Parker EducationMiltonsIdeas 1962
Parker EducationMiltonsIdeas 1962
Parker EducationMiltonsIdeas 1962
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extend access to College English
happening in he
theentertained no higher an opinion. It
universities, a
in the secondary schools.
would be surprising, then, if his personal It's
talk about theviews on higher education bore any
universities; they
but little influence of the Renaissance.4
resemblance to what was taught in the
Medieval scholasticism, which had givenEnglish universities of his age. I have
birth to them, was now threatening,no such surprises to offer you. Milton
Medea-like, to strangle them. Despite would simply abolish Oxford and Cam-
mounting criticism, they introduced fewbridge.
modifications of the ancient curriculum, His attitude toward English second-
which was dominated by the study of
ary schools cannot be described so
logic and dialectic. Teaching was almostsimply. One reason is that, unlike the
exclusively in the hands of the clergy,universities, they had been influenced
who taught with the lay objective of by the Renaissance in some important
multiplying themselves. An important respects. Another reason is that they
part of all college and university exer-differed greatly-and Milton was for-
cises was the Latin disputation, a publictunate enough to have attended one of
debate on some harmless, unimportant the very best, St. Paul's School in Lon-
topic, in which youthful speakers dem- don, which taught Greek and Hebrew
onstrated their command of rhetoric, as well as Latin, and whose headmaster
logic, metaphysics, and a mass of un- had an interest in contemporary English
digested reading. No one studied sci- literature. Nevertheless, as we shall see,
ence, or any social science. A good deal Milton disapproved of much in the
of classical literature was read, but notgrammar school curricula, wanted to add
many new subjects, and wanted to
as belles-lettres; literature, too, was grist
for the scholastic mill. (A modern anal-change drastically the order in which
ogy might be the undergraduate English subjects were taught. In all the schools
course which is taught as though all the the Latin classics were the mainstay of
students were preparing to be researchstudy, the point being the transmission
scholars.) of a body of knowledge assumed to be
Milton went to Cambridge, studied useful and true. A boy was thoroughly
there for seven years, and hated the trained, therefore, in Latin grammar
whole experience.5 He went there in- (Lily's dominated the field); early and
tending to become a minister, and late he translated, paraphrased, memo-
changed his mind. He found "almost no rized, composed Latin declamations and
real companions in study," and of the verse, and analyzed the figures (some-
medieval curriculum he said, "the mind times even the meaning!) of classical
is neither delighted nor instructed, nor texts. He was required to speak only
indeed is any common good promoted." Latin, even at play.
Ten years after graduating M.A., he an- At its best this kind of education was
nounced publicly that as he had "never literary, humanistic, and classical, reviv-
greatly admired" Cambridge while a stu- ing the pedagogical traditions of Im-
dent, "so now much less." Of Oxford perial Rome. At its best it prepared men
for public affairs, as well as for the uni-
4My generalizations need qualifying, of versity. Though the mathematical arts
course; see, e.g., William T. Costello, S.J., The of the quadrivium were neglected or
Scholastic Curriculum at Early Seventeenth- ignored, there was apparent utility in
Century Cambridge (1958). the communication arts of the trivium:
'For a collection of his opinions, including
logic, rhetoric, and grammar-or, if you
those quoted, see James Holly Hanford, "Mil-
ton and the Universities," A Milton Handbookprefer, thinking, speaking, reading, and
(1946), pp. 355-364. writing. Since the universal aim was to
ing that
"whether they be to speak inthey were "scarce ever heard
Parliament
or counsell, honour and
of"attention would
in the "common publick Schools" of
the time.
be waiting on their lips. They are
There even less familiar
would
now, and,
then also appear in Pupits otherunlessvisages,
our interest is more in
other gestures, and stuffe
bibliographyotherwise
than in education, we can
wrought then what we leave in well-earned
now oblivion such
sit under,
oft times to as great a worthies
triall of as Giovanni
our pa- Villani, Quintus
tience as any other thatCalaber,
they and Christianus
preach Urstisius.
to If
us.", Milton were choosing textbooks for his
same curriculum in 1962, it is certain
Milton's teaching career, except for that the names would be very different,
some occasional tutoring of individuals though we would probably get some
after he became blind, began in 1640 equally ingenious selections.
