Sunetra Roday - Food Science & Nutrition
Sunetra Roday - Food Science & Nutrition
Sunetra Roday - Food Science & Nutrition
HIGHER EDUCATION
SUNETRA RODAY
ood Sclence
K Nutrition
me SS oad
Sen
Maharashtra State Instbteo
“ofHotel Mannagement and
ogy
ILL ILIL
CORNWALL COLLEGE
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
With offices in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Published in India
by Oxford University Press
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
12 OY
See mnan 9mLENG oy
stmt
Typeset in Baskerville
by Planman Technologies, India
Printed in India by Sai Printopack, New Delhi 110020
and published by Oxford University Press
YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001
In ever loving memory of
my father
late Col. A W Shrouti
on his 85th birth anniversary
vi Preface
oils, flavour, browning reactions, food processing, food evaluation, and the new
trends in foods. This part covers scientific principles and. their applications in the
preparation of food and commercial food products. The focus is on the composition,
structure, and behaviour of food in relation to pre-preparation, cooking, packaging,
and storage relevant to catering operations. New commodities and processes which
are of current relevance have been included.
The second part, comprising 12 chapters, introduces nutrition and explains
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, minerals, and energy metabolism
from the perspective of nutrition science. It also discusses balanced diets, menu
planning and mass food production, modified diets, and the new trends in nutrition.
Weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-related diseases are included. Dietary
guidelines for prevention of deficiency and problems related to excessive consumption
have been covered.
Sunetra Roday
Acknowledgements
Many people from the industry and academia have helped me in successfully
completing this project and I am grateful for their contributions. It is practically
impossible to name them all but I would specially like to mention a few.
I am grateful to Dr S K Mahajan, Joint Director, Technical Education, Maharashtra,
and Principal, Maharashtra State Institute of Hotel Management and Catering
Technology, Pune, for his inspiration and encouragement.
I would like to acknowledge the technical data provided by Dr Prashant Gadkari,
our family homeopath and friend at Pune.
I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my son Vikrant Roday and his friend
Praveen Khurjekar for providing all technical assistance and to my daughter
Dr Neha Roday for her invaluable contribution to the section on nutrition.
I would also like to thank my colleagues, support staff, and students for their
suggestions, contribution, and help.
I extend my sincere thanks to the publisher—its editorial and production staff—
and also the reviewers for their valuable time and suggestions.
I am greatly indebted to my husband and entire family for putting up with
impossible hours and schedules.
SR
Contents
Eggs 71
Meat 77
Commercial Uses of Proteins 81
6 Fats and Oils 85
Introduction 85
Structure 86
Rancidity 88
Reversion 90
Factors Leading to Rancidity and Reversion 91
Prevention of Rancidity 92
Effect of Heat on Fats and Oils OZ
Polymerization 92
Care of Fats and Oils 93
Extraction of Fats and Oils 93
Refining 94
Winterization 95
Hydrogenation of Oils 95
Shortenings 96
Popular Fats and Oils Available 98
Commercial Uses of Fats and Oils 99
7 Flavour 103
Introduction 103
Definitions 104
Use of Flavours in Food Preparation 110
10 Evaluation of Food
Introduction
Methods of Evaluation
Proximate Analysis of Food Constituents
11 New Trends in Foods
Introduction
Soya Foods
Food Fads
Organic Foods
New Trends in Packaging
Edible Films
Part Il Nutrition
12 Introduction to Nutrition
Introduction
Relation of Food and Health
Food and its Functions
Classification of Nutrients
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Food
13 Carbohydrates
Introduction
Classification of Carbohydrates
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism
Dietary Sources
Functions
Artificial Sweeteners
Alcohol
14 Proteins
Introduction
Protein Quality
Classification of Proteins
Functions in the Human Body
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism
Methods of Improving Protein Quality
Factors Influencing Protein Requirements
Dietary Sources
Effect of Deficiency and Excess
Contents xi
15 Lipids 210
Introduction 210
Classification of Lipids 211
Fatty Acids 212
Unsaturated Fatty Acids 213
Antioxidants 215
Saturated Fatty Acids Zi
Phospholipids 216
Lipoproteins 216
Cholesterol 218
Functions of Fats 218
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Fats 219
Dietary Source 221
Deficiency of Fats Dae
Symptoms of Excessive Intake 222
Recommended Dietary Allowances 222
16 Water 226
Introduction 226
Functions 227
Daily Intake of Water 227.
Daily Loss of Body Water 228
Water Balance 229
17 Vitamins 232
Introduction 232
Classification 233
Fat Soluble Vitamins 234
Water Soluble Vitamins 238
Effect of Cooking on Vitamins 245
18 Minerals 248
Introduction 248
Classification 249
General Functions of Minerals 249
Introduction
Food Science
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
¢ appreciate the importance of food science to a caterer in the context of the processed food
revolution
¢ understand the relationship of food science to food EEN: fone AEP OOEy and food
processing | | oe
appreciate the role of convenience feeds in our day:-to-“day life
define the term food science and know the types of changes which take place in food
INTRODUCTION
like sunlight and ultraviolet rays till newer and more scientific methods were
developed. :
Improvement in equipment and machinery has made it possible to increase
the capacity of food processing plants greatly. The shelf life of perishable foods
has increased dramatically with the invention of the refrigerator and the use of
dry ice.
With the advent of the wheel, surplus food was transported several hundred
miles. As early as in 1850, milk was transported by special milk trains and tank
trucks over a distance of several hundred miles with negligible loss in quality. Food
which was perishable was moved thousands of miles before it was processed,
stored, and consumed.
Over the past few decades, the food industry has witnessed a significant change.
The market has witnessed such a flood of food commodities, superior in quality and
available all year round. Ice cream filled cones and nuts in ice cream retaining their
crunch, fresh milk stored on the shelf for months, and crisp croutons in a ready to
serve cream soup are a few marvels of food science and technology. With these
advances in science and technology, the consumer has an unlimited choice of meals
to choose from all year round.
The aesthetic value of food is important. To be able to offer the consumer quali-
ty cuisine, basic knowledge of food science and its applications is necessary. Every
food handler should know the composition, structure, and behaviour of food and
the changes that take place during cooking, holding, and storage as well as what
happens to food once it is consumed, i.e., its digestion, absorption, and metabolism
in the human body.
The study of food is today accepted as a separate discipline called food
science.
Definition Food science is a systematic study of the nature of food materials and the
scientific principles underlying their modification, preservation, and spoilage.
To understand food science, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, mathematics,
and biology and their applications, i.e., biochemistry, microbiology, and food tech-
nology, are necessary to prepare, package, store, and serve wholesome, high quality
products.
All foods are chemical compounds which undergo various chemical reactions at
all stages from production to consumption. These reactions are based on the laws
of chemistry. Many processes used while preparing food involve physical changes
apart from chemical changes.
Matter exists in three states—solid, liquid, gas.
In general, as the temperature is increased, a pure substance will change from
solid to liquid and then to a gas, without change in chemical composition. However,
Introduction to Food Science 3
processing. This weaning away from the traditional fare of yesteryears provides a
tremendous and urgent challenge to the food industry: serving safe, attractive, and
nutritious food that is wholesome and bacteriologically safe and conforms with
quality standards.
The urban workforce does not have the time or inclination to follow the tradi-
tional recipes and would rather pick up packed, clean, and reasonably priced meals
rather than return home from work and do domestic chores.
Most food consumed in developed countries is in the form of convenience foods.
Convenience foods are foods that require little labour and time to prepare. A pack-
et of frozen green peas is a convenience food since it requires no shelling. A pack-
et of whole wheat flour is also a convenience food as it has already been milled. A
packet of instant idli mix is more of a convenience food, and ‘ready to eat’ or ‘heat
and eat’ foods like chicken keema matar or canned palak paneer are most conven-
ient since they need no further cooking.
Many different types of convenience foods are available in the market today. The
speed and efficiency of cooking and service increases dramatically with the use of
convenience foods, giving the caterer, homemaker, or working professional more
time to devote to other activities. The convenience food revolution is possible
because of a wide variety of chemicals which are added to food not only to preserve
it but to enhance its overall quality. These numerous chemicals, tested and permit-
ted by law to be added to food are called food additives.
Today, convenience foods are being specially packed for caterers and are avail-
able in large catering packs. Manufacturers of specialized food supplies pack food
so that it fits into standard catering equipment, e.g., catering packs that fit into vend-
ing machines. The caterer can choose between smaller packs and larger packs that
are economical.
Convenience foods need to be handled with care because one source of infection
can contaminate thousands of prepacked items. Take-away meals should not be
kept for a long time, hygiene should be practised in processing plants, and time and
temperature control should be observed during storage. Leftover contents in large
catering packs should not be stored in the open.
Convenience foods help by saving considerable time and effort. However, the
cost of convenience foods compared to home-prepared foods should be considered
before purchase. Some foods may not be costlier while others may work out to be
expensive. For people who have to rush home from work and prepare a meal, such
foods purchased on the way home or stacked in the deep freezer are not only time-
saving but also convenient.
Convenience foods vary widely in their palatability, nutrient content, and cost.
The consumer can choose from a bewildering display of snacks, soups, sauces, fruit
Introduction to Food Science 5
chunks and juices, desserts, meat, and vegetable preparations and gravies in the
ready to eat and ready to cook form. They need to be warmed up in a microwave
before they are served.
Canned foods, commercially prepared chappatis, snacks both sweet and savoury,
main course, vegetable preparations, soups, gravies, sauces, breakfast cereals, bak-
ery items, deep frozen foods, dry ready mixes, etc., are not only time saving but
convenient to cook and store.
Thus, food science covers all aspects of food, from the properties of food materials
and influences of all factors affecting food, beginning from growing the food to har-
vesting or slaughter, i.e., all stages from the farm to the table, from raw food till it is
consumed like processing, nutritive value, shelf life, novel sources of food, fabricated
food and food analogs, conservation and re-use of resources to make more food.
A study of food science and nutrition will be of benefit to all food professionals.
SUMMARY
The food industry is a fast-growing industry that applies the principles of food sci-
ence and technology to offer the consumer a wide array of fresh and processed
foods to meet their nutritional needs, wants, and budget. These foods are available
under different brand names, all year round in delectable flavours and assorted
preparations.
The aesthetic value of food is an important criterion in its acceptability. Every
food handler should be aware of the composition, structure, and behaviour of food
and what happens to it during processing and after consumption. The systematic
study of food is called food science. All foods are chemical compounds and under-
go physical as well as chemical changes. The various food systems are of colloidal
dimensions and various physical conditions such as temperature and pressure affect
its quality.
Food science is intimately related to food chemistry, food microbiology, and food
processing. To understand this, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, mathemat-
ics, and biology are necessary.
The growing demand for meals away from home has made the problem of serving
safe and wholesome food critical and challenging. With rapid urbanization and
changes in food habits and lifestyles, and increase in the number of couples who have
little time has caused a shift in focus from farm-grown fresh foods to partially or total-
ly processed convenience foods. These foods require little labour and time to prepare
and are useful to both caterers and homemakers. The shelf life and acceptability of
these foods are enhanced by the use of permitted additives. The consumer can choose
from a wide range of ‘ready-to-cook’ and ‘ready-to-eat’ foods.
6 Food Science and Nutrition
SES MM LE UE UTR LULL LS a eae yeaa rd ee eee hg Sula fe AAU LSE AEE SU MTSE TEM EET OLE ESET,
KEY TERMS
Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide having temperature Food technology Application of the principles of
of -79°C and used to refrigerate foodstuffs being food science to the preservation, processing, pack-
transported. aging, storage, and transportation of food materials.
Convenience foods Processed foods in which much Food science A study of the physical and chemical
pre-preparation/preparation has already been done constituents of food and the scientific principles
by the manufacturer, e.g., frozen green peas, break- underlying their modification, preservation, and
fast cereals, and canned foods. spoilage.
Additives All material added to food to improve its shelf Food microbiology A study of bacteria, yeasts, and
life, colour, flavour, texture, taste, and quality, such as moulds, and their harmful and useful effects on food
flavouring agents, antioxidants, preservatives, etc. and its consumption.
SD SPER LELAND IME LTE TENGE UTA UES SUN ABATE OE LTE LIE ETM SETA LEGS OLE ESS TIGL BELEN ET TELL HE ESET SEM LET NEON EES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What changes have the food industry witnessed in the last century?
2. Why is knowledge of the principles of food science necessary for a catering
professional?
3. What do you understand by the term ‘convenience foods’? What foods
does it include? Give suitable examples from your daily life.
4. Do you think convenience foods are necessary? Justify your answer giving
suitable examples.
Food Science
Concepts
~ Learning Objectives
_ After reading this chapter, you should able oe
’ appreciate the importance of es thebasic concepts iin
physics, chemistry,
and biology
interpret the weights and measures in recipes ae
weigh and measure ingredients accurately = : 7
. understand and define the relevant terms, that a, anpiseadant role in fad ston
© understand the applications of these concepts in the food industry —
apply this knowledge in real lifesituations |
Weights and measures are set standards which are used to find the size of sub-
stances. To obtain a high quality product and carry out a profitable business, accu-
rate weighing and measuring of all ingredients is essential.
Measurement of Length
The unit for measuring length is the metre (m).
Length is measured using a measuring tape or ruler.
One thousand metres (1,000 m) = one kilometre (km).
A metre is divided into hundred parts. Each part is called a centimetre (cm) or
one metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm).
Each centimetre is made up of ten smaller parts called millimetre (mm) one cen-
timetre = 10 millimetres (mm).
The simplest instrument for measuring length is a scale or ruler measuring one
metre, or a measuring tape.
Measurement of Volume
Volume and capacity is measured in litres. A litre is made up of 10 decilitres
(dl). Each decilitre is made up of 10 centilitres (cl). A centilitre is made up of
10 millilitres (ml), which means that a litre is made up of one thousand millilitres
(1,000 ml).
Most measuring cups and jugs are marked in millilitres and litres. The capacity
of cups and spoons is listed below.
1 tablespoon = 15 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
1 breakfast cup = 240 ml
1 coffee cup = 100-120 ml
1 teacup = 150-180 ml
1 water glass = 280-300 ml
Food Science Concepts 9
Measuring pan
Adjustment
knob
Pointer
The volume of solids that is not greatly affected by water can be measured by the
water displacement method. Solids are immersed in the displacement can and the
volume of water displaced, equal to the volume of the solid, is noted.
The seed method is used to measure the volume of cake and bread. A large tin
box is filled to the brim with seeds and the volume of seeds required to fill the box
is measured in a measuring cylinder. The cake of which the volume is to be meas-
ured is placed in the empty tin and covered with seeds. The volume of seeds
remaining after covering the cake is equal to the volume of the cake.
DENSITY
Density is the relationship between the weight and volume of a substance expressed as
weight in kg
Density =
volume in m?
It is expressed in kilograms per cubic metre and is used to compare the heavi-
ness or lightness of different foods.
A fruit cake has a greater density as compared to a sponge cake. The density of
liquids is measured in g/cm3. Water has a density of 1 g/cm’.
Relative Density
Relative density (R.D.) is the ratio of the mass of a known volume of a substance to
the mass of the same volume of water. It tells us the number of times the volume of
a substance is heavier or lighter than an equal volume of water. If the R.D. of a vol-
ume of lead is 11, it means that it is eleven times as heavy as an equal volume of
water.
mass or weight of a substance
Relative density =
weight of equal volume of water
A hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids. It is
made up of a weighted bulb with a graduated stem calibrated to measure the rela-
tive density of the liquid directly. The liquid to be tested should be at room tem-
perature and the hydrometer is allowed to float in the liquid. The depth to which it
sinks is read on the graduated stem. Hydrometers are specifically calibrated to
measure the R.D. of different liquids used in the catering industry.
Saccharometers are used to determine the concentration of sugar solutions,
denoted in degrees Brix. A 75% sugar solution is called 75 degrees Brix.
Salinometers are used to determine the R.D. of brine or sodium chloride solu-
tions used for canning vegetables or pickling ham.
Lactometers are used for checking the purity of milk. Addition of water or
removal of cream affects the R.D. and is depicted on the graduated scale on the
stem. The scale is marked 1.00 to 1.04. ‘W’ denotes R.D. of water, ‘M’ denotes pure
milk, and ‘S’ denotes skim milk.
Alcoholometers are used to test the R.D. of alcoholic beverages. It is used to
check the number of degrees proof or ethanol content of wines, beers, and spirits,
and whether it has been diluted.
Refractometers are used to measure the sugar or total solids in solution (TSS)
while preparing jam, syrups, etc. They measure the refractive index of light reflected
through the solution.
Food Science Concepts 11
TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy needed to carry out work. Energy is the capacity for doing
work. Energy is present in two forms: (1) potential energy or stored energy, such as
the energy stored in a bar of chocolate; and (2) kinetic energy or active energy in
motion, such as when a person is walking.
Energy is present in many forms. Heat is one form of energy. Solar energy, elec-
trical energy, and chemical energy are some of the others.
Heat energy is measured in units called joules and the energy present in food is
measured in kilocalories. One kilocalorie is made up of 1,000 calories.
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.2 kilojoules (kj)
1 calorie = 4.2 joules
Temperature refers to the relative hotness or coldness of a substance compared
with melting ice at 0°C and boiling water at 100°C. Thermometers are used to
measure temperature.
12 Food Science and Nutrition
Types of Thermometers
Most thermometers are mercury in glass thermometers with different temperature
ranges depending on their purpose. Some common thermometers are:
1. Sugar or confectionery thermometers (40°C to 180°C)
2. Dough testing thermometers (19°C to 43°C)
O29 Meat thermometers with a special spike which can be pierced into meat and
a round dial to record temperature
4. Refrigeration thermometers filled with red coloured ethanol (-30°C
to —IDGC).
pH OR POTENTIAL HYDROGEN
When an acid is diluted with water it dissociates into hydrogen ions and acid radical ions.
HCl = Ht ~ Cr
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen ion Chloride ion
(acid radical)
The term pH (hydrogen ion concentration) is used to express the degree of acidity
or alkalinity of a food. It is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the hydro-
gen ion concentration, i.e., higher the hydrogen ion concentration, lower will be the
pH and vice versa. Some foods like fruits contain organic acids and have an acid reac-
tion while others such as milk are neutral. Bakery products leavened with baking pow-
der, have an alkaline reaction. Pure water is pH 7 or neutral.
The pH scale of pH 0 to pH 14, ie., from extremely strong acids to extremely
strong alkali is used to describe the acidity or alkalinity of food.
A reading between pH 1 to pH 6.5 indicates acidic food while pH 7.5 to pH 14
indicates alkaline food. The pH of a solution can be measured electrically using the
pH meter or it may be measured colorimetrically using pH papers which change
colours according to the pH.
Buffers
They are defined as solutions that can resist a change of pH on addition of acids or
alkalis but within limits. These solutions are made up of a weak acid and one of its
salts or a weak base and one of its salts.
When hydrogen ions (H*) or hydroxide ions (OH’) are added, they can be
absorbed by these systems without altering the pH of the resulting solution.
Common buffers are:
1. Acetic acid and sodium acetate mixture
2. Citric acid and sodium citrate mixture.
Buffering action is very important in the human body and in food. The salts of
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium function as buffers and maintain the
pH of milk at a constant level of 6.5.
Applications of pH:
1. Preparation of jam—The pectin in jam and marmalade does not form a gel
until the pH is lowered to 3.5. If fruit used for making these preserves does
not contain sufficient acid, small amounts of citric acid should be added.
2. Retaining bright green colour in green vegetables—Green vegetables tend to
get discoloured when cooked. Green colour can be retained by adding a
pinch of sodium bicarbonate to the cooking liquor but B complex vitamins
and vitamin C gets destroyed in an alkaline medium.
co Food digestion—pH of thegastrointestinal juices affects our digestive process.
The pH of gastric juice is strongly acidic, between 1 and 2, and aids in diges-
tion of food in the stomach while a mildly alkaline pH, between pH 7 and 8
is needed, to complete digestion in the intestine.
Food Science Concepts 15
Evaporation
Evaporation is a change of state from liquid to gas which takes place continuously
from the surface of a liquid.
16 Food Science and Nutrition
Operating valve
Handle ‘
Temp 121°C
Pressure gauge
(15 lb pressure)
Clamps
Gasket
Perforated
stand
Electric coil
Fig. 2.5 An autoclave
1. Bread and cake if left uncovered, hardens and becomes stale because of loss
of moisture. This can be prevented by storing food in covered tins.
2. Cooking in shallow uncovered pans will cause greater evaporation and is
used for preparing mawa from milk.
3. Milk powder is prepared by dehydration or spray drying in which water from
milk is removed by circulating hot air.
Melting Point
Melting or fusion is the change of state from a solid to a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid melts and turns into a liquid is called its melt-
ing point. The melting point of fats depends on the percentage of saturated long
chain fatty acids present in it.
The melting point for any chemical is fixed and is used to measure the purity of
a substance. It is lowered by adding other substances.
Melting point of fats:
Vanaspati 37-39°C
Butter 36©
Lard 44°C
Tallow 48°C
Coconut oil 26°C
Food Science Concepts 17
Smoke point When fats and oils are heated strongly above frying temperature,
they decompose and a stage is reached at which visible thin bluish smoke is given
off. This temperature is called the smoke point.
