of people to protect them (M ichaloud and Durry
(Islam et al. 1998). Karanth (1998) opined about the 1998).
alternative concept of ‘sustainable landscapes’ in combi- However, in M ongolia sacred groves are not
nation with the ideas of the emerging discipline of protected by the Government but few sacred places
ecological economics and may provide useful tools for which have been declared officially as sacred sites are
protecting the sacred groves in which our wildlife has to
protected by the Government (Gongorin 1998).
survive into the 21st century.
Ramakrishnan (1996) reported the existence of sacred
Besides, the sacred groves provide a number of
groves in different parts of India and they are known by
ecosystem services such as reduction in erosive force of
different names in different areas (Bhakat 1990).
water, conservation of soil, m aintenance of hydrological
cycle, availability of water of desired quality and natural
Sacred Groves in India
dispersal of seeds of useful species. The sacred groves
also help in maintaining the desirable health of eco-
Setting aside patches of forest land and leaving them
system, reduce habitat destruction, conserve the viable
intact on the grounds of religious belief of the
population of pollinators and predators, serve as the
traditional com m unities has been the practice for
potential source of propagules that are required for
centuries in our country. Indian society comprises
colonization of wastelands and fallows, conserve the
several cultures, each with its own set of traditional
indigenous flora and fauna and preserve the cultural
methods of conserving nature and its creatures. Sacred
280 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.

groves are found all over India especially in those base of sacred groves have been discussed. Such a
regions where indigenous communities inhabit. In India factual database would support the development of
the earliest documented work on sacred grove is that of strategies for conservation and protection of these
the first Inspector General of Forests, D . Brandis in unique heritage ecosystems.
1897. Later, Gadgil and Vartak (1976, 1981ab) traced M ost of the sacred groves reported from India are
the historical link of sacred groves with the pre-agri- in the W estern Ghats, North Eastern India and Central
cultural, hunting and gathering stage, before human India (Gadgil and Vartak 1976, Burman 1992, Rodgers
being had settled down to raise livestocks or till land. 1994, Balasubramanyam and Induchoodan 1996,
Recently, moving towards the scientific technologies, Tripathi 2001, Khumbongmayum et al. 2005a). Sacred
Gaikwad et al. (2004) have developed a web-interfaced groves have been reported in M eghalaya (Boojh and
multimedia database on sacred groves of India in order Ramakrishnan 1983, Ramakrishnan 1996, Tiwari et al.
to build the comprehensive information resource 1998a, Jamir 2002, Law 2002, Upadhaya 2002, M ishra
documenting biodiversity status of sacred groves. The et al. 2004), M anipur (Khumbongmayum 2004, Khum-
concept, structure and information model of the data bongmayum et al. 2005a), W estern Ghats (Gadgil and

Table 1. Sacred groves distributed in different parts of India along with the area covered by them.
(Adopted from M alhotra 1998 and M alhotra et al. 2001)

Location Number of Districts Area (ha) References

sacred groves

Andhra Pradesh 800 - - Rao (1996)

Andhra Pradesh 750 23 - WWF, Andhra Pradesh (1996)
Arunachal Pradesh 58 2 - Chatterjee et al. (2000)
Arunachal Pradesh 101 4 - Khan et al. (2007)
Assam 40 1 - Deb (unpublished data)
Gujarat 29 1 0.42 Gupta et al. (2000)
Harayana 248 18 - NAEB (1995)
Himachal Pradesh 11 - - Singh et al. (1998)
Karnataka (Coorg) 1214 - 2407 Kalam (1996)
Kerala 2000 - 500 Rajendraprasad (1995)
Madhya Pradesh 275 - - (Srivastava 1994)
Maharashtra 1600 - - Deshmukh et al. (1998)
Maharashtra 483 10 3570 Gadgil and Vartak (1981b)
Maharashtra 250 1 - Godbole et al. (1998)
Manipur 365 - - Devi (2000)
Manipur 166 4 756.42 Khumbongmayum et al. (2004)
Meghalaya 79 - 26,326 Tiwari et al. (1998a)
Orissa 322 - 50 Malhotra et al. (1997)
Rajasthan 1 - 83 Singh and Saxena (1998)
Rajasthan 9 - 158 Jha et al. (1998)
Sikkim 56 4 - Chatterjee et al. (2000)
Tamil Nadu 10 - 127 Swamy et al. (1998)
Tamil Nadu 3 - - Oliver King et al. (1997)
Tamil Nadu 1 - - Maheswaran et al. (1995 )
Tamil Nadu 448 28 - Amrithalingam (1998)