and ended in the summer of 1647. He
So also with the foreign languages. It
never, therefore, carried his ideal cur-
is no surprise that, writing in 1644, Mil-
riculum through to its end. When the
ton elected to teach his pupils Latin,
culminating year of literary compo-Greek, and Hebrew, in that order; he
sition arrived, it was Milton, not his
had learned them thus at St. Paul's
pupils, who turned to writing. One School. Between Greek and Hebrew,
thing he undertook, we know, washowever,
a he included Italian. If we are
history of his country. I happen to be-
awed by the number of languages, and
lieve that he also discovered Aeschylus
the rapidity with which they were
and began a tragedy on the Greek soundly learned, we should notice that,
model, his Samson Agonistes. Indeed, after
it publishing his curriculum, Milton
may have been his teaching of tragedy decided to add a fifth-French, another
in 1646 to the Phillips boys and others
Romance tongue. We happen to know
that prompted him to make the attempt.this because his pupil, Edward Phillips,
But I stray from my subject. reports mastering these five languages
You will have noticed that, in out- under his uncle's tutelage in not quite
lining Milton's curriculum, I have men-
seven years. Later the Phillips boys
tioned no specific books or authors, and
seem to have picked up Spanish, another
have not indicated which foreign lan-
Romance language, quite easily on their
guages were studied. My omissions were
own. The point is that foreign languages,
deliberate; such matters are red herrings,
diverting our attention from the basic to Milton, were chiefly means to an
philosophy and method of his peda- end; they are, he writes, "but the in-
gogy. Take the books, the very titlesstrument convaying to us things usefull
of which frighten so many modern to be known." You study, therefore,
those languages in which are written
readers. They were chosen for their ap-
propriate content as introductory textsthings you want to know.'8 If he were
or surveys and, when possible (it was choosing the languages in 1962, who can
not always possible), for their literary
doubt that he would weigh seriously the
style. They were by both old and mod- importance of German and Russian, and
ern authors. Fifty years later, one perhaps
of Chinese and Sanskrit?
the pupils remembered, and named,
twenty-seven of the authors,"' remark-
"Here also Milton differed from the Co-
menians. They agreed in minimizing grammar,
"Excluding Ames, Wolleb, and parts of in the
regarding language as an instrument, and in
Bible, which Phillips also named. Dorian has faster results; but Comenius required
getting
Phillips listing only 21 writers (Yale ed., p.
memorization of a specially prepared com-
371).
pilation, not reading of original authors.
What is most remarkable and chal- vided by an even more practical feature,
lenging about Milton's curriculum-of
military training. The boys read books
on battles and sieges, on tactics and
many remarkable and challenging things
-is its degree of integration and progres-
strategy-books in foreign languages, of
sion. It is not a series of unrelated or courselg-and then went out and prac-
loosely related subjects; it is a "method-
tised what they had learned, making a
icall course." Everything contributesgame
to of it. Milton wrote in a time of civil
something else; it builds toward a clearly
war, when lack of discipline and leader-
defined goal, and nothing is irrelevant
ship were current anxieties, but it seems
or peripheral to that goal. Woven certain
into that he would have included
the whole scheme are other admirable military science in any case, for educa-
pedagogical principles-motivation and tion should fit a man "to perform justly,
reinforcement; attention to character skilfully and magnanimously all the of-
development; periodical review; progres-
fices both private and publike of peace
sion from easy to hard, from concrete and war." A key to this "new frontier"
to abstract-but these, in our perspective,
was physical fitness. Short as his essay on
lack novelty, whereas the tight textureeducation is, Milton devotes a good deal
and bold efficiency of his curriculum of space to exercise, and even discusses
challenge us to re-examine our best cur-
the right kind of diet.
rent practices. A basic premise of his
Other features of his educational
argument-that far too much timetheory
is we may mention by way of re-
wasted in education-might have beenmarking what his contemporaries would
enunciated this afternoon, and will be
have considered unique or most unusual.
echoed by many tomorrow. Did he Very hit few Renaissance writers on educa-
on a workable solution? Can we still
tion, for example, had given considera-
learn from him?
tion to the discovery and development
Before I give my personal answers oftoindividual aptitudes, but Milton
these questions, let me tell you stresses
more the need for doing this, and be-
about his plan, for there was more to that field trips will contribute to
lieves
it than the academic curriculum. At the process.20 Whereas many Renais-
every stage of the learning process sance
thereschools introduced literature
was emphasis on music, not only music
chiefly to illustrate grammatical rules,
appreciation, but actual playingMilton
and reverts to the original humanistic
singing. An early biographer reports
position of Elyot, Erasmus, and Colet,
that he made his pupils "Songsters,elevating
and literature to a position of great
sing from the time they were with him."
importance, and subordinating grammar.