The temperature varies with different fats and ranges between 160 and 260°C.
The bluish vapour is because of formation of acrolein from overheated glycerol.
Acrolein has an acrid odour and is irritating to the eyes.
The smoking point is lowered by the following factors:
1. Presence of large quantities of free fatty acids
2. Exposure of large surface area while heating
3. Presence of suspended food particles.
2H,O CHy).CH.CHO
+
Water Acrolein
Fig. 2.6 Effect of high temperature on fat
18
Ra
Food Science and Nutrition
a Sci i ke ee ee ee ee ee
Flash point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats
and oils can be ignited, but will not support combustion. The flash point varies with
different fats and ranges between 290 and 330°C.
Fire point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats and
oils support combustion. It ranges between 340 and 360°C for different fats. The oil
or fat may catch fire and burn.
The smoke point, flash point, and fire point are lowered by the presence of free
fatty acids.
Corn oil
Cotton seed
Soya bean
Ground nut
Butter
Lard
Beef dripping
Normal frying temperature for most oils is 180-195°C. The smoke point is
25-40°C above normal frying temperature. The application of smoke point is in
frying foods. Fats and oils used for deep fat frying should have a high smoke point.
Moist foods should be coated well before frying as moisture present in food tends
to hydrolyse the fat and increase the free fatty acids present.
Surface Tension
Surface tension is a force experienced on the surface of a liquid. It is caused by
cohesion, i.e., a force that causes the molecules of a substance to be attracted to one
another.
The molecules of a liquid that are below the surface are pulled by cohesive forces
from all directions. But the molecules at the surface behave differently because they
are only pulled downwards or sideways. This downward or sideways attraction
causes a constant pull on the surface molecules which makes the liquid behave as if
it is covered by a thin elastic film. For example, the surface of water can support
needles if they are placed carefully.
Because of surface tension, drops of liquid take a spherical shape, which has the
smallest possible surface area, e.g., dew drops.
Food Science Concepts 19
Surface tension causes liquids to rise in a thin tube (capillary tube) when the tube
is dipped in liquid. This property of liquids is important in many food systems and
in the action of detergents.
Surface tension is also defined as the force of attraction which exists between liq-
uid and solid surfaces.
Applications of surface tension:
1. Addition of detergent to liquids reduces the surface tension of water and the
surface attraction between the fibre and greasy stain, and allows the soil to be
removed from the fabric.
2. Release agents help prevent the paper lining the tin from sticking to the cake.
They contain silicone compounds.
3. Silicones have a property of lowering the surface tension and is added to
wood polishes to allow the polish to spread easily.
4. Non-stick cookware is coated with polytetrafluoroethane plastic or silicone to
prevent attraction between the food and pan.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water from a weak solution to a stronger solution through
a semipermeable membrane.
When raisins are soaked in a cup of water for sometime, the raisins swell because
water from the cup enters the raisins. Similarly, if raisins are placed in a concen-
trated sugar solution, they shrivel up after sometime because water from the raisins
passes into the sugar solution because of osmosis.
Plant and animal cell membranes act as semipermeable membranes and selec-
tively permit water and electrolytes to enter or leave the cell.
Applications of osmosis:
1. Osmosis plays an important role in food processing and preservation to retain
the original shape and size of canned fruits in syrup and of vegetables in pickles.
2. The freshness of fruits and vegetables depends on the osmotic pressure in the
cells. Salads lose their crisp crunchy texture and become limp if salt and
sugar is sprinkled much in advance. Lettuce leaves can be revived by
immersing then in chilled water.
Humidity
Humidity refers to the presence of water vapour in the air. Water vapour is pro-
duced by respiration of plants and animals, evaporation from food during cooking
and from water bodies, from rain during the monsoons, etc.
In catering establishments, moisture in the air is quite high because of large vol-
umes of steam from boilers, from cooking food, from dishwashers and laundry
processes, and respiration and perspiration of people in a confined area.
20 Food Science and Nutrition
Food Rheology
It is the science of measuring forces which are needed to deform food materials or to
study the flow properties of liquid foods. It deals with the viscous behaviour of a system.
Solid food can be chopped up, ground, minced, sliced, torn apart, or broken
while it is being prepared or eaten. The texture is determined when we chew food
and it is described as crisp, tough, chewy, creamy, sticky, spongy, etc.
Liquid foods are fluid or viscous. Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a liquid
to flow. It is measured by an instrument called a viscometer. This property of a liquid
is seen in batters, sauces, syrups, etc.
Compression It is the pressure needed to squash foam or spongy foods to find out
their freshness or tenderness. The compressimeter or tenderometer is used to meas-
ure the lightness of a product.
Adhesion Adhesive gum-like properties give stickiness to food which sticks to the
teeth when chewed, like toffee. Breaking strength of dry foods, such as spaghetti,
biscuits, and potato wafers, are measured by applying a load till the product breaks.
Shearing It is the force needed to cut or slice through meat, vegetables, fruits, etc.,
and indicates the toughness of a food. Penetrometers measure the force needed to
penetrate a food, such as jelly, cooking fat, canned and fresh fruits, and vegetables.
Rigidity It is the property of those substances which do not flow, e.g., baked cus-
tard and cake. Rigid substances show either elastic property or plastic property.
Elastic substances These substances do not flow, but flow when force is applied.
However, when the force is removed it regains its original shape, e.g., sponge cake.
Food Science Concepts 21
Area 1 square inch (sq. in) 6.45 square centimetres (sq. cm)
1 square foot (sq. ft) 929 sq. cm
1 square mile 2.59 sq. km
Elasticity It is the property which permits a substance to change its shape when a
force is applied to it and to come back to its original shape once the force is
removed, provided the force applied is within elastic limits.
Applications of elasticity:
1. The stretching power of the dough can be tested before baking. The extensi-
bility of flour is due to gluten formed in flour. Over-kneading of dough results
in decreased elasticity.
2. Dough improvers are chemicals added to improve or strengthen the elasticity
of bread dough.
3. Addition of malt flour gives a softer-textured dough because of enzymes pres-
ent in malt.
Plastic substances These substances resist flow to a certain point, but beyond that
point they flow, i.e., they become plastic in nature.
Plasticity is an important property of margarine. A plastic fat is one which can be
creamed as well as forms a thin sheet or layer in dough when the dough is rolled
out, e.g., flaky pastry.
22 Food Science and Nutrition
‘Satine MASE OUP SR GLP EU LE A Se PBA BG eS elPR rae ae eta psa eee iP a IMP meee HP LARTER LT POTS EEL ERR
SUMMARY
A knowledge of basic physical, chemical, and biological sciences are needed by all
students studying catering. Today, the SI or International System of measurement is
used universally for measuring matter. The unit for measuring length is the metre
and for volume it is the litre. Weight is measured in kilograms and may change from
place to place because of the force of gravity or pull of the earth. Density is the rela-
tionship between weight and volume of a substance while relative density is the
mass of a known volume of a substance divided by the mass of the same volume of
water. The hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids
and are specifically calibrated to measure the relative density of different sub-
stances. The lactometer is used to test the purity of milk, the saccharometer is used
to measure the concentration of sugar soiutions, alcoholometers are used to check
the degrees proof, and salinometers to check the relative density of brine.
Energy is present in many forms, such as heat, solar, electrical, and chemical.
Heat is measured in joules. Temperature is measured in degrees Farenheit and
degrees Celsius, the potential hydrogen (pH) is used to express the degree of acidi-
ty or alkalinity of a food. A pH between | and 6.5 is acidic and above 7.5 it is called
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH of 7, which is neutral.
Buffers help in maintaining the pH of foods at a constant level.
-Many other terminologies are relevant and need to be known and their applica-
tions understood by the caterer.
5 REET RL ILE TRE LL ELEM TUR OT LEELA LM ERI ET TLS DEERE ELT IM LET TERE LL REL EANRE LET DEOL BES TELE LTT LIES UEETT ESR LEAT TRIS RTEESTES SINISE SME ES UE EERIE SLL URES,
KEY TERMS
Acrolein A substance formed when glycerol from fat Rendering The process of removal of fat from the fat
is heated at high temperatures which is irritating to cells of adipose tissue of animals by dry heat method.
the eyes and respiratory tract. Silicone Organic compounds of silicon used on non-
Hygroscopic Readily absorbing water, such sub- sticking wrapping paper.
stances are used as drying agents, e.g., silica gel and
calcium chloride. /
Relative humidity Method of measuring the mois-
ture present in air relative to saturation at the same
temperature.
BAUS. SR Se! OS Ae eS We Te ee nee wer ANNI pee i, PALF AR UA S UE
REVIEW EXERCISES
pH
Smoke point
Relative density
Give scientific reasons for:
‘Colloidal Systems
in Foods
INTRODUCTION :
stirring, emulsifying, etc., converting the intact tissue into complex dispersions.
The kind of process food is subjected to will have a bearing on the final quality of
the product.
A well baked cake, where ingredients have been mixed correctly and a heavy
collapsed cake may have the same chemical composition and nutritive value, but
the latter will have no market because its physical qualities, i.e., its volume, texture,
and appearance do not meet acceptable standards. These standards are of utmost
importance to both the caterer and the consumer, and an understanding of the prin-
ciples underling food dispersions is necessary for caterers to prepare high quality
products.
CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD
Apart from water, food is mainly composed of three main groups of constituents
namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and their derivatives. Along with these consti-
tuents, minerals, vitamins, organic acids, pigments, enzymes, flavouring substances,
and other organic constituents are present in varying amounts in different foods.
These constituents give food their structure, texture, colour, flavour, and nutritive
value. To the caterer and consumer, the physical appearance is as significant as its
chemical composition.
Foods are mixtures or dispersions of two or more types of substances. These sub-
stances are present as particles of various sizes. Depending on the particle size or size
of the molecule in the mixture, these substances may be classified as a true solution,
a colloidal dispersion, or a coarse suspension.
‘rue Solution
It is composed of two parts: the solute which is the dissolved substance and the sol-
vent which is the substance in which the solute is dissolved. In a true solution, ions
or molecules smaller than one millimicron are dissolved in a liquid. They contain
varying amounts of ions or molecules of dissolved substances depending on the tem-
perature of the solvent and on the solute. Solutions may be unsaturated, saturated,
or supersaturated. They have the smallest particle size of the three types of disper-
sions. A solution is homogenous, i.e., alike in all parts, e.g., sugar syrup and brine.
juspension
Suspensions are dispersions of coarse particles in a liquid. The particles are large
and require continuous agitation to keep them dispersed. When agitation ceases,
these coarse suspended particles settle down because of force of gravity. When the
mixture is stirred, the suspension is formed again. In a suspension the particle size
is larger than one micrometre or micron, e.g., starch and cold water paste. Many
dispersions in food contain substances which are larger than one micron in size.
26 Food Science and Nutrition
Colloidal Systems
Between the particle sizes of the solutions and those of suspensions, lies the area
of colloidal systems. The particles are large enough to impart to the system some
properties different from those found in true solutions, but small enough so that
they do not separate out on standing. Colloidal systems deal with dispersions of
definite size, since it is the size of the particles in the colloidal range that impart the
specific and characteristic properties to the system.
Colloidal dispersions are characterized by particles ranging between one mil-
limicron (0.001 um) and 100 millimicrons (0.1 tm) with maximum size of up to one
micrometre (tm) in diameter.
One micrometre (micron) (um) = 1073 mm or 1/1,000 mm
10-4 cm or
10-6 m
One millimicron (mu) = 1073 um or 1/1,000 um
There is no distinct line of demarcation. Particles approaching the limits of the
size of one zone may show properties of two zones. For example, sugar exhibit:
both crystalloid and colloidal properties in food systems. The properties exhibit-
ed by colloidal particles around 1 my in size are different from those of particles
around 0.1 um in size, e.g., crystalline candies have an organized crystalline
structure while amorphous candies such as fondant lack an organized crystalline
structure.
The gluten particles of hydrated flour proteins have colloidal dimensions but
gluten particles of cake and pastry flours are more dispersed or of smaller size than
those of bread flours. This is one reason for the different results obtained in cake:
when bread flour is used instead of cake flour.
All colloidal dispersions or colloidal systems have two phases: a continuous phase
and a discontinuous or dispersed phase. The continuous phase extends throughou
the system and surrounds the dispersed phase completely. Proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats exist in foods as particles of colloidal dimensions. The system is a colloidal
system as long as the particle size of the dispersed phase is within colloidal dimen-
sions. Colloidal systems may be a combination of solid, liquid, or gas as the conti-
nuous or dispersed phase.
In food, the following colloidal systems are of importance.
1. Sol — Colloidal dispersion of a solid dispersed in a liquid.
2. Gel — Colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a solid.
3. Emulsion — Colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a liquid.
4. Foam — Colloidal dispersion of a gas dispersed in a liquid.
5. Solid foam or suspensoid — Colloidal dispersion of a gas dispersed in a solid.
Dispersions may be simple or complex. In a simple dispersion a colloid may con-
sist of a solid dispersed in a liquid, e.g., when gelatin is dissolved in warm water,
a simple dispersion called a sol is formed. Mayonnaise is an example of a complex
dispersion since it is an emulsion, a sol, and foam combined in one. Milk is another
example of a complex dispersion, i.e., more than one phase is dispersed in a liquid.
Milk is a solution of lactose in water, an emulsion of fat in water, and a sol as milk
protein is dispersed in water.
Colloidal particles have different characteristics. Some are attracted to water and
are called hydrophilic or water loving. They get hydrated easily. Others repel water
and are called hydrophobic or water hating. These different characteristics are seen
because of the difference in chemical composition of the compounds. In certain
substances, a part of their structure is hydrophobic while other parts are
hydrophilic. Those parts or functional groups that are attracted to water are called
polar groups. Examples of polar groups are the organic acid group or COOH group
in proteins, the aldehyde or CHO group in carbohydrates, etc. Non polar groups are
hydrophobic, e.g., carbon chains -C-C-C-C- and cyclic structures, C which are
seen in organic compounds.
Organic substances which have both polar and nonpolar groups are useful as
emulsifying agents in food emulsions as part of their molecule is attracted towards
the dispersed phase and part towards the continuous phase.
Skim milk
Soups
Gravy
Pouring custard
helps in keeping the system stable. When the charge is neutralized, the colloidal
particles flocculate and separate out.
Layer on water Water is present in food in two distinct physical states: free water
and bound water. Part of the water present in food is free water which can act as a
solvent and has flow properties. The rest of the water is bound water which is close-
ly combined with starch or protein by hydrogen bonding and influences the physi-
cal properties of food. Many colloidal systems are hydrophilic and attract a layer of
water around them. The layer of water acts as an insulation and keep the colloidal
system stable.
viscosity of sols may range from liquid, e.g., skim milk to extremely viscous, e.g.,
tomato ketchup which barely flows. The viscosity of the sol will depend on the con-
centration of solid and the temperature of the sol. The higher the concentration of
solid in a sol, the more viscous the sol. The viscosity of a sol can be adjusted by
adding more liquid.
Irrespective of the viscosity, in a sol the solid is always distributed throughout
the sol and does not settle at the bottom. Protein in milk remains dispersed because
of the like electrical charges on the surface of the protein molecule, which repel
each other. When the charge on the dispersed protein molecules is neutralized by
addition of acid, protein flocculates and separates out as is seen while preparing
paneer.
Pectin remains dispersed because of its hydrophilic nature. It attracts a layer of
water that is tightly bound to the pectin molecule by hydrogen bonding. All sols
have flow properties. They flow more readily at higher temperatures than at a lower
one. Sometimes a sol may change into a gel when the system is viscous and there
is a drop in energy level, e.g., during cooling. The solids start associating with one
another and form a three dimensional meshwork in which the liquid is trapped.
Milk, cream soups, pouring custard, béchamel sauce, and gravy are commonly used
sols in the kitchen.
Gel A gel is a colloidal system in which liquid forms the dispersed phase and
solid forms the continuous phase. It is also called a reverse sol. A gel does not flow.
Some of the liquid is adsorbed on the surface of the solid molecules and is called
bound water. Because of this bound liquid, the gel has structure. The remaining liq-
uid is trapped in the solid three-dimensional meshwork of the gel. As compared to
a sol, the concentration of solid is higher in a gel.
A food gel consists of a continuous phase of interconnected particles or macro-
molecules in which liquid is dispersed. The rigidity, elasticity, and brittleness of the
gel depends on the type and concentration of the solid or gelling agent, the pH,
salt content, and temperature, e.g., pectin does not form a gel unless the pH is
acidic. -
The gelling agent may be a polysaccharide like cornflour in blancmange, a pro-
tein like albumin in caramel custard or complex colloidal particles like calcium
caseinate in curds. Gums, pectins, and gelatin can form gels even at low concentra-
tions. }
When a gel is stored for sometime or becomes stale, there is a reduction in gel vol-
ume. The liquid which was entrapped in the three-dimensional meshwork of the gel
is expelled from the interstitial spaces and the gel shrinks. This condition is called
syneresis or weeping gel. Syneresis is seen in baked custards, moulded desserts, and
curds. Free liquid may also be released if the gel structure is cut, e.g., in curds, whey
separates out when the set gel is cut or disturbed.
30 Food Science and Nutrition
Continuous
phase
Free
liquid Trapped
Gelatin liquid
molecules
Fig. 3.1 In a gelatin sol, gelatin forms the dispersed
phase. On cooling, gelatin forms the continuous phase
Sols and gels are reverse colloidal systems and many can be changed from one
type to another. Many gels are first sols which on cooling form gels provided the
concentration of solids is adequate.
Dissolved Heated
gelatin jelly a Jelly
crystals
When a sol is converted into a gel, the energy levels fall. This is seen during
the cooling process. The solids in the dispersed phase move with difficulty
through the continuous phase and ultimately associate with one another by form-
ing secondary bonds. When the dispersion is cold enough, permanent bonds
form, which can hold the liquid in the solid meshwork. A gel is formed which
differs from a sol because it is apparently solid and is capable of holding its shape
when served.
Emulsion An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of tiny droplets of one liquid
suspended in another. In this colloidal system, liquids form the dispersed as well
as the continuous phase. One liquid is dispersed as dropletsin another liquid.
For an emulsion to form, agitation or shaking the two liquids is. necessary till they
are well mixed. Emulsions form, only when the two liquids are immiscible in
each other, e.g., oil and water. The liquid with the higher surface tension forms
small droplets or the dispersed phase. When an emulsion is formed the dispersed
liquid has a much larger surface area as compared to the two liquids as separate
layers.
Food emulsions are of two types:
(a) Oil in water emulsion or O/W emulsion in which the droplets of oil are dis-
persed in water, for example, mayonnaise and milk.
(b) Water in oil emulsion or W/O emulsion in which droplets of water are dis-
persed in oil, for example, margarine and butter.
Colloidal Systems in Foods 31
Oil
Water
Theory of Emulsification
1. During the process of emulsification, the main step is to break down the bulk
liquid into small droplets and then stabilize the emulsion.
2 In a stable emulsion the droplets remain dispersed. But due to interfacial ten-
sion, there is a tendency for droplets to coalesce and separate out. The inter-
facial tension is lowered by the addition of emulsifiers. Emulsifiers or emul-
sifying agents are surface active agents which lower the interfacial tension,
i.e., the tension at the interface of two immiscible liquids.
The dispersed droplets which are of colloidal dimensions tend to form spher-
ical structures in the continuous phase.
To prepare a stable emulsion, it is necessary to reduce the size of the droplets,
prevent their coalescing, and increase their surface area.
Mechanical aids such as beaters, stirrers, homogenizers, and colloid mills
help to reduce the size of the dispersed droplets, thereby increasing surface
area. Energy is required to work against the interfacial tension and allow the
continuous phase to stretch out and cover the dispersed droplets.
6. Emulsifiers are used to reduce interfacial tension, They get adsorbed at the
interface. .
7, Inan O/W emulsion, e.g., mayonnaise, the nonpolar group of the emulsifier
is oriented towards the oil droplet (salad oil) and is adsorbed in the outermost
layer of the droplet.
8. The polar group of the emulsifier is oriented towards the continuous phase of
water (vinegar, lime juice, water from egg) surrounding the oil droplet.
9. The molecules of emulsifier surround the droplet completely forming a
monomolecular layer of emulsifier (lecithin) around the droplet.
10. The oil droplet is thus protected by a film consisting of 3 layers namely
ce of the emul-
not separate out into two separate layers because of the presen
sifying agent.
fying agent used,
The type of emulsion formed will also depend on the emulsi
agent is stronger.
and whether the polar or nonpolar group on the emulsifying
is more strongly
If the nonpolar group is stronger, the emulsifying agent
and water will form
attracted to oil. The surface tension of oil is reduced
d will be a W/O type of
droplets or the dispersed phase. The emulsion forme
emulsion.
g agent The amount
The amount or concentration of the emulsifyin
ent to coat the dispersed
of emulsifier present in the emulsion should be suffici
at the interface which is
droplets completely. The emulsifier forms a layer
touch each other and coalesce
monomolecular in thickness. The droplets do not
agent around each droplet.
because of the protective layer of emulsifying
any beneficial effects. If the
Addition of extra emulsifying agent does not have
coated or protected and stabili-
emulsifier is insufficient, all droplets will not be
ty of the’emulsion is affected.