Uttar Pradesh 6 - 5500 Sinha and Maikhuri (1998)
West Bengal 7 - 2 Malhotra et al. (1997)
West Bengal 190 - 15 Deb and Malhotra (2001)
West Bengal 670 5 - Deb et al. (1997)
34: 277-291 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves 281

Vartak 1976). M itra and Pal (1994) also reported the spot’ of sacred grove tradition in the world (Kushalappa
occurrence of sacred groves in M eghalaya, Bihar, et al. 2001). However, it may be mentioned that most
Rajasthan and the states along the W estern Ghats. of the sacred groves of Karnataka are much smaller in
Their existence along the Himalaya, from northwest to area compared to the sacred groves of northeast India,
northeast, was described by Burman (1992) and particularly M eghalaya. Kadamba (1998) enumerated
Rodgers (1994). Sacred mangroves, experiencing little 80 sacred groves from the M arakkanam-Pondicherry-
or no damage at all, with some religious significance, Cuddalore regions on the south-eastern coast, and their
were reported from Rann of Kutch, M aharashtra, Goa, status was assessed on the basis of their appearance and
Tamil Nadu and W est Bengal (Untawale et al. 1998). composition (Kadamba et al. 2000). Sunitha and Rao
In India, sacred groves are found mainly in tribal (1999) studied the characteristics and distribution of
dominated areas and are known by different names in the flora of the sacred groves in K urnool district of
ethnic terms (Bhakat 1990) such as Sarna or Dev in Andhra Pradesh. Basu (2000) reported a sacred grove
M adhya Pradesh, Devrai or Deovani in M aharashtra, spread over 72,681m 2 area and harbouring 106 species
Sarnas in Bihar, Orans in Rajasthan, Devaravana or from the Purulia district of W est Bengal. Panda et al.
Devarakadu in Karnataka, Sarpakavu and Kavu in Tamil (2003) reported 10 important sacred groves of Santhals
Nadu and Kerala, Dev van in Himachal Pradesh, Law from the Bankura district of W est Bengal. Singh et al.
Lyngdoh or Law Kyntang etc. in M eghalaya, Sarana or (1998) recorded several sacred groves in Himachal
Jaherthan in Jharkhand and Lai umang in M anipur. They Pradesh, most of which were of small size, while Sinha
are protected and managed by local people on religious and M aikhuri (1998) reported several sacred groves
grounds and traditional beliefs. W herever the sacred from different parts of the Garhwal Himalaya.
groves existed, the indigenous traditional societies,
which have a spiritual relationship with their physical Sacred Groves in Northeast India
environment, sustain them.
Several studies have been conducted on sacred Various ethnic groups of north-eastern India have
groves of different parts of India (Table 1). About 4215 preserved and protected several forest patches and even
sacred groves covering an area of 39,063 hectares are individual trees or animals due to their traditional belief
estim ated to be distributed in India (M alhotra 1998). and respect for nature. M any sacred groves were
Gadgil and Vartak (1975, 1976) made an inventory of reported from the states of M eghalaya and M anipur
the sacred groves or ‘Devrais’ of M aharashtra. Detailed and from Karbi Anglong area of Assam, in north-eastern
information on the location, area and associated deity, India (Tripathi 2001). In Arunachal Pradesh a few of
folklores and traditional beliefs of 233 groves from the sacred groves managed by Lamas and M ompa tribe,
different districts of M aharashtra were collected by are attached to the Buddhist monasteries and they are
Gadgil and Vartak (1981b), who recorded a range of called Gompa Forest Areas (GFAs). These monasteries
vegetation from semi-evergreen to dry deciduous type are mainly in W est Kameng and Tawang districts of the
in rainfall regimes from 5,000 mm to 500 mm. state and 58 G FAs were reported from these two
According to Burman (1992), the number of sacred districts (M alhotra et al. 2001) and a few sacred groves
groves in M aharashtra in the W estern Ghats is much from Lower Subansiri and Siang district of the state
more than the number recorded by Gadgil and Vartak (Chatterjee et al. 2000). In a recent inventory, Khan et
(1976, 1981 b) in their various studies. Balasubra- al. (2007) have reported a total of 101 sacred groves
manyan and Induchoodan (1996) reported 761 sacred with detailed information from the different districts of
groves in Kerala with floristic wealth of over 722 species Arunachal Pradesh. M ost of the sacred groves are