He believed strongly in the civilizing
In this respect he differs also from con-
and therapeutic effects of music; he even
temporary educational reformers like
thought it an aid to digestion, and there-
fore made time for it both before and Comenius and his followers, who would
use especially prepared digests and com-
after the noonday meal. It followed, as
pilations; Milton prefers, whenever pos-
a matter of fact, a regular morning pe-
riod of exercise, and this too was made
as practical as possible; Milton recom-"Milton does not say this, but Phillips names
mended fencing, at which he him- some of the books.
20Of Ed., p. 413.
self was skillful (he practised daily, Earlier, in his Common-
place Book, Milton had written: "The nature
and always wore a sword before he lost
of each person should be especially observed
his sight), and also wrestling, a good
and not bent in another direction; for God
English sport with a potential of prac-
does not intend all people for one thing, but
for
ticality. Additional exercise was pro- each one his own work."
"his Writings" in
perfect age giving an
for seeing issues freshly and acco
his pedagogy.24directly, for expressing convictions with-
out debilitating
Now, to get back to concern
our over whether
subject,
kind of a teacher
or notwas
they wereMilton hims
practicable. He was
anything to bethen learned
thirty-five. In much that
from he had h
written
sonal practices, in previous years,
quite apartup to and fro
including
curriculum? Let one age thirty-four,
of his he had pupils
spoken
self-consciously
the answer to this of his youth, his im-
question. Milto
tells us, set maturity,
an the "green years" stillexamp
inspiring upon
"hard his head.
Study"; he He was never to do"perpet
was so again.
busied in his own Laborious Undertak- The first edition of his essay on educa-
ings of the Book or Pen." Moreover, tion was privately and anonymously
"neither his Converse ... nor his manner printed, and had a limited circulation;
of Teaching ever savour'd in the leastbut he reprinted it under his name, un-
any thing of Pedantry." If this last re-changed, almost thirty years later, when
mark seems vague, a comment by an-he was sixty-four. It is a document, I
other early biographer will clarify it.submit, to be taken seriously, even to-
His way of education was severe, saysday.
John Aubrey, but "he was most famil- For example, was he not psycholog-
iar and free in his conversation" with
ically right in arguing that formal edu-
cation should be "laborious indeed at
his pupils. Milton himself remarks that
the first ascent," and afterwards easier
if a teacher wishes to have eager, dili-
and more pleasant? He insists that the
gent students, fear helps, persuasion helps
much more, but personal example helpsfirst two or three years are the critical
ones; it is then that the young students
most of all. Perhaps that is why he con-
will lay well "their grounds," learning
cludes his essay by saying that the kind
that
of education he is advocating is not a education is a hard and serious
bow for every man to shoot with "that matter. Until they learn this, until they
counts himselfe a teacher; but will have
re- acquired sound habits of study,
and until they have the essential tools of
quire sinews almost equall to those which
Homer gave Ulysses." The man who mathematics and two foreign languages,
wrote this had a Penelope who had lefthe will not even allow them the spring
him; it is rumored that she found vacations
his and pleasant excursions into
the country that the older students reg-
concentration on study "irkesome," and
ularly enjoy. The beginners can look
"often-times heard his Nephews beaten,
and cry." But one of those nephews, forward to these things as rewards, but
they must first prove themselves real
years later, had nothing but praise for
"his excellent judgment and waystudents.
of This concept of education is
Teaching, far above the Pedantry what
of I should want to mean by "life-
common publick Schools." adjustment."
When he published his theories onWas he not basically right also in
educational reform, Milton was at a considering science and mathematics
among the humanities (that is, the pur-
suits proper to mankind), in insisting on
"4Phillips says that "neither his Converse, nor
his Writings, nor his manner of Teaching anever
over-view of many sciences, and in
stressing
savour'd in the least any thing of Pedantry." a thorough knowledge of
Phillips may refer to the pamphlets of 1641-45,
mathematics early in education, with
but the context does not encourage this inter-
ample
pretation. Milton's grammar and logic are no-
application of it at later stages?