Mechanical aids such as
The size of the droplets in dispersed phase
help to reduce the size of the droplets
beaters, homogenizers, and colloid mills
The smaller the size of the dispersed
dispersed, i.e., increase their surface area. ener-
droplet represents a lower
droplets, the more stable the emulsion. A large
stability. Homogenized milk is a sta-
gy state than two small droplets and has less
are reduced.
ble emulsion as the size of the fat droplets used or the
ratio of oil and water
The ratio of oil and water used The
phase is important. The continuous
ratio of dispersed phase to the continuous
sed droplets completely. For this
phase should stretch out and cover the disper
emulsion is necessary.
proper mixing, shaking, or beating of the
34 Food Science and Nutrition
In food systems, the continuous phase is usually a liquid with added solids or
changed to a solid by heating, e.g., beaten egg white and sugar foam is a gas in liquid
dispersion. When it is baked it becomes a gas in solid dispersion, e.g., meringue.
The liquid or semisolid walls are elastic in stable foams and separate the gas bubbles
from each other. The gas bubbles range in size from 1 um to several centimetres.
To form a foam, energy is required to overcome the surface tension of the liquid
and stretch it into thin films, which surround bubbles of gas. Liquids which form
foams easily have a low vapour pressure and low surface tension.
The presence of solid matter increases the stability of a foam. When egg white,
cream, or gelatin is whipped into a foam, the protein which collects at the air—water
interface gets denatured or coagulated by the energy used for whipping and helps
in making the foam stable.
Whipped cream forms a stable foam because of the following reasons:
1. Proteins get denatured and become firmer
2. Butter fat and other milk solids present in cream increase the viscosity giving
the foam a fine texture
3. Cream which has been aged is more concentrated and gives a better foam.
In homogenized cream, the fat is split into very fine particles, reducing its whipping
properties. For a stable light textured foam of good volume, adequate mechanical
36 Food Science and Nutrition
agitation is necessary. At the same time care should be taken to avoid over beating
or converting cream into butter.
+ Foams used in cookery include egg white, egg yolk, gelatin, and cream. They
contribute towards lighiness, volume, and texture of the product.
The caterer should understand that most of the food materials which are
used or prepared in the kitchen are a combination of various colloidal systems.
Since the colloidal state depends on particle size, it is important to understand
the methods and ingredients used in food preparation that influence degree of
dispersion.
lL, Mechanical stress to which food has been subjected to before and during pro-
duction like grinding, beating, homogenizing, etc., affects dispersion. Grinding
of cereals, stirring of custard to prevent clumping and beating of curdled cus-
tards reduces the size of the particles and increases dispersion.
Homogenization of milk is a mechanical means of increasing the dispersion
of fat globules.
Increasing the temperature may bring about greater or lesser dispersion.
When milk is heated, dispersion of fat globules in milk increases. When pro-
teins are heated, coagulation takes place, which decreases the degree of dis-
persion.
The addition of acid to milk causes casein to clot and decreases the dispersion.
Alkalies bring about greater dispersion of cellulose and pectin in fruits and
vegetables during cooking, making them mushy.
Amount of water present or the concentration of solids in a sol or aE If water
is present in excess, it will increase dispersion and prevent setting.
Enzymes may cause increased or decreased dispersion of foods.
The proteinase enzyme in flour increases the dispersion of gluten. Clotting
of milk on addition of rennin is an example of decreased dispersion of
protein.
Milk, butter, margarine, cream, curd, doughs and batters, soufflés and desserts,
soups, sauces and gravies, etc., are all examples of colloidal systems. Many of these
are multiphase food systems which have two or more discontinuous phases dispersed
in a continuous phase.
EUS a MS
SR ESS
SUMMARY
Food products are generally multiphase systems in which solids, liquids, and gas are
finely distributed during manufacture to give the finished product the desired struc-
ture and quality. The physical qualities in terms of volume, texture, appearance, and
stability are as important as the chemical constituents present in food. The basic
Colloidal Systems in Foods 37
SSS STS
KEY TERMS
Bound water Water that is bound to other sub- Permanent emulsion An emulsion containing ade-
stances
and can no longer flow or act as solvent. quate emulsifying agent so that it remains intact during
Colloidal dispersion A two phase system which has normal handling.
particles of 0.001 um and 1 um dispersed in the con- pH The measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a
tinuous phase. substance.
Emulsifying agent A compound which stabilizes Rennin An enzyme from the calves stomach that
an emulsion by orienting itself at the interface of forms a curd when added to milk.
the two phases of an emulsion. An emulsifying Stabilizer A substance which prevents an emulsion
agent contains both polar and nonpolar groups in from breaking by increasing the viscosity of the
its molecule. continuous phase and preventing coalescing of
Gums Complex carbohydrate of plant origin made up droplets in dispersed phase.
of galactose and other sugars or sugar derivatives. Supersaturated solution True solution containing
Homogenization A mechanical process in which milk more solute than can be normally dissolved at that
is forced through tiny apertures under pressure so temperature.
that fat globules are reduced in size and do not sep- Surface tension Attraction between molecules at the
arate out as cream. surface of a liquid.
immiscible That which cannot be mixed together. Syneresis Oozing of liquid from a gel when cut or
Interfacial tension The difference between the allowed to stand.
attractive forces acting on the molecules within the Temporary emulsion A fluid emulsion which has very
two liquids. little emulsifying agent and separates out into two
Phospholipid present in egg yolk which is an distinct layers when agitation ceases.
Lecithin
effective emulsifying agent and commercially Vapour pressure Pressure exerted as molecules of a
obtained from soya bean liquid attempt to escape and vapourize.
SL eS
38 Food Science and Nutrition
REVIEW GUESTIONS
ie How does an emulsifying agent stabilize an emulsion? Explain briefly.
oe What is the main difference between a solution, colloidal dispersion, and a
suspension?
Explain the following terms
1. Reverse Sol 2. Osmosis 3. Stabilizer 4. Suspensoid 5. Aerosol
What is a foam? Which food constituent helps in strengthening and stabili-
zing a foam? Explain giving suitable examples.
Explain the four main colloidal systems prominent in food, stating the phases
and giving relevant examples for each.
Classify food emulsions and name the natural emulsifying agent present in
mayonnaise.
Fill in the blanks with a suitable answer.
(a) Foams contribute to the and texture of many food products.
(b) The formation and stability of a foam depend on the
and of the liquid being whipped.
Carbohydrates
Learning Objectives
After reading this Sis you should be able to:
describe the chemical nature of carbohydrates
classify carbohydrates and know their sources a
understand the structure and functions of different carb hydrate in processed foods
_ know the changes that take place when heat isapplied to starch r xtures-
distinguish between sugars and non-nutritive sweeteners |
e understand factors which affect the texture and consistency of starch- based eau
° ceed a= ee - carbohydrates |in theisc ne
INTRODUCTION
. oe
Radiant
: energy
ae ce ) (| () Green leaves
10xide \q LF
Oxygen =
+
Glucose y \)()
(Ss
Root
(Carrot)
6 OSG
Bulb
(Onion)
Tuber
(Sweet potato)
Stem
(Sugarcane)
Leaf
(Spinach)
Flower
(Cauliflower)
& OR Bud
(Brussels sprouts)
Fruit
(Apple)
Seed
(Peas)
Fig. 4.1 Photosynthesis
Carbohydrates are present in various forms in the food we cook, and processed
food which we purchase and form the bulk of our diet. They are available in the
market in the natural form, processed form, or modified form as an additive in
many different products.
Before we study the types of carbohydrates it is necessary to understand their
basic structure.
Definition Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones,
or substances that yield such compounds on hydrclysis. Carbohydrates are organic
Carbohydrates 41
compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are called carbohydrates
because hydrogen and oxygen are present in the same proportion as found in
water, i.e., 2:1.
The chlorophyll present in plants can harness the light energy from the sun and
convert it to chemical energy. This is accomplished by a complex process known as
photosynthesis in which green plants use light energy from the sun, water from the
soil, and carbon dioxide from the air to manufacture carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of the number of sugar units or saccharide
units, which are present in their structures. Only natural carbohydrates of signifi-
cance have been elaborated.
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest forms of carbohydrates found in nature. Three monosac-
charides are of importance in human nutrition. They are glucose, fructose, and
galactose. These simple sugars are made up of a six-carbon chain or ring to which
hydrogen and hydroxyl (OH) groups are attached. All hexoses contain the same
number and kinds of atoms and have the formula CgH).O¢. They differ from one
another because of the arrangement of different atoms around the carbon chain.
Because of the difference in structure they have different properties and vary in
their degree of sweetness. These are the chemical building blocks or units from
which all other carbohydrates are built.
Glucose It is the most important of all the monosaccharides as it is the primary car-
bohydrate used by the body. Glucose is the sugar, which is absorbed into the blood
stream after carbohydrates are digested in the body. It is also known as dextrose.
Glucose is available in powder and liquid form.
Fructose It is the sweetest of all sugars and is also known as fruit sugar because it
is found in fruits and honey. In human body it is converted to glucose and oxidized
as a source of energy. It is also called levulose.
Galactose It is found in combination with glucose in the disaccharide lactose in
milk. This sugar is converted to glucose in human body.
Carbohydrates
Disaccharides
These are double sugars composed of two monasccharides linked together with the
removal of a molecule of water. The disaccharides which are of importance in the
diet are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Their general formula is C},H2204;.
Sucrose Sucrose is the name given to the sugar which we use daily. It is prepared
from sugar cane and sugar beet. It is the most common of all the disaccharides. It is
present in some fruits and vegetables, and forms a substantial part of the diet of chil-
dren and adults because of the increase in consumption of junk foods, processed foods,
and fast foods. Sucrose is made up of one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose.
Lactose It is the sugar present in milk. It is made up of one unit of glucose and
one unit of galactose. It is the least sweet of all the sugars and is easily fermented to
lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria while preparing curds and cheese. Lactic acid,
which is formed from lactose, helps in setting curds and curdling milk.
Maltose It is formed when whole grains are sprouted and in the commercial
preparation of malt from starch. In the body, maltose is formed during digestion of
starch. It is composed of two units of glucose.
Oligosaccharides
They are composed of three to ten monosaccharide units linked to each other by
the removal of a molecule of water. They are not as common in food as the
mono-, di-, and polysaccharides, but are formed during breakdown of starch into
simpler sugars, e.g., raffinose and stachyose.
|Polysaccharides
; These are complex carbohydrates made up of 100-2,000 glucose units linked to
| each other in a chain or branched form. The number of glucose units, their arrange-
ment, and linkage to one another influence the properties of the polysaccharides.
|
|
Starches They form approximately half the dietary carbohydrates which are con-
sumed. They are present in abundance in cereals, pulses, tapioca, sago, roots, and tubers.
Glycogen This is also called animal starch as it is the form in which the animal
body stores carbohydrates as a reserve source of energy. One third of the glycogen
is stored in the liver and two-thirds is stored in the muscles. Approximately 340 g
of glycogen is stored in the body. This store is sufficient to meet the energy needs
for less than a day. However, animal liver or muscle is not a source of glycogen in
the diet as it is immediately converted to lactic acid when the animal is slaughtered.
Dextrin This is formed in the first stage of starch breakdown either by enzymes
during digestion, or by the action of dry heat on starch during toasting bread or
browning flour. The very long chains of starch are split into shorter chains called
44 Food Science and Nutrition
dextrins. Dextrin is sweeter and more soluble than starch. This is the reason why
bread or chappati tastes sweeter when it is chewed for a longer time.
Dietary fibres They are made up of many glucose units. The structure of cellulose
differs from starch because the glucose units in cellulose form a different linkage as
compared to starch.
STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES
The structure of carbohydrates can be represented in two ways:
1. Acyclic or ring structure
2. A three-dimensional structure.
|12,0
HoH,C /“°\_ on
Ho HO/cH,0H
OH
Sucrose
Reducing Sugars
They are sugars that possess free aldehyde or ketone groups. All monosaccharides
are reducing sugars.
oe 2
Ny ss
Aldehyde Ketone
group group
apo H—C—oH
H—C—OH C=06)
HO—C—H HO-—C—H
icon H—C_OH
H—C_On H—C_OH
H—C-OH H—C—OH
i i
D-Glucose, an aldehyde sugar D-Fructose, a ketone sugar
Fig. 4.6 Three-dimensional structures of sugars
HNon-Reducing Sugar
When monosaccharides are linked together through their aldehyde or ketone group
and these groups are not free, the sugar is called a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose is a
non-reducing sugar and maltose is a reducing sugar.
Reducing sugars react with other constituents in food like amino acids and bring
about changes in colour, flavour, and nutritive value, e.g., Maillard browning (refer
to Chapter 8).
Polysaccharides
Dextrins These are the smallest and simplest of all the polysaccharides. The size
of the dextrin molecule varies widely, but it is much smaller than that of starch.
They are composed of glucose units linked by 1,4-a-glucosidic linkages. They are
formed by dry heating or acid hydrolysis of starch. Dextrins are slightly soluble,
have a mild sweet taste and limited thickening ability.
Some important polysaccharides in food are made up of only glucose units linked
together by o or B glucosidic linkages.
1,4 linkage
1,4 linkage
© — Glucose units
Amylose Amylopectin
Amylopectin, like amylose, is made up of glucose units only. Two types of linkages
are seen in amylopectin — 1,4-c-glucosidic linkages as in amylose and occassional
1,6-o-glucosidic linkages, resulting in a very large branched polysaccharide. The 1,4
linkages form a straight chain of 15-30 glucose units after which a 1,6 linkage occurs
resulting in cross-linking and a complex branched structure. The molecules of amy-
lopectin is very large, and because of its branched structure is sparingly soluble, not
sweet, and is the predominant form in the starch granule with low gelling ability.
The relative proportion of amylose and amylopectin in starches are of consider-
able importance because both forms have different behaviour in cooked starch
products. et
As glucose produced during photosynthesis is bulky, it-is condensed to form
starch, which is more concentrated. This starch is deposited in an orderly manner
in the form of granules.
The starch granules are made in the leucoplasts within the cytoplasm of the cell.
Each granule is made up of concentric layers of amylopectin molecules interspersed
with amylose molecules. Amylose and amylopectin molecules are deposited as
tightly coiled polymer chains in the starch granule in an organized manner.
Starch granules are densely packed with amylose and amylopectin. Each type of
starch has a characteristic shape by which it can be microscopically identified. The
size varies from a few microns to 100 microns.
Tapioca, the root starch from cassava, has small rcund or oval granules.
STARCH DESCRIPTION
Potato Large granules shaped like
mussel shells
Sago starch granules are elliptical in shape and larger than potato starch granules.
Potato starch granules are large and shaped like mussel shells.
Corn starch granules are polygonal in shape.
Wheat starch has two types of granules: small spherical granules and large disk-
shaped granules.
Rice starch granules are polygonal in shape but very small in size.
Cereal starches, such as that of corn, rice, wheat, oat, sago, tapioca, etc. are used
as thickening and gelling agents. Genetic research and plant breeding have enabled
48 Food Science and Nutritionaee 8S eee
Starch
O — glucose unit
2. Molecular weight is less than amylopectin 2. Molecular weight is four times that of amylose
4. Capable of forming gels because of linear 4. No gel formation because of branched structure
form
Carbohydrates 49
Straight
chain of
amylose
i . / Branched
3 ; ay re
STARCH
General formula (Cg Hi9 Os), value of 2 is 400-4,000 units
High molecular weight polymer of glucose units only, i.e., it is a homoglycan
On hydrolysis yields glucose units (Cg H19 Os),+ m H2O > n Cg Hy Og
Starch granules contains two polysaccharides—amylose and amylopectin
By the process of photosynthesis, green plants manufacture glucose, which is converted
to starch and stored in the form of granules in various parts of the plant
Starch is present as granules within leucoplasts in plant cells.
Insoluble
pectin
Mussel-shaped
starch granules
Gelatinized
starch granules
GELATION
Gelatinized starch mixtures may exhibit flow properties and remain a sol or may
cool and set to form a gel. The amylose, which has leached out of the swollen starch
granule, forms hydrogen bonds with other amylose molecules as the starch paste
cools and loses energy. Amylose molecules move slowly forming bonds and a three
dimensional continuous network of amylose is formed in which swollen granules
are trapped. This forms the continuous phase of the newly formed starch gel in
which water is dispersed. The starch mixture is transformed into a gel and no longer
exhibits flow properties.
Factors affecting gelation:
Type of starch
Concentration of starch
Duration of heating
Stirring
Other ingredients
Sy
SiaAging of gel
52 Food Science and Nutrition
Type of Starch
The proportion of amylose and amylopectin in the starch determines whether a gel
will form and whether it will be permanent. The straight chains of amylose form
bonds easily while the branches of amylopectin come in the way and prevent the
formation of a firm gel. Starches rich in amylose can form gels at low concentra-
tions while starches lacking amylose, e.g., waxy starches can form soft gels at high
concentrations.
Wheat and rice flours are good thickening agents but poor gelling agents.|
Arrowroot starch forms a soft gel, while potato and tapioca starches do not have a
tendency to gel. Corn flour forms a stiff gel but retrogrades when frozen. Chemically
modified starches form stable gels.
Concentration of Starch
Corn starch forms a firm gel at 10% concentration while waxy starches which lack
amylose can form a soft gel at 30% concentration. Starches containing large
amounts of amylose will gel at low concentrations.
1_ tbsp starch in 1 cup liquid - thin sauce
2 tbsps starch in 1 cup liquid - medium consistency
3 tbsps starch in 1 cup liquid — thick sauce.
Browning of flour results in dextrinization with lessened thickening ability.
Duration of Heating
When starch is heated along with water, the hydrogen bonds in the starch granule
break and amylose fraction of starch leaches into the surrounding water. A starch
paste should be heated gradually for granules to swell and-release sufficient amylose
to form a gel. Prolonged heating results in fragmentation of amylose and formation
of a weak gel with a pasty texture.
Stirring
Vigorous stirring during heating results in fragmentation of amylose. A
firm gel
forms when the paste is allowed to cool undisturbed. Amylose starts forming
bonds
as the mixture cools and starts gelling. Stirring disrupts the bonds and
results in a
weak gel. Essences and colour should be added to the starch mixture as
soon as it
is removed from the heat and not while the mixture is cooling.
Other Ingredients ©
Sugar, acids, etc. modify the behaviour of starch gels. The greater
the amount of
sugar in the product, the more delicate the gel formed, as sugar preven
ts water from
binding to starch. Acids hydrolyse the amylose chains resulting in a more tender gel.
This is seen when acids are added before gelatinization of starch. If acid is added
after gelatinization of starch, the gel is soft because of extra liquid from lime juice or
fruit juice. This can be corrected by calculating the liquid in the acidic substance and
reducing that amount of liquid from the recipe.
Aging of a Gel
In a starch gel, water is trapped as the dispersed phase within the gel. Water is also
bonded by hydrogen bonding to amylose molecules and starch granules which
form the matrix of the gel. When a gel stales or its structure is disrupted by cutting
the gel, water which is trapped in the gel is released and the gel collapses. This
‘weeping’ or loss of moisture from a gel is called syneresis.
RETROGRADATION
Amylose starches form gels more readily but these gels are less stable. Amylose chains
have a tendency to recoil and partially recrystallize. Some hydrogen bonds which
hold the gel together break and amylose molecules move around forming new bonds.
As the gel stales, amylose molecules rearrange themselves in an orderly manner in
crystalline regions. This is accompanied by loss of solubility and release of water from
the gel, causing food defects.
A starch gel which has retrograded loses its smooth texture and feels gritly when
eaten. The rate and extent of retrogradation are influenced by temperature, size,
shape, and concentration of starch. Starch retrogrades rapidly at 0°C.
Retrogradation occurs when a starch gel stales or when it is frozen. Bread and
starch-thickened puddings stored in the refrigerator develop undesirable textural
changes because of retrogradation by formation of crystalline aggregates of amylose.
The texture defects caused by retrogradation in foods, which can be heated, are
temporarily corrected by warming the food containing starch. Heat energy breaks
the hydrogen bonds which hold amylose molecules together forming crystalline
areas. Stale bread becomes soft when it is covered and reheated, but as it cools it
develops an undesirable texture once again.
The problem of retrogradation is of concern in cold starch-based gels. This can
be corrected by using starches which are stable to freezing and thawing. A number
of modified starches are available in the market today.
DEXTRINIZATION
When starch is heated without any water, the temperature rises rapidly beyond
100°C. Water which is naturally present in flour and the high temperature brings
54 Food Science and Nutrition
about chemical degradation of flour splitting the starch molecule at one or more of
the 1,4-o-glucosidic linkages. This reaction is called dextrinization, and the short chain
starch molecules of varying lengths formed are called dextrins. Dextrinization is seen
when flour is browned while making brown roux for gravies and sauces. Browned
flour has lesser thickening ability because of formation of shorter chain dextrins.