belonging to 217 families and 474 genera. Induchoodan located at high altitudes in the state. Largest number
(1996) reported that out of the 761 sacred grove in (39) of them are located in the Tawang district followed
Kerala, 399 (32.17 %) were of less than 0.02 ha in by W est Kameng (24) and Lohit (15) and only 2 in the
extent and only 362 groves were larger than 0.02 ha. Papumpare district. M any of these sacred groves are
Kushalappa et al. (2001) inventoried 1214 sacred attached to the ‘Gompa’ i.e., Buddhist monasteries and
groves covering an area of 2550.45 ha in Kodagu they are under the control of monasteries and conserved
district in Karnataka. The groves in Karnataka have due to religious considerations. The forest dwelling
been protected in the names of 165 different deities tribes such as Bodo and Rabha, inhabiting the plains
and perhaps this state has the highest density of the and foothills of W estern Assam have the traditions of
groves in the world and could be regarded as the ‘hot- maintaining sacred groves which are locally called
282 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.

“Than”. Karbi Anglong district of Assam also has about Sacred Groves:
40 sacred groves. Dimasa tribes in the North Cachar Ideal Centres for Biodiversity Conservation
hills in H aflong district of Assam call sacred groves as
“M adaico”. The size of M adaico is generally not more The importance of sacred groves in the conservation of
than one acre. Sacred groves are also found in the biological diversity has been well recognized. Gadgil
plains of Brahmaputra valley in Assam. The Vaishnav and Vartak (1975, 1976) found a grove in the Koloba
temples like “Shankara Deva M athas” distributed all over district of M aharashtra harbouring a solitary specimen
the state of Assam also have sacred groves (M alhotra et of the liana Entada phaseoloides. A new species of a
al. 2001). leguminous climber Kunstleria keralensis, has been
In M anipur, D evi (2000) mentioned the existence reported from one of the sacred groves of Kerala
of about 365 sacred groves and Rajendro (2001) did (Gadgil and Chandran 1992). They observed that
the mapping of a few sacred groves of M anipur with Gurjan tree (Dipterocarpus indicus) has its northern limit
special reference to concentration of rare and endemic in the W estern Ghats in a couple of sacred groves of
species in these groves. Directory of ancestral deities Uttara Kannada. Ficus benghalensis L. (Aal) in sacred
(Umanglai) residing in various sacred groves of M anipur groves at Suriam pettai plays the role of a keystone
was published by Chandrashekhar (1987) and Kula- species providing a niche for the large number of birds
chandra (1963, 1996). Recently, a total of 166 sacred and plants (Oliver King et al. 1997). According to
groves were inventoried covering an area of 175.62 several reports there is a concentration of rare, endemic
hectares from the four districts of M anipur that are and endangered species in sacred groves. Chandra-
distributed in different locations of the state (Khum- shekara and Sankar (1998) recorded 73 species in three
bongmayum et al. 2004). The size of the individual sacred groves of Kerala, and among them 13 are
sacred grove varied from a clump of a few trees to 40 ha endemic to south W estern Ghats, 3 are endemic to
within the elevation of 691 to 860 m. 145 groves were W estern Ghats and 1 is endemic to peninsular India.
inventoried in the valley, 6 in the foothills, 7 in the Khan et al. (1997) reported that about 4% of the total
hillocks and 4 each near catchment areas or river banks plant species found in M eghalaya are confined to sacred
and hills. Their distribution in varied locations helps in groves. Gadgil and Chandran (1992) have also noticed
the conservation of whole variety of valuable medicinal a small population of endangered primates, and lion-
plants and several rare and endem ic plant and animal tailed macaques in and around Katlekan sacred grove of
species (Khumbongmayum 2004, Khumbongmayum et Uttara Kannada. Several trees having non-timber uses
al. 2005a). Precisely, sacred groves of M anipur are the and macrofungi useful to the local people, as well as
ideal places for worshipping the Umanglais and are those with medicinal properties were abundant in
meant for the preservation of forest, culture and sacred groves of W estern Ghats (Bhagwat et al. 2005).