Dr. Johnson
where mentioned explicitly in Phillips' biog- was shocked by this heresy
raphy. of Milton's: "the truth," he protested,
possible anydoubtless
level,because the
at be very it
idea would
high
college, even
have struck him or
graduate
as preposterous, which, sc
if you remember
learning occurs, it is yourbyLatin, means
helter
multiplication'putting
of the last thing foremost.' You
knowledge, no
elect after you are educated;
orderly accumulation, with you don't
one
get educated by making uninformed
knowledge contributing to anot
choices, telling
latter can happen toyour teacher whatexten
some edu-
cation is. No
tain disciplines, one knew better
like than Mil-
chemistr
certainly doeston that
notmuch of education
happen is inefficient in
and ineffectual,
(where it could and but it would never have hap
should
occurred to him
more to the point, inthat efficiency
education and
a whole. Wheneffectiveness
I spoke would resultof
from letting
these
at a large NEA conference
the student determine the program. Au- last
went on to say this:
thority, he As is a
says in Areopagitica, "the teac
graduate students
life of teaching."in English,
In our democracy, for
not one singlea variety of reasons, we have recently I ca
assumption
believed otherwise. Introduced
about either knowledge or very skill
acquired. I cannot
early at Williamassume
and Mary and the Uni- a sin
read by everyone in the
versity of Virginia, my class;
elective system
finally gainedof
assume knowledge generalthe
acceptancesimpl
after
nical term orEliot's
thereforms at Harvard in the 1870's.
simplest Bib
An ever-increasing
or myth or fairy tale proliferation
or piece of new
subjects andI
dren's literature. courses followed-and itassu
cannot is
thing except now that
difficult to I
say have a job
whether this frag-
mentation
quite needlessly of knowledge has been cause
difficult.25
Let's look at it in the
or effect of system's perpetuation.
another way.
One thing
we give a certificate or only seems certain:
a asdegre
insti-
tutions get bigger, the situation
say of the recipient only will gettha
taken a certain number of courses and worse. Both in the colleges and in the
high schools it has compelled us to
has spent a certain number of hours in
classrooms. We cannot describe him; spawn an entirely new breed of ed-
we cannot define the product of our ucator, the counselling and guidance ex-
system except vaguely and hopefully. pert. Since the youngster is uninformed,
he must now talk to an uninformed
We have required study of a few spe-
cific fields along the way, but for the adult, who can explain to him that
most part we have been democratic three years of English are required
only
indeed, holding it self-evident that forall graduation from high school, and
courses are created equal, endowed by that, if he is going into business, he will
their creators with the power to edu- never have need of a foreign language.
The Government spends millions of
cate. But we are also a bit mystical about
this, believing that with 122 hours dollars
of annually on counselling and
almost indiscriminate exposure, some- guidance institutes, and many efforts are
thing happens to the student, and we being made to multiply these academic
can happily pronounce him bachelor of middlemen, who are in great demand.
arts or science-meaning,.I take it, thatThis, Milton would remind us, is what
he is not wedded to either. happens when you abdicate responsi-
bility for defining education, and dish
Milton says nothing about electives,
it out cafeteria-style.
"See my "Refocusing the English Program,"My talking this way may strike you
The NEA Journal, L (Nov. 1961), 38-40. as nostalgic nonsense, since, clearly,
Moral Perspective in
Tess of the D'Urbervilles
ROBERT C. SCHWEIK
'See J. O. Bailey, "Hardy's Visions of the 'See Dorothy Van Ghent, The English Novel
Self," Studies in Philology 56 (Jan. 1959), 91; (New York, 1953), pp. 196-7; and G. D.
Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Klingopulos, "Hardy's Tales Ancient and
Thomas Hardy (Chicago, 1922), p. 209; and Modern," From Dickens to Hardy, ed. Boris
Harvey Curtis Webster, On a Darkling Plain Ford (Penguin Books, 1958), p. 416.
(Chicago, 1947), p. 180. "All quotations are from Tess of the D'Uber-
villes, ed. Albert J. Guerard (New York, 1950),
Robert C. Schweik is an assistant professor and page numbers are inserted parenthetically
of English, Marquette University. in the text.