Modified Starches
Knowledge about the molecules of amylose and amylopectin in starch and the
structure of different starch granules has enabled scientists to modify natural starches.
Physical and chemical means have been used to develop a variety of special starches
with unique characteristics to meet specific needs of the food industry.
Pregelatinized starch These starches have been cooked till they are gelatinized
and then they are roller dried after the starch granules are swollen. When water is
added to the dehydrated starch, it swells to a desired thickness without heating.
Instant pudding mixes, baby cereals like Farex and Nestum are examples of con-
venience foods. In these products, a physical change modifies the characteristics of
the native starch. :
Acid modified or thin boiling starch Starch is chemically modified by treating it
with very dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid at temperatures below gelatinization.
Starch is hydrolysed and gets fragmented. Its solubility increases and thickening
ability decreases. When hot, thin boiling starches are very fluid and are used in
making gum drops as they can be easily poured into moulds which form firm gels
upon cooling and aging.
Oxidized starches These are chemically modified thin boiling starches which have
been treated with an alkali like sodium hypo-chlorite. The starch granule
is mildly
oxidized and forms a soft gel.
Carbohydrates 55
SUGAR
The main sugar used in cookery is sucrose or common sugar. It is a disaccharide
made up of glucose and fructose. It is extracted from sugar cane or sugar beet
and is available in different stages of refinement and varying crystal sizes. Sugar
is available as table sugar, as fine or granulated crystals or as sugar cubes. Jaggery
is the unrefined form, and brown sugar is the partially refined form of sugar.
Molasses is a biproduct of sugar used for making rum and industrial alcohol.
Castor sugar or powdered sugar and icing sugar are other common forms of
sugar.
Sugar solutions are used for different purposes in different concentrations. A thin
syrup is sprinkled on fatless sponge while making pineapple pastries, syrups are
used to soak rasgullas and gulabjamuns while pulled sugar is made into baskets and
fancy shapes. All these are made from sugar and require skill and precision.
Sugar Cookery
Three processes are of importance while making confections and preserves:
: Inversion When sugar is boiled in the presence of an acid, it is hydrolysed into
glucose and fructose. This process is called inversion, and the mixture of equal parts
of glucose and fructose is called invert sugar.
56 Food Science and Nutrition
Invert sugar
The acid used may be lime juice (citric acid) or cream of tartar. Confectionery
glucose or liquid glucose contains readymade invert sugars. It is prepared by breaking
down corn starch into dextrins and different types of sugars.
Crystallization When a concentrated sugar solution is cooled gradually, large crys-
tals are formed which impart an unpleasant gritty texture to foods.
Crystal formation can be avoided or the size of crystals can be reduced by:
Beating While making fondants from sugar alone, the concentrated sugar solution
is heated to 115°C to saturate it, then cooled to approximately 40°C and beaten vig-
orously so that microcrystals are formed.
Inversion Addition of cream of tartar before heating results in inversion of sugar
and slow crystal formation, the fondant formed is mouldable.
Non-crystalline products are hard and glassy in appearance, e.g., chikki, pulled sugar,
and spun sugar. They have a low moisture content and are boiled at high temperatures.
Caramelization Caramel is formed when sugar is heated at high temperatures with
minimum amount of water (refer to Chapter 8).
Making Preserves
Jam, jellies, and marmalade are made by boiling sugar with fruit containing acid
and pectic substances. The acid in the fruit inverts 25-40% of the sugar and retards
crystal formation during storage.
Honey
The flavour of honey depends upon the flowers from which nectar is collected. It is
rich in fructose.
Artificial Sweeteners
They are also called non-nutritive sweeteners as they do not provide any calories or
provide negligible calories as compared to sugar. (Sugar provides 4 kcal/g, i-e., 1 tea-
spoonful sugar provides 20 kcal.)
Low calorie sweeteners are available as sugar substitutes in food and beverage.
Low calorie sweeteners, unlike carbohydrates, do not change blood sugar
levels
significantly.
Low calorie sweeteners are of two types - bulk sweeteners and high intensity
sweeteners.
Carbohydrates 57
Glucose
Sucrose
Bulk sweeteners are indigestible and include sugar alcohols, such as sorbitol,
mannitol, and xylitol. Some are found in natural foods while others are manufac-
tured. High intensity sweeteners include the artificial sweeteners and need to be
added in very small amounts (see Table 4.2).
Sugar alcohols are used to sweeten chewing gum and other confectionery
|
products. High intensity artificial sweeteners are a boon for diabetic and obese
individuals. Use of saccharin is permitted in carbonated water, soft drink con-
centrates, supari, and paan masala. Artificial sweeteners, such as saccharin,
aspartame, or ace sulfame may be sold as tabletop sweeteners.
Unmodified Starch
1. Refined flour Thickening sauces and soups specially used in the
form of a roux
Thickening soups and rice pudding (phirnee)
3. Arrowroot For clear sauces, e.g., lemon sauce and as a glaze for
fruit flans
4. Tapioca Used for pudding
5. Potato Used to thicken soups which could curdle at high
temperatures
6. High amylose starch Edible films for wrapping candies
7. Waxy rice flour White sauces and starch-thickened pudding which
need to be stored frozen and thawed before cooking
8. Corn flour Thickening soups, sauces, and gravies. Anticaking
agent
Modified Starch
reducing foods
2. Cellulose compounds Thickening and creaming agents
As a humectant in confectionery
2. Caramel — As a colouring and flavouring agent in christmas
cake, soup mixes, instant puddings, etc.
3. Invert sugar Prevents formation of sugar crystals in preserves and
fondant
Carbohydrates 59
For a pectin gel to form, sugar and an acidic pH are necessary. Apples, oranges,
and lemons are rich sources. Commercial pectin is available as a coarse or fine
yellowish white powder which is added to fruit preserves which are low in natural
pectin.
Algin
Algin and alginates are extensively used in the food industry. Algin is sodium algi-
nate, the sodium salt of alginic acid. It is extracted from giant brown seaweed or
horsetail kelp. It is available as a cream-coloured powder soluble in water, which
can form a viscous gel. Algin and alginates are used as stabilizers in the preparation
of ice creams and other dairy products. They prevent the formation of ice crystals
during freezing and give good whipping ability.
They are used in cakes, fruit drinks, milk shakes, desserts, sugar confectionery,
and wines.
Gums
A number of gums extracted from plants are used for a variety of purposes.
These polysaccharides are extracted from the seed, e.g., locust bean gum and Guar
gum, or as an exudate from several species of trees and shrubs, e.g., gum arabic, gum
tragacanth, gum karaya, and ghatti gum.
Gums are important for their thickening ability, stabilizing action in emulsions,
retardation of crystals in sugar, etc.
SUMMARY
Carbohydrates are one of the most important constituents of food. They are manu-
factured by green plants by a process known as photosynthesis. The glucose formed
in this process is converted into starch and stored in various parts of the plant to be
used as food. On the basis of saccharide or sugar units present, they are classified
as mono, di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides.
Starch is present in two forms — amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a straight
chain polysaccharide that is capable of forming a gel, apart from its thickening ability.
The second and larger fraction is amylopectin which has a branched structure
because of which it has thickening ability but no gelling power at normal concen-
trations. Both amylose and amylopectin are made up of glucose units linked to each
other in long chains. Amylose and amylopectin are arranged in cell granules in an
orderly arrangement and are tightly compacted.
When a mixture of starch and water is heated, the insoluble starch absorbs water
and swells. On further heating, amylose gets leached into the water and the granule
swells further, resulting in increase in viscosity. The starch granule at this stage is
gelatinized and as the starch paste cools, viscosity increases. If the percentage of
amylose is adequate, the cooled paste sets into a firm gel. This step is gelation. Many
factors affect gelatinization and gelation of starch. As the gel ages or if the gel struc-
ture is disturbed, syneresis or weeping of a gel, and retrogradation or changes in tex-
ture of a gel are observed.
Sugars when cooked, show inversion, crystallization, and caramelization, all of
which have a definite bearing on the quality of the product. A number of non-nutri-
tive bulk and high intensity sweeteners are available in the market today. They are
suitable for diabetics and calorie-conscious individuals. The unavailable or zero-calo-
rie carbohydrates, such as cellulose derivatives, pectins, and gums, are used as thick-
ening agents, stabilizers, setting agents, etc. The food industry depends on natural
and modified carbohydrates for specific additive functions in many processed foods.
RE PR SEM OLB SS TRU US PT SEE OGAM LRA SSE
OPTUS ES RTL TST LE ETERS ETH LEST LEST TUPLE ETT HP SATS IY SEER TETAS
KEY TERMS
Amylopectin Branched. form of starch made up of Gelatinization Swelling of starch granules on heating
chains of glucose units linked to each other by 1,4 link- __with water, resulting in thickening of starch pastes and
ages in the chain and 1,6 linkages at point of branching. leaching out of amylose from the granule into water.
Amylose Form of starch made up of long straight 1,4-C-Glucosidic linkage Linkage between Carbon 1
chains of glucose units linked together by 1,4 linkages. and 4 of first and second glucose units respectively,
Carbohydrates 61
forming disaccharide maltose. In starch all glucose the air, and water and minerals from the soil in the
units are joined by this linkage. presence of sunlight.
Heteropolysaccharide Also called heteroglycan, Retrogradation Gradual increase of crystalline areas
and is made up of more than one repeating unit of in starch gels during storage which affect texture and
monosaccharide. palatability of puddings.
Homopolysaccharide Also called homoglycan, and is Starch Complex polysaccharide made up of amylose
made up of one repeating unit of monosaccharide. and amylopectin.
Implode Implode means to burst inwards. Starch granule Formed in the leucoplast of the cell
Leucoplasts Colourless plastids in the cytoplasm of by deposition of amylose and amylopectin in layers.
plant cell in which starch is stored. Syneresis Separation of liquid from a gel caused by
Modified starches Starch, whose natural state has contraction of the solid phase thereby squeezing the
been changed by physical or chemical methods. liquid out or by cutting the gel.
Molasses Local name kakvi, is a sweetener pro- Waxy starch Genetically modified starch containing
duced as a by-product during refining of cane sugar. only amylopectin.
Photosynthesis The process by which green plants
manufacture complex foods from carbon dioxide in
SS SSSSS SSS SP TSI LRU
RTI EAR LUTTE ETOP REE BOUNTY ST LEED MELEE ELE LI EET EET TE,
)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
|
| Ql Classify carbohydrates based on number of saccharide units present.
Describe the process of photosynthesis and list parts of plant where starch
|
/ Q2
}
is stored, giving suitable examples.
|
'
Q3 Define and explain the process of gelatinization and factors affecting the
) same.
Differentiate between the following:
i Amylose and amylopectin
ii Gelation and gelatinization
iii Natural and modified starches
iv Nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners
i Retrogradation
ii Dextrinization
iii Structure of a starch granule
List ten recipes in which starch is used as a thickening agent.
ees Sif
INTRODUCTION
Peptide Linkage
The carbon of the carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with the nitrogen
group or amino group of another amino acid with the loss of one molecule of water.
This bond which unites the two amino acids is called a peptide bond.
Ome
H O H O H
| O
Za el ding 4 Sos | iN 4
H,N—C—C + N—C—C N—C H C +H,O
l < Ew ~
R HOH. . Hoe OH
Peptide bond Dipeptide
H R ,
fa am orins a
Fig. 5.1 Primary structure of protein
64° Food Science and Nutrition
Some of the side chains (R group) contain carboxyl, amino, and imido groups
which form salt bridges. These also hold the polypeptides in a helical manner.
(Salt bridges are formed between -COO group of an acidic amino acid radical
and the -NH3 group of a basic amino acid radical, i.e., -N H3-COO )).
Classification of Protein
I Classification of proteins based on structure
1. Fibrillar or fibrous proteins
(a) The helix of the protein molecule is stretched. For example, in muscle
myosin the helix is stretched but elastic.
In collagen the helix is stretched to a great extent and is inelastic.
(b) They are relatively insoluble in water and are resistant to acid, alkalis,
and moderate heat.
2. Globular proteins
(a) The helix is bent to give a compact shape, e.g., egg albumin, globin of
haemoglobin, and globulin in meat and pulses.
(b) These proteins are soluble in water and water solutions containing acids,
alkalis, salt, and also in alcohols. They are easily affected by heat. This is
due to the fact that the cross-links holding the helix are weak and hence
slight increase in temperature, or a change in pH, disrupts these cross-
links causing the chains to unfold, i.e., protein gets denatured.
Proteins 65
NATIVE PROTEINS
Proteins found in living tissues (within the cell and in the fluids) of animals and
plants are called native proteins. These are large molecules (macromolecules),
which are sensitive and fragile. These colloidal protein particles are dispersed as a
66 Food Science and Nutrition
é +H ‘ ete
NH3— o — COOH ~«~—— NH;— ce —COO- ——»> NH,— i — COO-
R R al
Positive ion Zwitterion Negative ion
Fig. 5.4 lonic character of an amino acid
At the isoelectric point (IEP) the charge on the protein molecule is neutralized
and they show no movement in an electric field. Proteins at the IEP are called
zwitterions.
At this point hydrophobic colloids like casein flocculate and hydrophilic colloids
show minimum hydration, e.g., gluten.
a ard a sein sR Proteins 67
TONEINS | BOL
When a fluid food containing protein is brought to its IEP, curdling is likely to
occur (addition of acid while curdling milk) as there is no charge which keeps pro-
tein dispersed.
DENATURED PROTEINS
Denaturation is defined as any non-proteolytic modification in the original structure
of the native proteins, giving rise to definite changes in physical, chemical, and bio-
logical properties. Denaturation is brought about by the following:
1. Denaturing agents, such as acids, alkalis, salts
2. Increase in temperature
3. Extensive beating
Effects of Denaturation
|
Properties of denatured proteins are completely different from their native form.
1. Denatured proteins are easily attacked by proteolytic enzymes, e.g., cooked
meats are more easily digested than raw meats.
68 Food Science and Nutrition
2. They show decreased solubility. For example, cooked egg white is not soluble
in water.
3. They lose their biological activity as enzymes are destroyed , e.g., browning
does not take place in boiled potato.
4, Denatured proteins lose their ability to crystallize.
5. There is an increase in viscosity of food.
6. Heat denaturation results in improved flavour and texture, e.g., cooking
improves flavour in meat, and eggs give structure and improve texture of
cakes.
7. Denaturation of food is irreversible unless it occurs under very mild conditions.
Factors Affecting Denaturation
pH Denaturation is brought about by controlling pH and occurs at the IEP when
the protein is unstable.
1. Caseinogen is dispersed as a sol in milk. When milk turns sour (pH 4.6 ; IEP),
it curdles (3rd stage in denaturation).
2. Egg albumin is colloidally dispersed as a sol. It has a pH of 72-78. But when
the pH is reduced to 4.6 (its IEP) by adding vinegar to water used for poach-
ing eggs, the egg coagulates faster.
Heat When egg white is heated at 60°C the protein ovalbumin gets denatured. As
temperature increases, coagulation takes place and egg white separates out as a
solid.
If the temperature is below 100°C, e.g., poaching, then coagulation is slow and
coagulated protein is soft and easily digested.
If temperature is above 100°C, e.g., boiling and roasting, coagulation is fast and
coagulated protein is hard and more difficult to digest.
So ‘a stew boiled is a stew spoiled’.
Surface denaturation This is brought about by mechanical means, e.g., beating
egg white or milk to a foam. Surface denaturation of the protein takes place leading
to pellicle or skin formation. This stabilizes the foam (pellicle is seen when foam has
subsided).
If such a foam is heated, as in egg white foam, it becomes firm due to the coagu-
lation of ovalbumin.
If pH of ovalbumin is at its IEP, then coagulation is faster. Hence, acidic sub-
stances (cream of tartar, lime juice, etc.) are added when whipping egg white.
Salts When present in a high concentration it precipitates proteins out of solution
and disperses them, e.g., cured ham baked in white sauce. The high salt concentra-
tion of the ham can cause the milk in white sauce to curdle.
Moisture Low moisture levels cause less denaturation than higher moisture levels
at the same temperature.
Proteins 69
Once a gel is formed, rigidity increases with time and maximum gel strength is
reached in 24 hours. As the gel ages, some of the liquid may escape from the net-
work, a phenomenon studied earlier called syneresis.
The strength of a gelatin gel is affected by the following:
|
Concentration of gelatin A concentration of 1-2% gelatin can form a firm
gel, which does not melt at normal serving temperature. Excess gelatin forms a
stiff rubbery gel.
Sugar Presence of sugar in excess increases the amount of gelatin needed for
gelation.
Acid Acid increases the clarity of the gel and lowers gel formation and melting
temperature.
Fruits and Vegetables Uncooked pineapple and figs contain proteolytic
enzymes, which hydrolyse gelatin and do not permit gelation.
Fruits and vegetables if added uncooked, float in jelly because of pockets of inter-
cellular air. While making such jellies, blanch the fruits/vegetables and add them
only when the gelatin sol is as viscous as thick raw egg white.
Whips, sponges, and creams These cold desserts are prepared by whipping the
cold viscous gelatin sol. Whipping at this stage gives a foam double in volume of
the original sol. After foam is formed, the desserts are chilled for the gelatin to set.
These desserts are a combination of a foam and a gel.
Pieces of baked fish skins, when cooled on the baking pan, stick to it because of
conversion of collagen in the skin of fish to gelatin.
MILK
Milk is a solution of sugar lactose, and water soluble vitamins and minerals. It is a
colloidal dispersion of protein and an emulsion of fat in water. Water accounts for
87% of milk.
Proteins in milk are of two types:
1. Casein - alpha, beta, and kappa caseins
2. Serum or whey proteins — albumin and globulins.
They are of colloidal dimensions and make milk opaque. Casein is colloidally
dispersed in milk as calcium phosphocaseinate. Casein molecules form micelles by
ageregating with calcium and phosphorus.
Milk Cookery
Colloidal proteins remain dispersed in water as the molecules are hydrated. Mole-
cules of water are bound to the polar groups of proteins. Besides the protective water
layer, protein molecules are stabilized by the charge they carry as all molecules carry
the same charge and like charges repel each other.
Effect of heat on milk proteins:
1. Heat denatures and coagulates serum or whey proteins which settle to the
bottom of the container.
2. When milk is heated in an uncovered vessel a skin forms on top. This is
because of evaporation of water and concentration of casein which blocks
calcium salts and milk fats. The skin holds steam and makes milk boil over.
A foam minimizes skin formation and this is the reason why hot coffee, cocoa,
etc., are whipped to induce a foam or served with whipped cream. Casein is
otherwise insensitive to heat.
3. The colour and flavour of condensed milk is because of browning caused by
lactose and milk protein (refer Maillard browning in Chapter 8)
Effect of Acid on Casein
Fresh milk has a pH of 6.6 and casein micelles are dispersed as a colloidal sol.
Acidity is increased when acid is added to milk, e.g., while making paneer, or
acidity formed due to natural souring by lactic acid bacteria which ferment lactose
to lactic acid, lowering the pH of milk. This reduces the stability of casein micelles
Proteins 71
and it coagulates, forming a gel. This is because addition of acid neutralizes the
charge on protein.
Calcium phosphocaseinate + H* ———» Neutral casein + Ca**
(sol) (acid) (gel)
If the gel formed is cut, stirred, or heated, liquid seeps out and the gel separates
into two phases - the casein rich solid called curd and the watery liquid called whey.
When milk or cream is added to acidic fruits, such as peaches and strawberries, the
acid from the fruit lowers the pH of milk/cream causing it to thicken or even curdle.
While making curds or yoghurt, a starter culture of lactobacilli species is added
to warm milk. The bacteria ferment milk sugar lactose to lactic acid and convert
milk into curds.
: lactic aci
Milk [ platen aoe Curds
bacteria
(sol) (gel)
Warm temperature
Yoghurt differs from curds because of the difference in species of lactobacilli used
in the culture. The acid added to curdle milk for making paneer or cottage cheese
is citric acid or, sour whey water or lime juice.
EGGS
Eggs are used in a number of dishes because of the properties of egg white and yolk
proteins.
_ Egg White
| Nine proteins are dispersed as a sol in egg white. The two albumins, ovalbumin and
conalbumin, which form 70% of the proteins are fibrous proteins. Lysozyme is a
globular protein and ovomucin gives thickness to the egg white. The protein avidin
in raw egg white binds biotin making it unavailable.
Egg Yolk
, Proteins and lipids are the major constituents of dispersed phase in the yolk. Many
proteins are present as lipoproteins. Some lipoproteins contain lecithin, which is a
natural emulsifying agent. Cholesterol is also present in the yolk.
Table 5.1 Composition of hen's egg
72 Food Science and Nutrition
Egg Cookery
Cooking eggs in their shell Eggs may be boiled in their shell to a soft or hard
consistency. Sometimes a greenishgray layer forms on the surface of the yolk in a
hard-boiled egg. This layer is ferrous sulfide formed by iron of the yolk reacting
with hydrogen sulfide liberated by sulphur-containing proteins. This layer forms
due to prolonged cooking. If hard-boiled eggs are immersed in cold water or
cracked immediately after boiling, the HaS formed is drawn away from the yolk.