religion. M eiteis (an ethnic group of M anipur) worship They also reported that threatened trees were more
Umanglais with the celebrations called Lai-Harouba abundant in sacred groves than in reserve forest.
which means ‘pleasing of gods’ or merry festivals of the
deities. The celebration starts with the onset of the wet Socio-cultural Practices and Sacred Species
season in the month of Kaalen (in M anipuri calendar)
that normally coincides with M ay. Descriptive accounts of religious and cultural practices,
Tiwari et al. (1998a) inventorised 79 sacred groves and people’s attitudes related to sacred groves,
of M eghalaya. Among them, M awphlang is one of the forests/ecosystems/landscapes have been given by
most important sacred groves in M eghalaya having a several workers (Gadgil and Vartak 1976, M esser-
dense forest cover. According to their study, in M egha- schmidt 1987, Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan 1989,
laya only 1.3% of the total sacred grove area was undis- Ramakrishnan 1996, Singh et al. 1996, Nair et al.
turbed, 42.1% area had relatively dense forest, 26.3% 1997, Tiwari et al. 1999). M oreover, the role of beliefs,
had sparse canopy cover, and 30.3% had open forest. folklores and taboos associated with sacred groves has
In Sikkim, 35 sacred groves have been reported been emphasized by several workers (Gadgil and Vartak
that are either attached to the local monasteries 1975, 1976, Vartak and Gadgil 1981, Oliver King et al.
(Gumpas) or main-tained by the village community. 1996, Sinha and M aikhuri 1998, Swamy et al. 1998,
Floristic studies on the Kabi sacred grove of North Tiwari et al. 1999, Basu 2000, Kushalappa et al. 2001,
Sikkim revealed 241 species representing 183 genera Ramanujam and Kadamba 2001). Sethi (1993),
under 84 families (Dash 2005). Visalakshi (1995), Oliver King et al. (1996), Swamy et
34: 277-291 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves 283

al. (1998), Ramanujam and Kadamba (2001) and (Khumbongmayum 2004) has been studied by a
Kumar and Swamy (2003) studied the traditional number of researchers.
culture associated with the sacred groves in Tamil Several ecological investigations have been made
Nadu. in sacred groves of M eghalaya (Khiewtam 1986, Khan
Religious and cultural importance of the species is et al. 1987, Barik 1992, Rao 1992, Khiewtam and
a factor promoting their sustainable utilization as well Ramakrishnan 1993, Barik et al. 1996ab, Rao et al.
as conservation (Singh et al. 1998). Importance of the 1997, Tiwari et al. 1998ab, Tiwari et al. 1999, Tripathi
sociologically recognized plants which have linkage with 2002, Tripathi et al. 2002, Pandey et al. 2003, Upadh-
the deities of the groves or other religious practices in yaya et al. 2003, M ishra et al. 2004). The regeneration
maintaining the ecological balance was addressed by status of some important species was studied in sacred
Rodgers (1994). Such sociologically recognized plants groves of Karnataka (Boraiah et al. 2001, 2003, Kumar
are the ‘sacred species’, the concept of ‘sacred species’ and Swamy 2003), M eghalaya (Khan et al. 1986, Barik
could be recognized as a social evolution through a et al. 1992, Rao et al. 1990, 1997) and M anipur
process of condensation of sacred groves to the low est (Khumbongmayum 2004, Khumbongmayum et al.
level in the hierarchical organization (Ramakrishnan 2005b, 2006).