Poached eggs Eggs are cooked in hot water till the white is set and yolk semi
liquid. Vinegar added to poaching water hastens coagulation of egg proteins.
Fried eggs The pan temperature should be above coagulation temperature. If the
pan is too hot, the egg white toughens and develops a brown edge which is more
flavourful.
Scrambled eggs The whole egg is blended with milk and heated to bring about
coagulation of protein. Scrambled eggs should be moist, tender, and fluffy. Once the
egg is coagulated, turn off the heat otherwise protein will get curdled, i.e., separate
into curd and liquid.
Custards An egg custard is prepared using one egg, a cup of milk, a tablespoon of
sugar, and a pinch of salt. Milk is heated and added to beaten egg along with sugar
and salt.
In egg custards, the egg protein ovalbumin gets denatured by heat and unites to
form a network in which liquid milk is trapped to form a fragile gel. In a stirred cus-
tard, stirring breaks the gel as it forms and results in a smooth velvety texture. Heating
should be done in a double boiler because at higher temperatures the custard curdles.
Many factors affect the viscosity of the finished product such as the concentration of
egg — more the egg, more viscous the custard. Sugar and salt help in gel formation by
forming hydrogen bonds and salt increases viscosity. The quality of the egg and
milk used for making the custard as well as the age of the custard affects its viscosity.
Stale custards show syneresis. Beating egg to a foam before preparing custard gives
desirable texture.
Proteins 73
I}
| Egg Foams
!
Egg white is a viscous sol with proteins dispersed in it. It can be beaten into a foam.
The proteins ovomucin, ovoglobulin, and conalbumin are necessary to form a fine
foam with small air cells.
As air is incorporated into the liquid, protein molecules collect at the air-water
interface. When more air is incorporated, the water layer gets thinner and protein
molecules get stretched and unwind from their coiled structure. Surface denaturation
takes place exposing the reactive ‘R’ groups along the protein molecules. These
groups unite and give rigidity to the foam. Surface denaturation makes the foam rigid
and when heat is applied the proteins coagulate forming a permanent foam.
Stages of fresh egg white foam formation
- Foamy
(a) Air cells are medium fine, all egg white exists
as foam
Foam is fairly stable, slight drainage occurs
on short standing
Mixture is shiny, flows easily in bowl, but is elastic
Soft peaks fall over to near the base of foam as beater is lifted from
foam
Sugar is added gradually at this stage.
3. Stiff peaks
4. Dry:
Sugar added to foam prevents foam from being overbeaten inspite of longer beat-
ing time. Since sugar reduces coagulation with its accompanying loss of elasticity,
a foam with sugar can be used for spreading without rupturing the air cells.
Meringues are egg white foams with sugar incorporated into it. There are two
types of meringues - soft and hard.
ie Soft type are used for topping baked alaska, cream, and chocolate pies. Equal
amounts of sugar and egg white are used, i.e., 2 tablespoons sugar for every
egg white which measures 2 tablespoons. Water in egg white is converted into
a fairly concentrated syrup.
Egg white is beaten to foamy stage and then salt is added. Continue beat-
ing till foam barely flows in the bowl. Sugar is added and foam is beaten till
the soft peak with rounded top stage is reached. A meringue is more stable
when sugar is beaten rather than folded in.
Soft meringues are spread on soft pie fillings and baked. Baking causes
proteins in foam to coagulate and stabilize the foam without undue shrink-
age. Iwo defects seen are:
(a) ‘Weeping’ or accumulation of liquid where the meringue and filling meet.
This is due to under-coagulation of foam. This leakage can be overcome
by placing the meringue on a hot filling (60-77°C or 140-170°F).
(b) Appearance of amber-coloured droplets on the surface of the foam. This
is due to overcoagulation of foam proteins due to the hot filling used.
This beading can be overcome by baking meringue for a short time,
i.e., hot oven 425°F for 4% minutes.
A soft meringue is fluffy, slightly moist, and tender. The surface should
be light brown with little contrast in colour between peaks and depressions.
It should have a glossy sheen.
Hard meringues are used to make macaroons or as a base for pie fillings.
It contains 1/4 cup sugar for every egg white used.
Egg white is first beaten to soft peak stage, sugar is added, and then beaten
again to form stiff peaks. Meringue mixture is spooned onto oiled baking
sheet. Hard meringues are baked at lower temperature (250°F) for 45-60
minutes. A good meringue should be dry, crisp, and tender. They should
look puffy and be delicate brown.
Omelettes: For puffy omelettes, egg yolk with added liquid is beaten till
thick and light lemon in colour. Egg white is beaten separately till stiff. The
two foams are combined with gentle folding till a homogenous mixture is
obtained. The mixture is poured into a preheated greased pan. When
omelette sets along the edges, the pan may be covered and heat lowered to
complete cooking. Air bubbles incorporated during foaming are poor
conductors of heat.
76 Food Science and Nutrition
Flour:
1. Flour provides structure. Good quality cake flour of fine granulation should
be used so that it is evenly dispersed.
Flour should be folded in not mixed. Excess manipulation should be avoided as
flour will absorb liquid and foam will collapse and product will become tough.
In angel cake only egg white is used. In sponge cake the entire egg is used.
Baking is done at higher temperatures (400-425°F) for faster expansion of air
cells and more rapid setting of batter and absorption of less water by starch of flour.
MEAT
Flesh food includes meat, poultry, and fish. The term meat is used for red meats
from animal sources, such as beef, veal, pork, lamb, or mutton.
Meat is composed of 15-20% protein of high biological value, 5-40% fat,
B-complex vitamins, iron, and phosphorus. Lean meat is made up of one or more
muscles. Each muscle is made up of many bundles of muscle fibres arranged in
them. The simplest structure in meat protein is the protein molecules, myosin and
actin, which form myofilaments. Thick myofilaments are myosin and thin myofila-
ments are actin. Several myofilaments form myofibrils and bundles of myofibrils
embedded in sarcoplasm are enclosed in a thin transparent membrane called the
sarcolemma and form a muscle fibre.
Connective tissue consisting mainly of ground substance, collagen, and little
elastin is found between each fibre. Connective tissue which surrounds each muscle
fibre is called endomysium. Several muscle fibres are bundled together to form
thicker fibrous bundles surrounded by connective tissue called perimysium. The
outermost covering of the muscle which encloses many bundles of fibres is the
epimysium. When meat is cooked, collagen is hydrolysed to gelatin.
78 Food Science and Nutrition
Fat is deposited in the connective tissue within the muscle, and is called marbling.
The amount of exercise, age, and feed of the animal influences the fat content of
meat.
The colour of meat is due to pigment myoglobin and partly due to haemoglobin.
In the living tissue, myoglobin which is purplish red exists in equilibrium with
oxymyoglobin which is the bright red oxygenated form. After death of the animal,
the colour changes to purplish red. On cutting the meat, due to oxidation, a bright red
colour is formed. Further oxidation due to micro-organisms and warm temperature
change the colour to brownish red.
When meat is cooked, the proteins get denatured by continuous heating and
denatured globin hemichrome is formed which is the denatured form of metmyo-
globin that is greyish brown in colour.
Post-mortem Changes
When an animal is slaughtered, the skeletal muscles stiffen and remain stiff for about
24-48 hours after which they soften and become flexible once again. This condition
is called rigor mortis. Many factors, such as age, species of animal, and activity prior
to slaughter affect rigor mortis. Meat cooked while in rigor mortis is much tougher.
After slaughter, glycogen store is broken down and lactic acid is formed lower-
ing the pH to 5.6. Low pH in meat is desirable. It inhibits bacterial growth and the
meat is juicier. Animals prior to slaughter should be well rested, with a 1% glycgen
store so that maximum lactic acid is formed.
Ripening or Aging
After rigor mortis passes, meat gradually becomes more juicier and tender because
of autolytic breakdown of cell proteins by enzymes.The flavour also increases. The
time and temperature also influence the aging process. Planned aging is costly and
is used for prime and choice grade of meat.
N N N 2 N y Oy
pare +H
Oia LO i hit
Fe a Fe Fe** at RE a Fet++
a fe |NS eS aes
N N N N N N
Globin Globin Denatured globin
Myoglobin Oxymyoglobin Denatured globin hemichrome
Fig. 5.6 Colour changes in cooked meat
2. The jelly-like protein gel stiffens and toughens as proteins get denatured.
3. Hydrolysis of collagen, the main component of connective tissue surround-
ing meat fibres, takes place. Collagen gets hydrolysed to gelatin and the
stock or gravy gels on cooling. As temperature increases, more collagen
is lost.
4. Colour changes from red to purplish red to brown. Pork should be cooked to
the grey stage to ensure destruction of parasites.
5. When meat is cooked, liquid or drip separates out (drip formation), meat
shrinks and loses weight. Drip contains water soluble compounds, protein,
and fat.
6. Cooked meat has appetite-stimulating flavours. When meat is browned,
amino acids are broken down forming volatile compounds which give a
strong flavour to meat.
™N Cooking causes fat cells to rupture and fat to disperse in meat.
8. Overcooking toughens meat because of excessive loss of drip and loss of col-
lagen and fat. Volatile flavour compounds are lost and mutton fibres become
stringy.
9. There is a marked reduction in volume and increase in density caused by
shrinkage of muscle fibres lengthwise.
Tenderness of Meat
Tenderness is the first sensation we perceive when we bite into a piece of meat. This is
the most important criteria for judging meat. Many factors affect the tenderness of
meat.
Other proteolytic enzymes are bromelin from pineapple, ficin from figs, and
trypsin from fungal protease. Papain from unripe or green papaya is most com-
mon. Excessive use of enzyme results in an undesirable mushy texture.
Salt Salt used in moderation enhances the water retention and ultimately the
juiciness. The bound water is held tightly and less juice is lost from meat during
cooking.
Cured Meat
Cured and smoked meats develop a particular desirable flavour. Meat is cured using
salt, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, sugar, and vinegar. These ingredients are used
in the form of a rub, a pickle, or injected into the meat.
Muscle
Connective tissue
Bundle of fibres
Muscle fibre Thick myofilament
Tendons (myosin)
Epimysium
Endomysium
Perimysium
Bundle of fibres
Muscle fibre
Myofibrils
OD
O'
Se58 Sarcoplasm
oO 00
Q
Sarcolemma
Salt acts as a preservative while nitrate reacts with myoglobin to form unstable
nitric oxide myoglobin which is denatured by heat to nitrosomyoglobin giving a
stable pink colour to cured ham, bacon, and beef.
Smoked meats are impregnated with constituents of smoke which have preser-
vative action by destroying micro-organisms. Smoking has a drying effect and
imparts desirable organoleptic properties to meat. It brings out the colour inside the
meat and gives a desirable gloss or finish to meat.
No single protein exhibits all these properties and these complex reactions are
influenced by other constituents present in food. Proteins are of major significance
in determining the organoleptic characteristics and nutritional value of a food. Egg,
milk, and gelatin are used for gels, foams, whips, souffles, meringues, custards,
cakes, puddings, confections, soups, sauces, and gravies.
Proteins extracted from natural and novel sources are being extensively used in
the manufacture of convenience foods for catering systems and for low cost feeding
programmes which rely on proteins to bridge the protein calorie gap.
Soya bean proteins, protein isolates from oilseed cakes, single cell protein, and
milk proteins are being widely used today by the food processing industry. They are
used in health drinks, weight-reduction foods, muscle-building foods, and many
infant foods and general convenience foods. Protein hydrocolloids have many uses
in the food industry today.
SUMMARY
Proteins are complex organic molecules containing nitrogen which are not only essen-
tial for life but also play an important role in food preparation. They are made up of
amino acids linked together into long chains by peptide linkages. These long chains or
polypeptides form the backbone of the protein molecule.
Proteins differ from one another on the basis of amino acids present, and can be clas-
sified in various ways. Proteins found in living tissues are called native proteins and are
present as macromolecules which are sensitive and fragile. They are hydrophilic colloids
stabilized by charge on the molecules and a layer of water surrounding the molecules.
When proteins are heated, beaten, or subjected to acids, alkalis, etc., they show
changes in physical, chemical, and biological properties. This is called denaturation.
Many factors affect denaturation.
The proteins of specific importance to a caterer are milk, gelatin, egg, and meat.
They are capable of forming gels, play a role in emulsification, used for various
stages of foam formation, and increase the viscosity of many food products. Apart
from these properties, proteins in food have a wide variety of uses both in the
kitchen as well as in the food processing industry. Proteins extracted from soya
beans, oilseed cakes, foliage, and micro-organisms are used extensively as food or
in health foods to bridge the protein gap. Because of their properties, proteins have
many commercial applications in the food and beverage industry.
84 Food Science and Nutrition
KEY TERMS
Autolysis Breakdown of a cell by its own enzymes. Nitrosomyoglobin Pinkish red coloured compound
Coagulation Solidification of a liquid protein on produced by action of curing salts on meat.
heating. Organoleptic Qualities of a food which appeal to the
Collagen Protein in bones, skin, and connective tis- sense of taste, smell, etc.
sue which is completely hydrolysed to gelatin by heat Perimysium Connective tissue binding groups of
during cooking. Collagen fibres predominate in meat. bundles of muscle fibres.
Connective tissue Made up of four proteins, namely, Primary structure Covalently bonded backbone
elastin, reticulin, ground substance, and collagen chain of a protein (-C-C-N-C—C-N-—C-C-N-).
which is most important. It is present within and Rigor mortis Stiffening of muscles immediately after
between muscles. animals have been slaughtered.
Denaturation Relaxation of the tertiary structure to Secondary structure The helical configuration of the
the secondary structure, accompanied by decreased backbone chain of a protein, held by secondary
solubility of a protein. bonds.
Elastin Yellow connective tissue present in very small Tertiary structure Distorted convolutions of the helical
amounts in muscle and does not get gelatinized during configuration; the form in which many proteins occur
cooking. in nature and which is held by secondary bonding
Epimysium Sheath of connective tissue which covers forces.
the muscle. Textured vegetable protein (TVP) Prepared from soya
Ground substance Protein in meat in which collagen bean and used as a meat extender and in vegetarian
and elastin are held to form connective tissue. dishes.
Micelles A colloidal ion composed of an oriented Trichinella spiralis A nematode worm present in
arrangement of molecules. infected pork that causes trichinosis disease.
Myoglobin An oxygen carrying pigment found in
mutton muscle and is oxidized to oxymyoglobin
_.which
ee
is bright
redEERSTE
incolour.
ILM RET ELI LES TTT LAGS PRS SRS ITS ARGS RRR ISITE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Classify proteins on the basis of their structure and on the basis of character.
Explain the ionic character of an amino acid and influence of acid and alkali
on it.
Explain the term denaturation and list the factors which affect denaturation.
What points should be kept in mind while preparing a fresh fruit jelly?
Explain briefly: .
Effect of acid on casein
Post-mortem changes in meat
Cured meats
Prevention of discolouration of boiled egg yolk
Explain the different stages in egg white foam formation. What products are
prepared from egg foams?
Q7 With the help of a neat diagram explain the structure of meat and factors
which affect tenderization.
Q8 Discuss the commercial uses of protein.
© copie theipa of the
© understand the properties of various fa
_ © know the factors which contribute towardsoe changes n fat and cils andtheir
control — GG oe :
classify fats and oils on — ofSorigin and ion oFStation oe
describe the steps in extraction, refining, and winterizing fats and oils
- distinguish between rancidity and reversion offats and oils _
know the role of shortenings and apply the same in the bakery _
state vi commercial ssisiheaanen of cuerots oils 7
INTRODUCTION
he basic use of fats and oils in cookery is to add richness and flavour
to food and as a cooking medium to fry or cook food. They improve the
texture of various preparations, such as cakes, pastries, and biscuits.
Fats and oils are found in plant, animal, and marine foods. The properties of fats
and oils depend on their source as well as a number of other factors. The quality of
the food product depends largely on the fat or oil which is used while preparing it.
The storage conditions of fat as well as preparation temperatures and time influence
the quality of the final product.
86 Food Science and Nutrition
Lipids
Lipids
Saturated Unsaturated
(no double bonds)
Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
(one double bond) (two or more double bonds)
Fig. 6.1 Classification of lipids
Fats and oils are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They are collectively known as lipids. Unlike carbohydrates, lipids contain a smaller
proportion of oxygen and a larger proportion of hydrogen and carbon. This is why
lipids provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates.
STRUCTURE
Simple fats and oils are of great importance in food preparation. They are com-
posed of glycerol and fatty acids linked together to form an ester. One, two, or three
fatty acids may be esterified with glycerol to form monoglycerides, diglycerides, or
triglycerides respectively.
The most common form of food fats are triglycerides. Triglycerides are made up
of three fatty acids esterified to the glycerol molecule. This is the maximum number
of fatty acids that can be attached.
Fats and Oils 87
oo on pines! R
CHOH OER ———» CHOH + H,0
|
CH,OH CH,OH
Glycerol + Fatty acid Simple fat + Water
(monoglyceride)
Fig. 6.2 Formation of a monoglyceride
In Fig. 6.2, R is the symbol for the fatty acid half of any chain length. The fatty
acid chain is generally of 16-18 carbon atoms. The most common fatty acids found
in fats are palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic. In a simple triglyceride, the three
fatty acids that combined with glycerol are similar. In a mixed triglyceride more
than one kind of fatty acid is present.
The fatty acids present in fats may be saturated, unsaturated, or polyunsaturated. -
The flavour and hardness of a fat depend on the kinds and amounts of fatty acids
present. Fats found in foods are a mixture of saturated, unsaturated, and polyunsa-
turated fatty acids. The fat is classified on the basis of the amount and type of fatty
acids present. A food fat is called saturated if it contains more saturated than
unsaturated fatty acids. Such fats are solid and are generally found in animal food.
When polyunsaturated fatty acids are more in a fat than saturated fatty acids, the fat
is generally liquid and found in vegetable oils. The exception to this rule is fishliver
oil which is liquid, and cocoa butter, palmolein, and coconut oils which are solid
inspite of their vegetable origin.
In a saturated fatty acid each carbon atom in the fatty acid carries all the hydrogen
atoms possible. In unsaturated fatty acids, the full complement of hydrogen atoms
is not received. This leads to the formation of double bonds between the atoms, e.g.,
oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acid with 1, 2, 3, and 4 double bonds
respectively.
Properties:
1. Fats are insoluble in water and soluble in a fat solvent like ether, acetone, etc.
2. They are greasy to touch
3. They have a specific gravity less than one
H
| aN
H—C—O-~C—R
O
| \
H—-C—O>5C—R
| \
ear ees
4. At room temperature fats are solid due to the high percentage of saturated
fatty acids. Oils are liquid because of the higher percentage of unsaturated
fatty acids.
5. Fats do not melt sharply but soften over a range of temperature. This is
because fats are generally mixed triglycerides, each one having its own
melting point.
6. The spreading quality of a fat is due to its plastic nature. Solid fats which
spread are composed of a mass of tiny crystals in a matrix of liquid fat. The
crystals slide over one another as they are not trapped in the liquid oil and
permit the fat to be deformed.
7. When fat or oil is heated, the temperature at which a thin bluish smoke is
given off is called the smoke point. Fats used for deep fat frying should have
a high smoke point.
8. When fats and oils are heated to high temperatures, the fat is decomposed
into glycerol and free fatty acids. Glycerol is furthur broken down by high
temperature and acrolein is formed. Acrolein has a sharp odour and irritates
the nose, throat, and eyes.
9. Iodine value is a measure of the extent of unsaturated fatty acids present in
fats and oils.
RANCIDITY
The development of any disagreeable odour and flavour in fats and oils causing spoilage
is known as rancidity. This change is observed when fats and oils are stored for
sometime. Rancidity develops in fats, oils, and the fatty phases of foods, such as
pickles, fried snacks, cakes, cheese, and salad dressings.
Different types of oil and fat show varying degrees of resistance to spoilage, thus
most vegetable oils deteriorate only slowly whereas animal fats deteriorate more
rapidly, and marine (fish) oils which contain a relatively high proportion of highly
unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate most rapidly.
Vegetable oils resist oxidation because of the presence of antioxidants which
occur naturally in the tissues and which are present in oil when it is pressed, €.23
vitamin E or tocopherols. The antioxidants get readily oxidized themselves and
protect the oil from oxidation.
Types of Rancidity -
Two types of rancidity is commonly observed in food, namely:
1. Hydrolytic rancidity
2. Oxidative rancidity.
Fats and Oils 89
ORE
peat
|
ese
|
eolul
ebIRl
Bethy ilies gigictea
Light °
H H
+O,
Double bond portion Free radical formed
of fatty acid by removal of H
jim eld i
BePate teed
Peroxide |
+
i SSE Pe te
| ragepe sl msec
Unsat. fatty acid tea =C— ¢ae
DH
iy
Gok Eee
ey igtageROT
Es
ap San a
H C
(reaction continues) Free radical b Hydroperoxide
|
OH
the reaction of unsaturated oils with oxygen. Moisture and impurities do not
have any effect on oxidative rancidity. Pure and refined oils can turn rancid
on exposure to oxygen. Oxidative rancidity is a complex process in the form
of a chain reaction. Once the reaction begins it is a continuous process.
The reaction occurs in two stages:
REVERSION
Many fats and oils undergo a change in flavour before becoming rancid.
This change in flavour which is very different from the rancid flavour is
called reversion. In rancidity the change in flavour is the same for all fats.
But in reversion the flavour may be buttery, beany, grassy, painty, and
Table 6.1 Differences between rancidity and reversion
LN
. All oils can turn rancid, e.g., maize, 2. Only some oils revert,
groundnut, sesame, sunflower, e.g., soya bean oil, rapeseed, fish oils, and
safflower, and mustard linseed oil, i.e., oils with high proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids
fishy. Reversion is seen in fish oils, linseed, and soya bean oil. Very small amounts
of oxygen are required as compared to oxidative rancidity.
The amount of air in contact with the fat or oil is an important factor in determin-
ing its shelf life. Auto-oxidation or oxidative rancidity occurs when fats are exposed
to oxygen. Reversion occurs with very minor amounts of oxygen. Potato chips and
salted nuts because of their large surface area turn rancid at a faster rate.
Light
Light accelerates the development of both rancidity and reversion.
Metals
The presence of metals in traces accelerates the development of both rancidity and
reversion as they are active pro-oxidants. Metal contamination can occur from
equipment used for extraction and refining of oils. Rust from steel equipment, traces
of copper, lead, zinc, and tin can accelerate the onset of rancidity.
Degree of Unsaturation
This is an important criteria for oxidative rancidity and reversion.
Oils containing high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids and shortenings made
from such oils show flavour reversion. Oils with high proportions of linolenic and
linoleic acids revert. Oils with unsaturated fatty acids turn rancid.
Absence of Antioxidants
The natural presence or addition of antioxidants to oils prevents rancidity. Vitamin E
or tocopherol is naturally present in vegetable oils and acts as an antioxidant
92 Food Science and Nutrition
preventing auto-oxidation of oil. The antioxidant takes up oxygen and gets oxi-
dized, thereby preventing rancidity.
PREVENTION OF RANCIDITY
Disagreeable odours and flavour in fat can be prevented by the following ways:
1. Store fat at low temperatures in a cool, dark place.
. Use airtight containers. Keep minimum headspace.
3. Do not keep strong smelling foods in the vicinity of fats and oils as they
absorb foreign odours and get tainted.
4. Copper containers and rusted iron accelerate rancidity. Only steel or aluminium
should be used.
5. Avoid undue exposure to light and air. Expose minimum surface area.
6. If antioxidants are added to fats rich in unsaturated fatty acids, oxidative
rancidity can be significantly delayed. Tocopherol (vitamin E) and lecithin are
antioxidants naturally present in some oils. Synthetic antioxidants such as buty-
lated hydroxy toluene (BHT), butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), TBHQ added
to oil in which snacks are fried, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), citric
acid, or ascorbic acid may be added to fats to prevent rancidity. These sub-
stances act as scavengers and bind copper and other metals present which
cause oxidative rancidity. :
Tocopherols and ascorbic acid are excellent antioxidants.
7. If fats and oils have to be stored for sometime, they should be hydroge-
nated and stored. Hydrogenation increases the shelf life of fats and prevents
rancidity.
POLYMERIZATION
This takes place because of the intense heat which the fat is subjected to during frying.
Lipolysis or lipid breakdown takes place and free fatty acids are released. These free
fatty acids undergo further changes and form polymers. Polymerization is generally
seen in fatty acids with one double bond. The larger polymers increase the viscosity of
the hot fat. The colour darkens and the quality deteriorates. Gum may be formed at
the edge of the vessel.
It is of utmost importance to avoid unnecessary heating of fats and oils and con-
trolling frying temperature and time. If the fat is not hot enough, excess fat is
absorbed by the food. If the fat is too hot, the surface browns but the food is not
cooked. The moisture should be removed before frying a food. Fat used for frying
should have a high smoke point.
CARE OF FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are used in many preparations and as a method of cooking food. If care
is not taken while heating and storing fats, it may result in wastage of food as well
as the fat used in preparing it. The following points should always be kept in mind
while handling fats and oils in the kitchen.
1. Do not overheat fats, as they decompose at high temperature
2. Follow a time and temperature chart for frying foods
3. Cover fats when left in the deep fat fryer and ensure that the temperature
does not exceed 200°F
4. Strain fat after use and used fat should be stored in closed containers in
the refrigerator
5. When fat has to be reused for frying, replace with equal quantity of fresh fat
mn Do not use fats with a low smoke point for frying
7. To prevent fat from going rancid, it should be stored in an airtight container
away from light
8. Fat should be stored in tall containers to keep minimum surface area exposed
9. Always remember that fats and the fatty phases of foods take up flavours
and odours of other foods stored nearby
10. Copper or rusted containers should not be used for storing fats.
EXTRACTION OF FATS AND OILS
There are three methods for extraction of fats and oils from animal or vegetable tissues.
1. Rendering
2. Pressing
3. Solvent extraction
94 Food Science and Nutrition
Rendering
This method is mainly used for extracting animal fat from fatty tissues. The tissue
from which fat is to be extracted is carefully removed from the carcass and chopped
or minced. Rendering is of two types ~ wet rendering and dry rendering.
Wet rendering It is carried out in the presence of water. The chopped tissue is
treated with very hot water or steam. Fat melts and forms a layer on top which is
skimmed off. Fat obtained by this method has a bland flavour and complete extrac-
tion is not obtained. Antioxidants are added to prevent rancidity.
Dry rendering The chopped tissues are heated without addition of water. Lipids
escape from the cells and melted fat is removed by draining and squeezing the fat
out of the residue.
Pressing
In this method, oil is extracted by the application of high pressure to oilseeds or fruit
rich in oil. The oil obtained is filtered to remove all extraneous matter. Oil obtained
from the first pressing is called virgin oil and is particularly bland in flavour.
In hot pressing, the oil bearing tissue is rolled, crushed, or ground into flakes, and
then heated by steam to 70°C. The hot tissues are pressed to extract oil. Along with
oil, gums and free fatty acids are also extracted.
Solvent Extraction
ae ie,
The crushed or flaked tissue is agitated along with a solvent to extract the oil. This
method is used to extract the fat remaining in the seedcake after pressing. The
solvent is separated from the mixture by evaporation.
REFINING
The oil extracted by rendering, pressing, or solvent extraction is called crude oil.
It may contain undesirable constituents such as gums, free fatty acids, pigments,
cellular material, and odourous compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, and
essential oils.
Crude oil needs several types of treatment to extend its shelf life and make it
suitable and pure for use. |
Steps in refining oil:
1. Settling The cell debris is allowed to settle down and is removed by filtration.
2. Degumming and neutralization The gum and free fatty acids present are
removed by steam distillation. Steam is passed through hot oil under pressure.
Water soluble low molecular weight fatty acids which are volatile are removed.
Fats and Oils 95
Hot oil is treated with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. The free fatty
acids saponify and soap is separated out. This step is called alkali refining.
3. Bleaching This step removes undesirable colouring and flavouring contami-
nants. Pigments are removed by filtering the oil through activated charcoal till
it is light in colour.
4. Steam deodourization Steam is injected into the hot fat under pressure.
Low molecular weight aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, and free fatty acids are
removed. The oil is cooled rapidly.
WINTERIZATION
After steam deodourization, the oils are chilled rapidly without stirring so that large
filterable crystals are formed. These crystals are composed of high molecular weight
triglycerides which have a high melting point. They are separated out by filtration
and the cold viscous oil obtained is said to be winterized.
Winterized oil does not turn cloudy or solidify in the refrigerator. It is suitable to
be used in foods which require refrigeration, e.g., salad dressings and mayonnaise
which can be poured even when chilled. It is an important step in refining oil. Olive
oil is not winterized or deodourized as desirable flavour is lost in these processes.
HYDROGENATIOFN OF OILS
Liquid oils can be converted to solid fats by a process known as hydrogenation.
In this process, hydrogen is added to unsaturated fatty acids. Some unsaturated
fatty acids become saturated and the melting point of the fat increases.
The hot oil and finely divided nickel catalyst is stirred together under an atmos-
phere of hydrogen. Hydrogen is introduced under pressure so that maximum is
dissolved in oil. The oil and catalyst are heated under vacuum. The reaction is
continued till the desired consistency of fat is obtained. The oil is cooled, filtered
to remove the catalyst, and chilled rapidly. By chilling small crystals are formed and
the fat gets a grainy texture.
Palm oil, palmolein, rice bran, cotton seed, sunflower, maize, soya bean, groundnut,
and sesame oils are generally hydrogenated.
SHORTENINGS
Shortening Power of Fats and Oils
All baked goods use fat as a shortening, the amount varying from 5-10% in biscuits
and cookies, 10-20% in cakes, and 15-30% in pound cakes.
Fats impart flavour, texture, and tenderness to the product.
In pound cake air is incorporated by creaming of fat. Each little air bubble is sur-
rounded by the gluten of flour which stretches and sets to a rigid structure when
the cake is baked. The extent of creaming the fat affects the texture. The tender-
ness of the product is also due to fat. Fat lubricates the tough and hard gluten and
starch so that they slide over one another and the walls crumble (tenderness)
when the cake is bitten.
In butter cakes leavening depends on air and steam as well as on CO, produced
from baking powder. The air bubble serves as the nucleus for COz gas.
In pastry the fat is flattened into sheets between layers of flour and water (stiff
dough) and causes their separation. This produces flakiness. The fat gets squeezed
between the gluten strands so that a continuous tough matrix is not formed, but
pastry is brittle or short.
Fats have different shortening abilities. The shortening ability of a fat is deter-
mined by a shortometer which measures the load required to break a wafer or
a pastry. If a small force is required to break a wafer then the wafer is said to be
very short.
The fat that covers the greatest surface area of the flour particles in a particular
baked product is said to have the greatest shortening power.
The following factors affect the shortening power of fats.
The nature of the fat Fats with the greatest unsaturation (3 or more double bonds)
have the greatest shortening power. Greatest shortening powermeans greatest sur-
face area of flour covered in a particular product. Polar groups are strongly attracted
to each other. Water is polar. Fats contain both polar groups (COOH group and
double bonds and phosphorus) as well as nonpolar groups (hydrocarbon chain).
When a small amount of oil is placed on a large clean surface of water it spreads
rapidly until a definite area is covered and then shows little tendency to spread further.
This is because of the attraction of polar groups of fat for water. Fats with more polar
groups will spread more.
Concentration As the concentration of fat increases, its shortening power is also
increased, e.g., butter has less shortening as compared to hydrogenated fats.
Fats and Oils 97
Temperature Fats are less plastic and oils are more viscous at low temperatures.
Therefore, they spread less readily and area covered is smaller with the same
amounts of mixing than at higher temperatures.
Other ingredients Presence of other ingredients may modify the shortening power
of fat. When oil or melted fat is used in a batter with egg yolk, the fat is emulsified
as an O/W emulsion and has less shortening power.
Manipulation of fat It includes creaming or stirring the fat to soften it, thoroughly
mixing fat with flour, way of rolling and handling and this affects shortening power.
For example, pastry making — relaxation of dough in a cool place between rolling
is important in pastry making because if fat melts then layers are not formed.
Shortenings available in the market are mixtures of high melting animal fats, low
melting animal fats, and low melting hydrogenated fats or oils. They are called com-
pound shortenings and are mixtures of oleostearin, edible tallow with hydrogenated
cotton seed or groundnut oil. The oils are carefully blended and hydrogenated to
obtain longest possible keeping period, plasticity and consistency for incorporation
in batters and doughs. A balance should be maintained between oleic, linoleic, and
linolenic acid as excess linoleic/linolenic acid shows signs of reversion and excess
oleic acid hardens the fat and reduces its plasticity. Shortenings available in our
country are mainly of vegetable origin.
Diet Margarines
They contain half as much fat as other margarines and twice as much water.
Peanut Butter
It contains oil, protein, and other components of groundnuts, which are finely
blended into a smooth paste.
Stick Margarine
Stick margarine spreads are made by hydrogenating plant oils and made to resemble
butter by adding colour, flavour, milk solids, and water. Cheese spread, garlic spread,
tofu spread, and many other flavours are available in the market.
POPULAR FATS AND OILS AVAILABLE
A wide varity of fats and oils are available in the market today.
Oils
Oils from different oil seeds are available refined or unrefined as a single type of oil
or as a blend of two or more oils. Single oils are preferable for deep fat frying as each
oil has a different smoke point.
Butter
It is available salted or unsalted.
Spreads
These are emulsions of oil in water as compared to butter and margarine which are
emulsions of water in oil.
The consumer can choose from a large number of spreads which unlike butter/mar-
garine are easy to spread even when removed from the refrigerator. Spreads may be
blends of hydrogenated plant oils, water, milk solids, flavouring, and colouring.
They may be whipped into a foam to increase volume. They have a light texture
and provide lesser calories per teaspoon as the water and air content is more. They
are marketed as diet spreads or low-calorie spreads. They contain half the fat and
twice the water of ordinary margarine.
Vanaspati
It is prepared by hydrogenation of oil to varying degrees to give a soft grainy fat or
a hard fat. They are usually prepared from a blend of different oils.
Margarine
It is a synthetic emulsion containing at least 80% or more fats and oils. Margarine
used for spreads is more plastic while cakes and pastries need harder margarine. The
fats and oils used may be from plant, animal, or vegetable sources. Margarine is a
saturated fat. ;
In India it is made from a blend of different oils. Since it is a substitute for but-
ter, it is fortified with vitamin A, 25 IU, and vitamin D, 2 IU, per gram. After the
fats and oils are refined and hydrogenated, it is ripened with pasteurized milk inoc-
ulated with streptococci for 12-24 hours to develop butter flavour. The fat — milk
emulsion is further treated and kneaded to obtain a hard fat which has no crystals.
Compound Fats
These are special blends of hydrogenated fats that are available to the bakery indus-
try for specific use. (refer section on commercial uses of fats and oils)
Fats and Oils 99
Suet
It is the solid fat deposits around the kidneys of various animals. It is used for mak-
ing suet puddings.
Dripping
When meat is roasted, especially beef, the drippings are clarified and fat which rises
to the top is separated and used for shallow frying.
Olive Oil
Virgin olive oil extracted by cold pressing is of premium quality and is used for
salad dressings such as mayonnaise and vinaigrette dressing.
Fresh Cream
Cream is obtained by skimming whole milk and contains 18-55% fat. It is available
as single cream, double cream, sour cream, whipping cream, and clotted cream.
Synthetic cream which is dairy free is available in the market and is a convenient sub-
stitute to fresh cream because of its enhanced properties. It is made from oils and
does not contain cholesterol. It is 100% vegetarian and does not curdle, but blends
well with other ingredients.
It is available in two forms — for whipping and for cooking.
Both are purchased in the frozen form and at — 18°C have a shelf life of one year.
They are prepared using vegetable oils, water, sugar or cornsyrup, soyprotein
concentrates, emulsifiers, stabilizers, and added flavours.
Fats and oils are used in the food industry because of their ability to:
SUMMARY
Fats and oils are unimportant components of our daily diet. Most of the fat which
we consume is simple fat made up of one molecule of glycerol and three molecules
of fatty acids. Fatty acids may be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated.
Fats and oils are mixed triglycerides containing different fatty acids and hence have
different properties. The hardness of fats depends on the fatty acids present in the
fat. Saturated fats have higher melting points and liquid oils can be converted to
solid fat by a process known as hydrogenation.
Undesirable odours and flavour changes develop in fats and oils due to hydrolytic
rancidity, oxidative rancidity, and reversion. Hence, fats and oils have to be stored - |
in cool dry places in containers. .
When fats are heated during cooking and frying, certain changes are seen.
Hence, care should be taken when fat is used as a cooking medium. Fats should be
stored properly to prevent uptake of flavours or turn rancid.
Fats and oils have to undergo several steps in processing before they are fit for
the table. These include extraction, refining which means degumming, neutralizing,
deodourizing, bleaching, winterizing, and hydrogenation. Depending on the degree
of hydrogenation, various shortenings specific for certain food products have been
manufactured for the bakery industry.
Fats and Oils 101
Fats have many uses in food processing such as tenderizing, emulsifying, medium for
cooking, creaming and foam formation, preparation of low-calorie diet spreads, and to
impart flavour, aroma, colour, and texture to food. Fats are available as vanaspatis of
varying degree of hardness to be used over an extensive range of products.
SSS
SSS SSS SIS IES pS PEL SD SHORES TEST MES ILS VIS SSUES AME THESAURUS UT LES MSPS
KEY TERMS
Acrolein A highly irritating volatile substance formed Lipolysis Reaction of a molecule of water with a fat
when glycerol is heated till it is broken down. molecule to release a free fatty acid in the presence of
Antioxidant A compound that is oxidized very read- lipase or heat.
ily. Thus, preventing unsaturated fatty acids from Neutralization A step in refining to remove free fatty
getting oxidized quickly. acids from oils.
Auto-oxidation Oxidation reaction which is auto- Plasticity The property of solid fats to spread and get
catalytic and continues easily once it begins with deformed when pressure is applied.
little added energy. Polyunsaturated fatty acids Fatty acids containing
Bleaching A step in refining oil in which oil is filtered two or more double bonds between the carbon atoms
through charcoal to remove colouring and flavouring in the carbon chain. ;
matter. Rancidity Developmen of off flavours and odours in
Cholesterol Lipid widely distributed in animal tissues fats because of oxygen, lipases, heat, etc.
only, not in plant tissues. It is synthesized by the body. Rendering Process by which fat is extracted from
Cold pressing Mechanical pressing of ripe olives to animal tissues using dry or moist heat.
extract oil without using heat, producing excellent Superglycerinated fats They are not triglycerides but
quality pure virgin oil. are mono- or diglycerides, e.g., glyceryl mono-
Degumming A step in refining in which natural gums stearate (GMS) used as an emulsifier and stabilizer
are removed from oil. and as a plasticizer in bakery products.
Deodourizing A step in refining to remove low mole- Triglyceride Esters of glycerol with three fatty acids
cular weight aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, etc., which to form a simple fat.
could affect flavour and aroma of fats and oils. Unsaturated fatty acid Fatty acid having one or
Free radicals Groups containing an unpaired electron. more double bonds in the carbon chain.
Hydrogenation Addition of hydrogen to an unsatu- Winterization Removal of high molecular weight
rated fatty acid in the presence of a catalyst to triglycerides with high melting points by chilling the
increase saturation and melting point. oil, so that oil remains clear and pourable at refrige-
UMS AE PE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Differentiate between:
Classify fats on the basis of saturation giving two examples for each.
What is hydrogenation? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
How can you prevent fats and fatty phases of food from going rancid?
Briefly explain the various stages in refining of oil.
What is the role of shortenings in the bakery industry?
Explain the commercial significance of fats and oils.
Explain the following terms:
Polymerization
Superglycerinated fats
i Spreads
Rendering
Virgin olive oil
é arning ‘Objectives
fter reading this chapter, you should be abe to:
_understand the significance of flavour in the food industry
classify different flavours present in food
know various flavouring agents and flavour enhancers permitted iinfood -
* explain and control the effect of cooking and processing on. flavour retention and
sit - se
INTRODUCTION
Sweetness and saltiness are detected by taste buds on the tip of the tongue, sourness
on the sides of the tongue, and bitterness at the back of the tongue.
The level at which a taste can be identified is called the threshold level. This level
may vary from one individual to another. Even at subthreshold levels, one taste can
modify another taste, e.g., a pinch of salt added to a glass of lime juice increases the
apparent sweetness of sugar.
DEFINITIONS
Flavouring It is a substance which can impart flavour and is generally used to
impart taste or odour or both to a food.
Aroma It refers to a pleasant often spicy odour, fragrance, or smell.
Flavour It is a blend of taste and odour perceptions experienced when food is in
the mouth.
Aftertaste It is the flavour that lingers in the mouth after food has been swallowed.
Flavour intensifier It is a compound that enhances the flavour of other foods with-
out contributing any flavour of its own.
The flavour of any food depends upon minute quantities of 100 or more chemicals
that are present in food. These flavouring components are present in concentrations
ranging from a few ppm to 0.1%. Food flavours are broadly classified as natural food
flavours, processed flavours, and added flavours which may be natural extracted
flavours or synthetic flavours.
i ee vO AOS
Natural Flavours
These are usually extremely complex mixtures of many different substances.
Sometimes, the flavour of a natural flavouring agent may depend upon a single sub-
stance, e.g., the flavour of clove oil is because of the chemical eugenol that consti-
tutes 85% of clove oil or it may be present in extremely small amounts such as citral
in oil of lemon which constitutes 5% of the oil. Natural flavouring agents are com-
posed mainly of aromatic organic compounds present as volatile essential oils or as
non-volatile constituents such as resins and oleoresins. They are formed in the plant
during normal plant metabolism and remain as such when the plant is harvested.
Processed Flavours
These flavours develop during processing by decomposition, combination with
other compounds, or formation of a new compound. The following flavours form
during processing of various foods.