1998, Ramakrishnan 2002). Khumbongmayum et al. The vegetation of the sacred groves has certain
(2004) described 16 sacred species, found in different distinctive ecological characteristics. The sacred groves
sacred groves of M anipur along with their associated of Kerala (Rajendraprasad 1995) have distinct tiers of
religious beliefs and taboos. Some of the common trees, shrubs and herbs, climbers and stranglers, epi-
sacred species are Ficus of fig family (M oraceae), which phytes, parasites, and many wild relatives of cultivated
is culturally valued across Asia region and amongst plants. Broadly, the vegetation of these groves has been
many tribes of Africa (Khaneghah 1998, M ichaloud classified into two types viz. evergreen type and the
and D urry 1998, Ramakrishman 1998) and Oak in moist deciduous type (Chand Basha 1998). Khum-
central Himalaya (Ramakrishman 1998, Sinha and bongmayum (2004), who has made a detailed ecological
M aikhuri 1998). Ficus religiosa and Ocimum sanctum are study of the four sacred groves of M anipur, has found
regarded as sacred by the Hindus. Sacred trees in that the biological spectrum of the groves is similar to
different parts of Iran are related to different faiths and the normal spectrum of phanerogamic flora of the
beliefs, and have close linkage with local ecological world. This indicates that the vegetation is a relic of the
values (Khaneghah 1998). In M aldives, medicinal tropical evergreen forests (Khumbongmayum 2004).
plants of traditional importance are regarded by the Biological spectrum of sacred groves of Kerala also
local people as sacred (H ussein 1998). closely resembles the normal spectrum in the percent-
age of therophytes (Pushpangadan et al. 1998).
Ecological Services of Sacred Groves Vasanth et al. (2001) carried out a detailed vegetation
analysis of a sacred grove in Nandikoor village of the
Biodiversity keeps the ecological processes in a balanced Udupi district in Karnataka. The stand density of the
state, which is necessary for human survival. Therefore, grove was low compared to that of Jadkal forest, a
the biodiversity-rich sacred groves are of immense secondary semievergreen forest in the same district
ecological significance. They also play an important role (Chandra-shekar et al. 2005). Sacred groves (Sarna) of
in the conservation of flora and fauna. Besides, several M adhya Pradesh are characterized by the vegetation
rare and threatened species are found only in sacred with a cluster of Sal (Shorea robusta) trees; all living and
groves, which are, perhaps, the last refuge for these non-living components of the grove are sacrosanct and
vulnerable species. Several ecological studies have been protected (Patnaik and Pandey 1998). Several workers
carried out in these sacred forest patches. Floristic have studied floristic composition of sacred groves of
composition of sacred groves in different parts of India different states of the country such as Uttarakhand
viz., Karnataka (Vasanth et al. 2001), Kerala (Sinha and M aikhuri 1998), Kerala (Induchoodan
(Chandrashekara and Sankar 1998), Pondicherry 1988, Chandrashekara and Sankar 1998), Tamil Nadu
(Kadamba et al. 2000, Ramanujam and Kadamba (Britto et al. 2001), Karnataka (Gadgil and Vartak
2001, Ramanujam and Kumar 2003), W est Bengal 1975, 1976), M eghalaya (Khan et al. 1987, M ishra et
(Basu 2000), M eghalaya (Tiwari et al. 1998b, 1999, al. 2004, Tripathi et al. 2002), M anipur (Khumbong-
Tripathi et al. 2002, Jamir 2002, Jamir and Pandey maym 2004) and Arunachal Pradesh (Khan et al.
2002, Law 2002, Upadhaya 2002) and M anipur 2007). Sinha and M aikhuri (1998) reported that
284 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.

species diversity of tree stratum in a sacred grove in Ethnobotanical Im portance of the Sacred Groves
Garhwal Himalaya was lower, while density and basal
cover values were significantly higher as compared with Sacred groves are the good source of a variety of
the other forest areas. The sacred grove of Garhwal medicinal plants, fruits, fodder, fuelwood, spices, etc.
Himalaya also nurtures rich fauna. Detailed ecological The study of interrelationship between the human
studies have been made on M awphlang sacred grove in beings and plants and animals in their surrounding
M eghalaya. These studies have covered community environment (i.e. ethnobiology) is very revealing. Some
characteristics, gap phase regeneration and regeneration interesting ethnobotanical studies were conducted by
ecology of dominant tree species (Khan et al. 1986, Vartak and Gadgil (1973) in the sacred groves of
1987, Rao et al. 1990, Barik 1992, Barik et al. 1992, M aharashtra. A study of the tree wealth in the life and
Rao 1992, Barik et al. 1996ab, Rao et al. 1997). Tiwari economy of the tribal people in Andhra Pradesh
et al. (1998b) recorded greater species diversity in revealed that various species are used by the different
sacred groves than in the disturbed forest. Species ethnic groups for various purposes including the
composition and community characteristics of sacred treatment of common diseases and disorders (Rani et al.