1. Flavour resulting from enzyme action: When vegetable tissues are cut or
damaged, e.g., onion and garlic, the crushed garlic odour is because of the
formation of diallyl disulfide.
2. Flavour produced by microbiological action during fermentation of sugar
to alcohol by yeast and fermentation of milk to curd and cheese by bacteria.
3. Flavours formed during cooking and other heat processing, e.g., cooked meat
flavour and aroma of freshly baked bread or roasted coffee beans (refer
Chapter 8, Maillard browning).
4. Undesirable flavours caused by oxidation, e.g., oils turning rancid in pickles
and fried snacks such as chiwda and chakli (refer rancidity in fat in Chapter 6).
106 Food Science and Nutrition
Added Flavours
Natural flavours or synthetic flavours are often addec to food to increase its accept-
ability. With advanced techniques used in the food industry and development of
new food products such as bakery and confectionery items, ready-to-cook, ready-
to-eat foods, beverages, and fast food items, the role of added flavours has gained
importance. Although some flavours develop during processing of some foods,
natural flavours are often lost during cooking and processing. These flavours can be
replaced by either of the methods discussed here.
1. Adding natural flavourings and extracts, e.g., natural essences from fruits,
essential oils extracted from spices, beef extract, yeast extract, etc. Vanilla
essence is prepared by extracting the essential oil from vanilla pod with
ethanol.
2. Adding imitation or synthetic flavours that consist of a blend of chemicals
which smells like the original substance, e.g., saffron flavour instead of pure
saffron, vanillin is the synthetic flavour instead of vanilla.
Synthetic flavours are easy to prepare when the natural flavour is composed
of a single chemical. With the advent of modern analytical techniques, the food
technician can understand and develop flavours to closely match natural
flavours. Perfect matching of the flavour profile is possible but is a costly process.
The electronic nose is a gadget which can measure the quality of odour very
quickly and objectively. Synthetic chemicals are blended to match a natural
flavour, but there is generally a detectable difference between the natural and
synthetic flavours.
The number of flavours used today is so large that flavours form the largest group
of food additives.
Commercial flavour is usually a mixture of essential oils, aroma chemicals, gums,
resins, emulsifiers, etc. in which the actual flavour ingredient is approximately 1%.
Other substances which contribute towards the flavour of food are sweeteners
and flavour enhancers.
Food flavours
to bring out the existing flavour of the food. In other words, they are capable of
enhancing, modifying, or intensifying the original flavour.
The following chemicals are used as flavour enhancers.
_ Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is also called aji-no-moto or Chinese salt. It is
the sodium salt of glutamic acid, an amino acid. Glutamate is present natu-
rally in many foods such as meat, fish, poultry, milk and many vegetables
such as peas, mushrooms, and tomatoes. Although glutamic acid is present in
many foods, its content decreases during harvesting to processing, causing a
natural loss of flavour. This can be partly restored by adding MSG to food.
It draws out the hidden flavour of food and reduces the less desirable
flavours. MSG increases salivation and its excessive consumption leads to
a condition known as ‘Chinese Restaurant Syndrome’ in which people suffer
from various symptoms such as a burning sensation, migraine like symptoms,
and chest pain.
MSG is used worldwide as a flavour intensifier in soups, sauces, gravies,
taste makers and flavourings, canned and frozen vegetables, meat, poultry, and
combination dishes. A level of 0.05—0.8% by weight in foods gives best flavour
enhancement and excessive use decreases the palatability of food. Under the
PFA act, MSG has been banned in foods meant for infants below 12 months of
age, and should not exceed 1% by weight in foods meant for adults.
Nucleotides are flavour enhancers widely present in plant and animal cells.
Like MSG, nucleotides bring out the flavour of foods. They are 50 to 100 times
stronger than MSG and cover more flavours than MSG, which is basically a
‘meaty’ flavour enhancer. The two are ideally used together in the ratio of
108 Food Science and Nutrition
1:50, i.e., 1g of nucleotides is used with 50g of MSG, with a flavour enhancing
effect equal to 100g of MSG used alone.
It is used in processed foods such as potato chips, peanuts, dry and canned
soups, sauces, ketchups, sausages, canned vegetables, and meat. The quantity
of nucleotide added is very low.
Prof. Kikunao Ikeda in 1908 was the first to isolate glutamic acid from a
bouillon as the ingredient which gave the taste to soups.
3. Maltol is used as a flavour enhancer for sweet flavours. It is found in several
plants and is formed when cocoa, coffee, and malt are roasted and in bread
when it is baked. It is synthesized from soya bean protein fermentation and
is used as a fragrant, caramel-like flavour for addition to fruit-based products,
ice creams, chocolates, and candies. It imparts a ‘freshly baked’ flavour to
breads and cakes.
It is also used in cookies, beverages, instant pudding mix, and soup mixes
at levels ranging between 50-300 ppm.
4, Salt is used in food for its flavour, as a preservative, and as a dietary con-
stituent. The main role of salt in food is for salty taste, flavour intensification,
and as a digestive stimulant. It is used at 2% level.
Salt also blends with and enhances other flavours present. It is capable of
reducing the sourness of acids and increasing the sweetness of sugar. If small
quantities of salt are added to softdrinks, the amount of sugar required may
be reduced by 5%.
5. Sodium-restricted flavouring: When salt is restricted on health grounds
because of hypertension, oedema, kidney disorders, etc., the flavour of food
can be improved by using herbs and spices such as pepper, dry mustard,
paprika, lime juice, mint, celery, onion, ginger, garlic, and bay leaf. If small
quantities of sugar are added to vegetables while cooking, the natural flavour
of food is brought out.
Salt substitutes are salts which do not contain sodium but contain potassium
or ammonium instead, such as potassium chloride and ammonium chloride.
To improve the palatability of the diet, salt mixtures are available which con-
tain potassium and ammonium chloride, citrates, formates, phosphates, and
glutamates along with herbs and spices.
_Naturalflavours ee
| ‘Principal flavouring agent
Menthol
Lemon Citral
Garlic Dially! disulfide
Curcumin
-
=
: _Syntheticfruitflavours -
ae 2 | Chemical (mixtures ofesters
s andalcohols)
ee and butyrates
Quinone-like compounds
SUMMARY
Flavour is an important attribute of food which contributes to its palatability and
acceptance. It is produced by aromatic chemicals that stimulate our senses of odour
and taste. Flavouring agents may be naturally present in food as volatile essential
oils or non-volatile chemicals. Flavours may be complex, consisting of 100 or more
chemicals present in varying proportions.
Flavours are classified as natural flavours, processed flavours, and added
flavours which may be natural extracts or essential oils in an alcoholic base or they
may be synthetic chemicals which are blended to match a natural flavour as close-
ly as possible. Sweeteners and flavour enhancers also contribute towards the flavour
of foods. Sweeteners may be nutritive sweeteners such as sugar and jaggery or non-
nutritive sweeteners such as saccharin or aspartame. Flavour enhancers include
monosodium glutamate, nucleotides, maltol, sodium chloride, and sodium-restricted
flavourings.
They are widely used in the food industry to enhance flavours, replace flavours,
add flavours, or mask undesirable flavours. Processing of food needs to be carefully
controlled to develop the desired flavour in a food.
A A EE AEE Ud SL EA EPL EM UA EEL RU RSE UTS SLR SMT ETA ATE IT SLATS
UMESS METS LE ESM SL
KEY TERMS
Electronic nose An instrument with multisensors such as guanine. They are present in animal tissues
and pattern recognition techniques which can and give a characteristic meaty taste to food.
measure the quality of odour very quickly and accu- ppm Parts per million
rately. Synthetic flavours Mostly mixtutes of esters which
Essential oils Volatile, natural flavouring agents pres- give an imitation flavour when added to food, e.g.,
ent in plants which are oily but chemically not related banana flavour is a mixture of ethyl butyrate and
to fats and oils. amyl acetate.
Flavour intensifiers These substances enhance the Taste threshold It is that critical concentration value
flavours of other substances without itself imparting at which the presence of a taste can be just detected.
any characteristic flavour of its own, e.g., monosodi-
Vanilla It is the extract of the vanilla bean. The beans
um glutamate, small quantities of sugar, salt, and
are allowed to ferment till they become dark brown
vinegar.
in colour. Flavour is extracted by crushing the beans
Nucleotides Compounds made up of five carbon and adding alcohol. Synthetic vanillin is 3), times as
ib hosphoric acid, and ic b th al vanilla extracted from beans.
UP ESE TS STETL TET ELL TLL SELLE HUES LEE
Flavour 111
REVIEW GUESTIONS
Ql How are food flavours classified?
Q2 What are flavour intensifiers? Which flavour intensifier will you use in
i Hypertensive diets
ii Cookies
iii Cream of mushroom
iv Tomato ketchup
v_ Lime juice
Q3_ Explain the following
: i Types of sweeteners
ii Detection of taste
iii Commercial flavours.
Q4 Why is flavour an important characteristic of food?
g
pa
Browning Reactions
Learning (
Objectives —
7 After reading this chapter, you should - ableto:
'e understand the different types of browning reactions seen in food .
appreciate the need for controlling the extent of these reactions in different foodprod icts
gain insight into factors which accelerate and retard these reactions
gain knowledge as to how these reactions take place — :
ca aah other cranes which accompany these reactions and thei effecton nutritiv:
INTRODUCTION
Non-enzymatic browning
[ | | had
Maillard reaction Caramelization Lipid browning Ascorbic acid browning
Enzymatic Browning
Some light coloured fresh fruits and vegetables darken when exposed to air as a
result of the presence of oxidative enzymes. Enzymatic browning occurs in these
fruit and vegetable tissues when cellular organization is disrupted by cutting, bruis-
ing, or other injury to the tissues. This is due to the action of oxidative enzymes on
the phenolic substances present in the fruit or vegetable tissues. Apples, bananas,
pears, brinjals, and potatoes undergo enzymatic browning. The cell contents come
in contact with each other resulting in browning of uncooked fruits and vegetables
which are cut or bruised.
Enzymatic Browning takes place only in fruits and vegetables which contain phe-
nolic compounds. These phenolic compounds act as the substrate, and in the presence
of oxygen and by the action of enzymes, the following oxidative reaction is observed.
The formation of O-quinone is the first step in brown colour formation. Quinones
are polymerized to form complex compounds which darken in colour.
The details of chemical changes which take place in conversion of colourless sub-
strate in the intact fruit to the brown-coloured reaction product in the damaged tissues
are not known. First quinols are formed, which change to Quinones. Polymerized
quinones are oxidized non-enzymatically and are responsible for brown colour for-
mation.
Phenol oxidase enzymes are specific for certain substrates and are present in
many fruits and vegetables such as apples, bananas, pears, peaches, potatoes, and
brinjals.
Phenolic compounds present such as tannins and related phenolic substances
such as leucoanthocyanin contribute towards the astringency of food.
Prevention of enzymatic browning Enzymatic browning can be prevented by the
following methods.
By inactivating enzymes Enzymes can be inactivated by any of the fol-
lowing measures.
Application of heat Blanching or cooking fruits and vegetables which are
prone to browning prevents discolouration. Enzymes are protein in
nature and heat denatures proteins there by inactivating the enzymes.
Addition of salt “Vegetables may be immersed in a solution of sodium
chloride to retard enzymatic browning. The chloride ion in NaCl inhibits
enzyme activity. However, this is a temporary measure to retard brown-
ing, as the amount of salt required to prevent browning temporarily
would make the food unpalatable.
Lowering the pH Enzymatic browning is prevented by lowering the pH
to 2.5-2.7 by addition of acid. Acids used to prevent browning are
ascorbic acid, malic acid, citric acid, and lime juice. Ascorbic acid or
vitamin C acts as an antioxidant and retards enzymatic browning. The
quinones formed by the action of enzymes are reduced to their dihy-
droxyl state by vitamin C and in turn vitamin C is oxidized to dehy-
droascorbic acid.
Chilling a food below temperatures optimum for enzyme activity Optimum
temperature for enzymes to act is 43°C (109°F). In cold storage, the
browning reaction slows down, but even fruits stored in frozen storage
brown unless they are treated.
By avoiding contact with oxygen Oxygen should not come in contact
with the substrate. This can be achieved by any of the following measures.
Coating fruit with sugar or covering it with syrup keeps atmospheric oxy-
gen away from the surface. Intercellular oxygen is present in fruits, but
Browning Reactions 115
Non-Enzymatic Browning
Maillard reaction Maillard was the first to describe the development of a brown
colour in mixtures containing amino acids and reducing sugars. The reaction
between certain free groups of amino acids, such as the NHp group and a carbohy-
drate, affects the product in many ways in addition to the colour change. The aroma
and flavour of the ready product is also affected. The reaction is also known as car-
bonylamine reaction or protein sugar reaction.
The brown pigment formed contributes to the aroma, flavour, and colour of
many ready-to-eat cereals, toffees, malted barley, and bakery products such as bread,
Brown pigment
Fig. 8.3 Maillard reaction
cakes, and biscuits. If the dough contains less reducing sugar then the colour of the
crust is light. The more the percentage of reducing sugar, the darker the crust in
bakery products such as dinner rolls. .
The characteristic flavour developed differs in different products because of the
amino acid involved in the reaction. For example:
Food product Amino acid involved
Beer Glycine
Fresh bread Leucine
Maple syrup Aminobutyric acid
Conditions which favour Maillard reaction
High temperature. The rate of browning increases rapidly with a rise in
temperature.
Moisture Certain amount of moisture, approximately 13%, will favour the
reaction. Very high or very low water levels will decrease the rate of the
reaction.
pH value Browning is accelerated by an increase in alkalinity, ie., a
pH above 7.8. Presence of phosphate, citrate, and acetate buffer salts
acelerate the rate of browning.
Concentration and type of amino acid and sugar present Maximum browning
effect is observed with amino acid lysine and sugar glucose.
Presence of catalyst Browning reaction is generally catalyzed by the pres-
ence of metals such as copper and iron.
Desirable changes Many favourable changes in colour, flavour, and aroma are
seen during roasting of coffee beans and nuts and improvement in quality of bread
during baking.
This reaction is also partly responsible for the flavour of meat extracts, breakfast
cereals, and all bakery items.
Undesirable changes Maillard reaction is also responsible for certain undesirable
effects seen in dried foods such as
Off-odour
Off-flavour - mild, stale, or bitter
Off-colour — ranging form mild cream to nearly black.
Dried milk powder and condensed milk darken on storage for a long time.
Coconut turns saffron in color. Undesirable Maillard browning can be prevented by
low pH and low temperatures during processing and storage.
There is some loss of nutritive value because of the presence of nutrients involved
in the reaction. Several essential amino acids, especially lysine and methionine, .
undergo this reaction and the substances formed cannot be hydrolyzed by digestive
enzymes. Losses of amino acids lysine and methionine in toasted and flaked breakfast
Browning Reactions 117
cereals are quite significant because amino acids involved in the reaction are
unavailable to the body.
Bread loses 10-15% lysine during baking, 5% during staling, and 5-10% during
toasting. Lysine is also lost when meat is roasted.
Caramelization Sugars are caramelized at 163-170°C or 325-338°F because of
action of heat. Darkening of syrups, brown colour of candies such as caramels, taffy,
and brittle are because of caramelization reaction. Caramelization or sugar brown-
ing reaction occurs with sugar alone. Sugar is broken down into a number of com-
pounds because of intense heat.
high temperature
Sucrose? > Caramel*+ acid
decomposition
reaction,
dehydration,
and
polymerization
Stages of sugar cookery When sugar is boiled, it passes through regular stages
till it gets caramelized at 163°C.
The various stages of sugar cookery are listed in Table 8.1.
The rate and extent of browning in carbohydrate solutions are influenced by the
following factors.
Heat For caramelization to take place, high temperatures is necessary.
Temperature can be lowered by the presence of a catalyst.
6.
7. Hard crack
163-177
118 Food Science and Nutrition
Effect of pH Both acids and alkali increases browning, but alkalis are
more effective.
Type of sugar Fructose shows the greatest degree of browning, followed
by sucrose. Glucose shows least browning.
Presence of catalysts Metals such as iron and copper accelerate the rate
of reaction.
Caramel is used to flavour and colour alcoholic beverages, soups, gravies, sauces,
soup cubes, cake mixes, coffee products, canned meat products, etc.
Ascorbic acid browning Cocum and strawberry preserves undergo a change in
colour during storage. The original bright red/crimson of the anthocyanin pigment
in the fresh fruit becomes dull and develops a rusty brown colour. A similar change
in colour is also seen in citrus fruit juices and squashes.
The ascorbic acid present in these fruits undergoes oxidation with the formation
of a compound which produces a brown pigment and causes discolouration. The
oxidized ascorbic acid hastens the degradation of the red pigment of anthocyanin
giving the product a dull brownish colour.
Factors which hasten this reaction are
1. Presence of oxygen
2. Reducing sugars present
3. High pH
4. Warm storage temperatures
Lime juice cordial loses its lemon colour to become darker and brown. This type
of browning is seen in preserves. To prevent this discolouration, strawberries are
kept as frozen stock and made into preserves only as and when required. Low stor-
age temperatures and addition of bisulfites retard the reaction.
Lipid browning ‘This type of browning is seen in fats and fatty phases of food. The
amino groups of phospholipids and lipoproteins-can react with aldehydes and
reducing sugars resulting in browning.
This type of browning is quite uncommon and may be observed in fats stored for
long periods. It is an undesirable reaction.
cooking processes such as roasting, grilling, or baking bring about brown coloura-
tion. This is expected and desirable and contributes to the acceptance and palatability
of food. Cooking brings about chemical breakdown which along with colour, adds
flavour to food. The aroma of freshly baked bread and roasted coffee beans is due
to desirable Maillard reaction.
Food components interact chemically and give rise to a brown colour accompa-
nied by modifications in flavour, aroma, and taste. Because food components are
involved in the formation of the brown colour, there is some loss of nutritive value.
9} DGB
I AEFI ASAL YOR PEE 0) oa a det ada re Ue
ISUMMARY
Browning reactions occur very widely in food products and bring about changes in
colour ranging from cream or pale yellow to dark brown or black.
These reactions may be desirable like in the brown crust of bakery items and
caramelized sugar in peanut brittle. It may be undesirable in some fresh fruits and
vegetables, such as bananas and apples, when they are cut or bruised or the dark-
ening of milk powder and strawberry preserves.
Browning reactions need to be controlled as excessive browning may make the
product unpalatable. Changes in odour and flavour may also accompany the reaction.
They are broadly classified as enzymatic browning and non-enzymatic browning.
Enzymatic browning is seen in fresh, uncooked fruits and vegetables which contain
phenolic compounds. In the presence of oxygen, specific enzymes bring about
120 Food Science and Nutrition
KEY TERMS
Carbonyl group Free group of reducing sugars. fruits, vegetables, and mushrooms in which they are
Enzyme Catalyst made up of protein and responsible present.
for most reactions in living tissues. Destroyed by heat Phenolic compounds Group of aromatic compounds
as protein gets coagulated. (with a ring structure) that undergo oxidative enzy-
Maillard reaction A reaction between proteins or matic browning, e.g., tyrosine, catechins which are
amino acids and sugars resulting in a brown colour, colourless pigments in plants.
often accompanied by aroma and flavour when food Reducing sugars Sugars that contain the aldehydic
is cooked. or ketonic reducing group, e.g., glucose, fructose,
Oxidation A reaction in which oxygen is gained or lactose, and pentoses (five carbon sugars).
hydrogen is lost or loss of electrons.
Phenol oxidases Enzymes that oxidize phenolic
compounds to quinones causing browning in some
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Classify the different types of browning reactions seen in food.
Q2 You have been asked to prepare fresh fruit salad. What precautions would
you take to prevent enzymatic browning.
Q3 Explain briefly
i Uses of caramel
ii Factors affecting Maillard reaction
iii Measures to retain red colour in strawberry preserves.
Q4 List any five examples of desirable browning and five examples of undesir-
able browning, mentioning type of browning reaction.
Food Processing
F Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you uh be able to:
understand the need for processing food
know the different methods by which food is preserved. a
describe the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods
select the appropriate method for preservinga food stuff —
_understand the limitations of irradiation of food
appreciate the benefits of using a combination of methods instead of a a method
understand the effect of processing on toed constituents
—@
@©@:6
INTRODUCTION
Food can spoil at any stage in its preparation or storage. In fact spoilage in food
begins as soon as:
1. Vegetables and fruits are harvested
Eggs are laid
Fish is caught
Animals are slaughtered for meat
a Milk is drawn from milch animals.
ane
This spoilage continues till food is consumed.
Crystal formation in fondants, jams, and ice cream can be retarded in processed
foods and desirable texture can be obtained.
Minimizing nutrient loss Nutrients are better retained by controlled processing
conditions such as autoclaving, freeze drying, and controlled heat. Nutrients lost
during processing are generally compensated by adding synthetic vitamins.
Processed margarine, a substitute for butter, is fortified with 30 IU vitamin A and
2 IU vitamin D per gram of fat. Processed foods are often enriched with vitamins,
minerals, and lysine.
Extending the shelf life Processing extends the shelf life because apart from
removing unwanted, spoilt, and harmful matter and subjecting the food to temper-
atures outside the danger zone, all processes such as dehydration, cold storage, can-
ning, and pasteurization are aimed at preservation of food.