groves and disturbed forests were also reported to differ 2003). Tolchha-Bhotiya subcommunity inhabiting the
significantly. Khiewtam (1986), and Khiewtam and buffer zone villages of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
Ramakrishnan (1993) studied the vegetation, litter and has a strong faith and belief in traditional healthcare
fine root dynamics, and nutrient flow in a sacred grove system/herbal treatment and depends on various medi-
of Cherrapunji (M eghalaya). A sacred forest from cinal plants. There is a need to record and document
Himachal Pradesh (called Nagoni sacred forest) had their knowledge of various medicinal plants, which are
higher species richness compared to the non sacred used for treating different ailments by local practi-
forests (Singh et al. 1998), although the differences tioners (M aikhuri et al. 1998). The role of sacred groves
were not significant. Fragment sizes and diversity of in the conservation of the regional medicinal plants has
species assemblages in Sholas and sacred groves showed been emphasized in several studies from different parts
that larger fragments had similar species composition of the country. Bhakat and Pandit (2003) recorded
whereas smaller fragments of forest are more diverse from the Chilkigarh sacred grove in M idnapore district
among themselves with respect to their species content (W est Bengal) 105 medicinal plant species of which 12
(Tambat et al. 2001). The study carried out by Tripathi are threatened elsewhere in the district. A total of 120
(2006) on the effects of forest fragment size (1ha - medicinal plants widely used for the treatment of
>5ha area) in a subtropical humid forest of M eghalaya various ailments were reported from four sacred groves
in northeast India on species richness and regeneration of M anipur (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005c). Presence
showed that the tree species diversity was greater in of a large number of m edicinal plants is reported in
larger fragments. H owever, the percentage of new ‘Kavus’ of Kerala (Pushpangadan et al. 1998) and
species found regenerating in the small fragments was ‘Hariyali’ sacred site of Garhwal H imalaya (Sinha and
much larger (44%) compared to the large fragments M aikhuri 1998). Conservation, utilization and assess-
where only three new species showed regeneration. The ment of the implications of exploitation of these species
forest fragment size decreased with increase in have become an important task (Dhar 2002, Sumit and
anthropogenic disturbance. This finding could provide Dhar 2002). Availability and habitat preference of
useful clues for devising management strategies for the critically endangered medicinal plants of west Himalaya
maintenance of species diversity in the sacred groves. were assessed for their conservation (Airi et al. 2000).
The threshold level of anthropogenic stress and Problems and prospects of the development of
fragment size may also be determined to ensure species medicinal plant resources in different regions of the
perpetuation in sacred groves of a given region. This country have also been highlighted by several
may have important implications for designing the size researchers (Biswas et al. 2003, D arshan and Veb 2003,
of the protected areas. A comparative assessm ent of Sarin 2003, Srinivasmurthy et al. 2003).
regeneration of woody flora between the sacred groves
and reserve forests showed that number of regenerating Degradation of the Sacred Groves
rare/endemic plant species was higher in some of the
sacred groves as compared with the reserve forests Belief and taboos are the constructive tools for
(Boraiah et al. 2001, 2003). conserving the sacred groves, and erosion of belief and
taboos has led to deterioration of groves (Vartak and
34: 277-291 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves 285

Gadgil 1981, Tiwari et al. 1998b, 1999). It has been been found that cultural changes among the young
seen that religious beliefs and taboos that were central people are so rapid that they no longer believe in the
to the protection of sacred groves are being eroded over methods their ancestors followed to maintain the fragile
the years due to various reasons and thus the present ecosystem. This is a global tragedy, because “with the
status of sacred groves is rather precarious. Various disappearance of each indi-genous group, the world
anthropogenic pressures due to developmental loses an accumulated wealth of millennia of human
activities, urbanization, exploitation of resources and experience and adaptation’ (Posey 1983). For
increase in human population have threatened many ecologists, traditional ecological knowledge offers a
sacred groves of the country. A study on the status of means to improve research and also to improve resource
some sacred groves in the Himalayan region indicated management and environment impact assess-ment
that the economic forces are influencing the traditional (Stevenson 1996). One unfortunate matter that hinders
communities to discard the community-oriented the conservation of sacred grove is that the village
protection to these groves and they are now being people living nearby the sacred groves are poor and so
exploited (Saxena et al. 1998, Singh et al. 1998). they depend on the grove to meet their vital domestic
Sacred groves (Orans) located in Shekhala village of necessities, such as fuel wood, vegetables, medicinal
Rajasthan are becoming degraded due to change in plants etc. Totey and Verma (1996) argued that the
peoples’ attitude towards conservation of biodiversity, rural poor depend upon biological resources for meeting
introduction of exotic species and concern for more 90% of their day-to-day needs. So, until and unless
income generation (Singh and Saxena 1998). Likewise, viable option is provided to these people for sustaining
sacred groves in Peepasar and Khejarli villages of the their economic condition, any step for the conservation
state have been degrading due to uncontrolled grazing of the sacred groves will not be successful.
(Jha et al. 1998). Conversion of sacred groves into Following significant points emerge from the fore-
coffee plantations and human habitation is the major going review:
threat to the conservation of groves in Kodagu districts • It is very important to uphold traditions and beliefs
of Karnataka (Kushalappa and Bhagwat 2001). in order to protect and conserve these unique forest
Increasing threats to biodiversity demand new conser- patches which represent the relict vegetation of the
vation approaches emphasizing on the hidden values of concerned area.
conservation to the local communities and positive local • These forest patches are no longer free from
attitude towards national and global conservation goals anthropogenic pressure. The disappearance and/or
(Saxena et al. 1998). Traditional ways of resource degradation of sacred groves not only symbolize the
management are becoming nonfunctional due to direct loss of the rich relict flora and fauna but also its rich
conflict between ever increasing human population and tapestry of culture associated with the grove
limited natural resources (Sinha and M aikhuri 1998). (Kushalappa and Bhagwat 2001).
Considerable changes have been taking place in the • M anagement of sacred groves and sacred sites
physical extent, vegetation structure and nature of through the traditional local system is now being
worship in sacred groves of Karnataka due to develop- challenged by a num ber of economic and social
mental activities (Kushalappa et al. 2001). Boojh and issues, and thus the traditional methods are rendered
Ramakrishnan (1983) argued that with the ongoing less effective. This calls for external intervention
large-scale deforestation activities in the region, the taking the local people into confidence.
religious beliefs are the only hope and way of • Important sacred groves should be brought under the
conserving this relict vegetation. On the other hand, ‘Protected area Network’ to ensure their proper
Tiwari et al. (1998b) who made a detailed study of conservation.
sacred groves of M eghalaya found that traditional • Ecological services rendered by sacred groves needs
beliefs regulating subsistence practices no longer seem to be highlighted and people should be made to
to exist in reality, and even where they do, they are realize that the conservation of groves is crucial for
being increasingly disregarded. It is amply clear that their sustenance.
myths and beliefs associated with the sacred groves
which used to be followed strictly in earlier days, have
been eroded during the last few decades and the groves ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS
no longer enjoy the same status and privilege as they
used to in the past (Khum bongmayum 2004). It has W e acknowledge the financial support from G.B. Pant
286 Khan et al.: Sacred Groves Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci.

Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Boraiah, K.T., Bhagwat, S.A., Kushalappa, C.G. and Vasu-
Almora, Uttrakhand for a research grant to M LK, deva, R. 2001. Regeneration of woody flora in the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New sacred landscapes of Kodagu, Karnataka, South India.
Delhi for a Senior Research Fellowship to Ashalata Devi Pages 561-564, In: Ganeshaiah, K.N., Uma Shaanker,
R. and Bawa, K.S. (Editors) Tropical Ecosystems:
Khumbongmayum and the Indian National Science
Structure, Diversity and Human Welfare. Oxford and
Academy, New Delhi for the Senior Scientist position
IBH Publishing, New Delhi.
to RST. Boraiah, K.T., Vasudeva, R., Shonil, A., Bhagwat, and
Kushalappa, C.G. 2003. Do informally managed sacred
groves have higher richness and regeneration of
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