Increasing acceptability through fabricated foods New products of uniform size
and shape are being introduced in the market. They are made from low-grade com-
modities which are plentiful or good for health.
Extruded ready to eat snacks, soya meat substitutes, non-dairy whiteners, and
creamers have flooded the market. Tapioca, maize, dried fish, etc. are blended into
tasty snacks. Health drinks like Aloe vera juice is blended with its tastier counter parts
such as blackcurrant and blue berry to which Aloe vera pieces are added.
Cook-chill In this system food is cocked in the kitchen in advance and rapidly chilled
and stored at 0-3°C. It is reheated just before it is served. The cook-—chill system is used
for almost all kinds of foods and is popular in airlines and institutional catering. Proper
cooking procedures and hygienic standards need to be followed to ensure safety and
quality.
Portion
(before or after chilling)
Hygienic environment
Labelled containers
Depth of food 2"
8. The critical safety limit for chilled food is 10°C and if the temperature during
storage or distribution exceeds this limit the food should be discarded.
9. Recipes should be suitably modified for cook—chill foods to prevent curdling or
changes in consistency of soups, sauces, and crispness of batter-fried products.
10. The storage life of cook-chill meals should not exceed 5 days.
The caterer should know that even at chilling temperatures, bacterial, chemical, and
enzymatic reactions are taking place but at a more slower rate than room temperature.
Chilling temperatures only help to prolong shelf life.
Freezing Food is preserved for long periods by reducing its temperature to —18°C or
lower. At this temperature, water present in food is converted to ice and microbial
growth stops. Freezing retains colour, flavour, and nutritive value. However, the tex-
ture of some foods is adversely affected. If properly stored, frozen food has a shelf life
of 3-12 months. Fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and poultry can be preserved in this way.
Food to be frozen should be frozen quickly so that small ice crystals form in the
cells of the food which is desirable. Slow freezing causes large irregular shaped ice
crystals to form in the cells. These contain the flavour and nutrients. When food is
thawed, flavour and some nutrients are lost as large ice crystals pierce the cells. Food
is quickly frozen by using any one of the following equipments.
Blast freezers In this cold air at —18°C to —34°C is vigorously circulated over food
while it passes through an insulated tunnel.
Plate freezers Food to be frozen is placed in contact with a metal surface which is
cooled by a refrigerant. It is used for ice creams, juices, etc., both packaged and
unpackaged foods.
Immersion freezers Packaged or unpackaged food is frozen by immersing it or
spraying it with a freezing agent. It is used for freezing poultry.
Spray freezers This is the quickest freezing method in which liquid nitrogen or
carbon dioxide is used. It is called cryogenic freezing. The food to be frozen is
placed on a conveyor belt which passes through an insulated freezing tunnel. Liquid
nitrogen or carbon dioxide is injected into the tunnel through a spray which
changes its state and vaporizes, resulting in instant freezing.
Freeze flow In this system food freezes but does not harden.
A wide variety of frozen foods, both cooked and uncooked, are available in the
market. They should be thawed/cooked as per manufacturer’s instructions. Some
are to be cooked in the frozen state. Frozen foods once thawed should never be
refrozen. This is because when food is thawed its temperature is within the ‘danger
zone’ in which bacteria present in food multiply rapidly.
Cook-freeze It is a specialized method of a food processing system in which food is
cooked and immediately blast frozen at 18°C or below, and stored at that tempera-
ture till it has to be served. Such food has a shelf life of 3-6 months. The food should
Food Processing 127
be frozen immediately so that large ice crystals do not form and freshness is
retained and should be accomplished within one to one and a half hours.
Once the foods are frozen they should be stored at —18°C, and transported as and
when required in insulated containers and refrigerated transport. Before service,
foods should be thawed in a thawing cabinet at 10°C and reheated in a combina-
tion oven or in a microwave oven if quantity is less.
Advantages of Cook-—freeze
1. Complete utilization of staff time
2. Complete utilization of equipment
3. Portion control and minimal wastage
4. Less frequent deliveries from commissary
5. Food can be prepared, when in season and prices are low, days or weeks in
advance during lean periods
6. Menus can be planned and prepared in advance
7. Lesser staff required with more variety in menu
8. Overall savings in staff, equipment, space, fuel, and food costs.
Follow proper instructions while preparing and storing food to prevent loss of
flavour and texture. Avoid slow freezing and freezer burns due to prolonged storage
and badly packaged food.
Use modified starches such as waxy maize starch along with regular starches to
prevent syneresis and retrogradation of starch-based dishes.
Vacuum cooking Also known as sous-vide, it is a form of cook-chill using a combina-
tion of processes. The food is first sealed in a plastic pouch. It is then cooked by steam
and quickly chilled in ice-water. It can be used by many catering establishments.
Steps in vacuum cooking
Put prepared food and seasonings in plastic pouches
:
Vacuum packaging at 1,000 millibars
pressure and sealing of pouch
:
Chill in iced water/air blast chiller
Creating a Vacuum
Removal of oxygen can stop aerobic micro-organisms from growing. This can be done
by packing foods in airtight containers or vacuum packing of foods as in canned foods.
However, anaerobic micro-organisms can still grow in such foods if these have been
inadequately processed.
Food Processing 129
120
Fig. 9.2 Temperatures used in the food industry and their effect on micro-organisms
130_Food Science and Nutrition
Vacuum Packing
Vacuum packing of prepared food in vacuum packs of special plastic pouches is an
excellent means of preserving food. Vacuum-packed food does not get oxidized, there
is minimal weight loss or drip, and once packed chances of cross contamination is
reduced. Packs should be stored at appropriate storage temperature, well labelled,
and FIFO must be followed strictly. If the contents of the pack are discoloured or if
pack is bloated or leaking it should be discarded immediately. Strict hygiene needs to
be followed for such processed food.
Disadvantages:
1. Heat labile nutrients are lost
2. Heat required for processing affects the texture, colour, and flavour of the product
3. Cost of canned food is high in India
4. Once opened, canned food should be treated like fresh food and consumed
within stipulated period.
Advantages:
Convenience
2. Long shelf life
3. Needs little preparation
4. No chemical preservatives
5. Variety of food is available.
Cooking (boiling, steaming, stewing, and poaching) In these methods of cooking,
wet or moist heat is used. The temperature attained is 100°C. At this temperature
most micro-organisms are destroyed but spores survive. Foods cooked by these
methods cannot be stored for long periods.
132 Food Science and Nutrition
Low Vacuum
temperature High temperature packing Fermentation
1. Chilling 1. Pasteurization 1. Canning 1. Alcohol
cook—chill 2. Cooking at 100°C 2. Vacuum cooking 2. Acid
2. Freezing 3. Retorting (a) Acetic acid
cook-freeze above 100°C (b) Lactic acid
Controlled
Chemical
atmosphere storage Dehydration Irradiation preservatives
1. Sun drying 1. Ionising rays 1. Class I preservatives
om Mechanical 2. Microwaves (a) Sugar
drying 3. UV rays (b) Salt
3. Freeze drying (c) Smoke
2. Class II preservatives
Fig. 9.3 Classification of methods of food preservation
co Food Processing’
Processing 5193
133
food. Liquid food such as milk is dried either by passing it over heated rollers or by
spraying the liquid into a current of dry heated air. Dried food should be packed in
airtight containers immediately.
Freeze drying In this process of dehydration the food to be dried is first frozen in
a cabinet. A vacuum is created by pumping out the air in the cabinet and by the
process of sublimation, ice turns into vapour. Freeze-dried food needs no further
refrigeration or preservation. It is light in weight and retains its size and shape, and
when soaked in water, regains its original size and flavour. It is used to dry fruits,
vegetables, meat, poultry, and seafood.
Advantages of Drying
1. Dried food is easy to transport and store
2. It has a long shelf life provided it remains dry
3. It occupies less storage space
4. Itis a cheap method of preservation and is convenient to use.
Use of Preservatives
A preservative is any substance which retards deterioration of food. There are two
groups of preservatives used in food.
Class I preservatives This class includes sugar, common salt, glucose, fructose,
alcohol, spices, vinegar or acetic acid, honey, and wood smoke. There is no restric-
tion by law on the addition of these substances in food.
Class II preservatives ‘This class includes chemicals which inhibit microbial
growth and can be added to certain foods only in definite permitted limits. They are
usually added at the end of the processing operation and their presence has to be
mentioned on the label, i.e., there is a restriction on the use of these preservatives
in food by law. They include salts of benzoic acid, fumaric acid, sulphurous acid,
nitrates and nitrites of sodium and potassium, sorbic, propionic, and acetic acid.
Nisin, an antibiotic, is used in the preservation of cheese.
They are used to preserve food in the following ways.
1. They may be added to food, for example, sodium benzoate in tomato sauce
and potassium metabisulfite in lemon squash.
2. They may be applied on the surface of foods. Sulphur dioxide is used on dry
fruits and borax is used to wash vegetables and whole fruit.
3. Wrappers may be impregnated with sorbic acid to prevent surface spoilage
of cheese.
4, The ice used to chill foods like fish may contain tetracycline, an antibiotic
which is a permitted preservative.
5. They may be used as gases around food. Fruits and vegetables are stored in
an atmosphere containing two to three percent carbon dioxide to retard the
ripening process.
134 Food Science and Nutrition
1. They include sugar, salt, vinegar, spices, smoke, | 1. They include salts of various acids.
and oil. (a) Benzoic acid and its salts, e.g., sodium ben-
(a) Sugar: A high concentration of sugar pre- zoate in tomato sauce, squashes, and
vents moulds, yeast, and bacteria and is syrups.
used to preserve jams, jellies, marmalades, (b) Sulphurous acid and its salts, e.g., potassi-
fruit preserves, candied fruit, glaced fruit um metabisulfite in fruit beverages such as
crystallised fruit, and chutneys. lime cordial, before dehydratingof fruits
(b) Salt: Micro-organisms cannot grow in high and vegetable, and in bulk storage of fruit
concentrations of salt. Meat is pickled in salt pulp.
solution, e.g., ham and ox tongue. Salt is (c) Nitrates and Nitrites of potassium and sodi-
used for pickling and curing. Mango, lime, um are used in the preservation of meat
and vegetable pickles are preserved by salt. and for colour retention in pork.
Salt and sugar preserve food by binding
water and making it unavailable for microbial (d) Propionic acid and its salts such as sodium
activity. and calcium propionate are used as mould
inhibitors on cheese surface and to prevent
(c) Smoke: It is a complex mixture of alcohols, rope in bread.
acids, phenols, and toxic substances which
inhibit microbial growth. Meat to be smoked (e) Sorbic acid and its salts like potassium sor-
is first salted and then smoked. Temperature bate is used In fruit juice, SAUCE Ia, flour
control during smoking is essential to main- confectionery, and in margarine to prevent
tain the texture. yeast and mould growth.
Oxygen 20.95%
Carbon dioxide. 0.3-0.4%
Nitrogen 79%
concentration and proportion of gases used varies with the kind and variety of fruit.
The carbon dioxide concentration is usually increased and oxygen concentration is
decreased for fresh fruits and vegetables stored in cold rooms. Modified atmosphere
packaging is another technique of enhanced preservation based on gas storage (refer
Chapter 11).
Preservation by Fermentation
Select micro-organisms act on certain foods such as milk, soya beans, cereals, pulses,
and cabbage, and give it a distinctive taste, better acceptance, higher nutritive value,
and a longer shelf life. Examples of food fermentations are:
1. Alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine
CH p05 he 2C3H;OH + 2CO,4
anaerobic conditions
Simple sugar Ethyl alcohol
2. Acetic acid fermentation in vinegar manufacture
GOH + 0. One > CH.COOH + H,0
Acetobacter
Ethyl alcohol Acetic acid
3. Lactic acid fermentation in curds and yoghurt
Preservation by Radiation
Radiation of various frequencies ranging from low frequency microwaves to high
frequency gamma rays are being used to preserve various foods. Radiations can be
classified into two categories on either side of the light spectrum.
1. Low frequency, long wavelength, and low energy rays — from radio waves to
infrared rays.
2. Higher frequency, shorter wavelength, and higher energy rays on the other
side of the light spectrum are of two types:
136 Food Science and Nutrition
(a) Shorter wavelength, lower frequency, and lower energy rays, e.g., ultra-
violet rays
(b) Higher frequency, short wavelength, and high ‘energy rays, e.g., ionizing
rays that are capable of breaking molecules into ions.
Ultraviolet irradiation This type of radiation is most widely used in the food industry.
Ultraviolet rays are an invisible form of light. They lie just beyond the violet end of the
visible spectrum. They are present in sunlight. They can be produced artificially by low
pressure mercury vapour lamps.
Ultraviolet rays are effective in killing bacteria and viruses. ‘They have poor pen-
etrating power and can be used for surface sterilization of food, or for sterilizing the
air in storage and processing rooms. They are used to control mould growth on the
surface of bakery products and to prevent spoilage of meat while tenderizing and
aging. Treating knives for slicing bread, treating water for beverages, and sanitizing
of food service utensils are some of other successful uses of UV rays.
Microwave oven Microwaves are short radio waves which heat food by penetrat-
ing it. These waves cause molecules in food to vibrate rapidly. The friction caused
by the rapidly moving molecules creates heat which cooks the food.
Microwaves are produced by an electronic vacuum tube called a magnetron.
They penetrate food to a depth of 1% inches. Cooking is faster in a microwave oven
10° io or io
Low frequency Wavelength High frequency
Long wavelength (inm) . Short wavelength
Low energy rays High energy rays
Cooking _ : Infrared
Microwaves
Surface
sterilization : Ultraviolet rays
Irradiation : X-rays
of certain Gamma rays
foods
Fig. 9.4 Types of radiation used for cooking food
Food Processing 137
because heat is produced inside the food and no heat is lost. Natural flavour is bet-
ter retained if correct cooking procedures are followed.
Ionizing rays or cold sterilization Foods are exposed to ionizing radiation to
extend its shelf life. These rays transfer some of their energy as they pass through
food killing pathogenic and spoilage causing micro-organisms.
Food irradiation in low doses of 0.05—70 kilo grays is used for the following purposes.
To inhibit sprouting, e.g., potatoes, onions, garlic, ginger, and shallots
To control insect infestation, e.g., rice, wheat, and dry fruits
To reduce microbial load, e.g., spices, meat, chicken, and frozen fish
To extend shelf life and delay ripening, e.g., mango, papaya, and banana
To sterilize food, e.g., packaged food and food in hermetically sealed containers
WN For treatment of water.
Aone
Milling
Whole grains of cereals, pulses, and nuts are often crushed or ground into flours of
various particle size. For example, wheat is ground into whole wheat flour, refined
flour, semolina, and dalia.
Whole grains are made up of an outer most covering of bran which encloses the
endosperm and the germ. Bran is rich in cellulose and resists the action of waier and
heat. Crushing helps in absorption of water and heat and in cooking the grain. A num-
ber of flours are available in the market. The processing quality and the nutritive
value depénd on the quality of grain used and the rate of extraction. Since wheat is
the most popular cereal in the world, milling will be explained with reference to
wheat grain.
The extraction is the percentage of whole wheat grain present in the flour. Whole
meal flour is 100% extraction and it retains all the grain components. Lower extrac-
tion rates mean most of the bran and the germ have been removed. Refined flour
or maida has an extraction rate of 70% and is almost pure endosperm. Removal of
the bran and the germ can improve the processing quality and the shelf life of the
cereal. The lower the extraction rate, the lighter is the colour of flour.
138 Food Science and Nutrition
Endosperm
Crease
Bran
Scutellum
Germ
(embryo)
Za
But the nutritive value of the cereal depends on the amount of bran and germ
retained when the cereal is milled. Bread made from whole wheat flour is dark in
colour and coarse in texture as compared to white bread, but more nutritious.
Modern milling processes are carried out using steel rollers, and the bran and
germ can be removed producing a flour which is purely endosperm. The complex
process involves many steps. The grains are cleaned to remove extraneous matter
and conditioned or brought to the optimum moisture content before it is milled.
The grain is passed through a series of rollers which break the grains which is then
sifted to obtain flour of different extraction rates.
Effect of milling on nutrient content Bran is made up of cellulose, B-complex
vitamins and contains 50% of the minerals present in the grain. It constitutes 15%
of the grain.
The germ is rich in vitamin E, B-complex vitamins, proteins, iron, and oil, and is
approximately 20% of the grain.
Starch is the major constituent of the endosperm along with protein.
The scutellum or membrane which separates the germ from the endosperm is
very rich in vitamin B, or thiamine.
Food Processing 139
When refined flour is extracted, practically all the bran, germ, and scutellum are
removed during milling. Since wheat germ is rich in oil, which can turn rancid,
removal of the germ increases the shelf life of flour.
Milling Cereal, pulses, and nuts Varies with rate of extraction of flour
140 Food Science and Nutrition
enriching, or fortifying food. Colour pigments present in fruits and vegetables are
affected by heat, acid, alkali, and metals, and these need to be controlled.
Effect of processing has been dealt with under the different nutrients as effect of
heat, acid, and alkali on nutrients, specially the water soluble, heat labile vitamin
B-complex and ascorbic acid.
SUMMARY
Food, unless processed or preserved, is bound to spoil. The spoilage rate depends
on the composition of food, the temperature at which it is stored, and the time for
which it is held at a specific temperature. Food needs to be protected from spoilage
and contamination at all stages till it is consumed. Food spoils for various reasons
and a wise food handler should be able to protect food from spoilage by subjecting
it to various processes.
The objective of food processing is to remove unwanted matter from food, make
it safe for consumption, increase its digestibility, enhance its flavour, colour, and
taste, minimize nutrient loss, extend the shelf life, and increase the overall accept-
ability of the food.
Food is preserved by use of low temperature, high temperature, adding chemical
preservatives, vacuum packing, modified atmosphere packaging, aseptic packaging,
irradiation, fermentation, etc. A single method or a combination of methods may
be used. All these processes have some effect on the constituents of food which must
be borne in mind. If the losses of nutrients are significant, these could be replaced
by restoring, fortifying, or enriching the food.
Blast chillers Use of rapidly moving cold air to chill Danger zone The temperature range of 5-63°C in
food evenly and rapidly. This may be fitted with tem- which micro-organisms multiply rapidly in food. At
perature probes.
temperatures below 5°C they become dormant, and
Commercially sterile Packaged food which has been at temperatures above 63°C they start getting killed.
subjected to sufficient heat to prevent any growth of Enrichment Addition of nutrients which are present
micro-organisms that may cause spoilage under normal in limited quantities in a food to enrich it.
storage conditions.
Fortification Addition of nutrients to a food which
Commissary A central food production kitchen from were not originally present, e.g., iodized salt.
which food is distributed to other food service outlets.
Freezer burn Dehydration and discolouration of
Controlled atmosphere storage Storage of fruits and foods which are frozen for long periods without
vegetables in a cold modified atmosphere in which being packaged.
percentage of CO and O) are controlled to preserve Gray (Gy) A gray is equal to 100 rad. A kilogray is
the food. equal to 1,000 gray.
-Food Processing 141
Kilogray (kGy) A unit for measuring radiation. A It is the unit of radiation dosage. A kilorad is 1,000
kilogray (kGy) is equal to 100 kilorads (krad). rad and a megarad is equal to 1 million rads
Microwaves Short radio waves which can be used to (1,000,000 rad).
cook food. Its wave length ranges from 1 mm to 30 cm. Restoration Addition of nutrients to a food which
Millibar A unit for measuring atmospheric pressure were originally present but were lost in process-
equal to 000 bar or 1,000 dynes/sq.cm. ing, e.g., addition of vitamin C to canned orange
Pasteurization A process to destroy the pathogens in juice.
milk and extend its shelf life. Two methods —- low Retorting An autoclave used for processing cans
temperature holding (LTH) method at 62°C for and bottles by using steam under pressure. The
30 minutes, and high temperature short time (HTST) time and temperature for processing will depend on
method at 72°C for 15 seconds. the microbial load, the pH, the size of the can,
ppm Parts per million, a measure for concentration. the type of food, etc.
200 ppm means 200 mg of a substance in 1 kg or a UHTS Ultra high temperature sterilization of food
million parts of water (1 kg = 1,000,000 mg). stored in tetrapacks packed under aseptic conditions
Rad (rad) A rad is that quantity of radiation which and heated to 135°C for 2 seconds.
results in absorption of 100 erg/g at the point of
application.
SPLEEN TNA PARENT UE LIMP PAP AER Ea ae ea edd LM beau ee,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Why is food processing necessary? Explain with suitable examples.
What type of undesirable changes in food can be controlled by food
processing?
Describe the steps in the cook-chill process.
How can irradiation be used to preserve food?
Discuss the effect of heat processing on the nutritive value of food.
How do sugar and salt help in preserving food?
List five Class II preservatives which are permitted in food and name the
food in which they are used.
Q8 Write notes on
i Types of freezers
ii Types of radiation in food
iii Advantages of cook-freeze system
iv Steps in canning process
Evaluation of Food
C Learning Objectives — ae a ce
_ After reading this siantee ool
i souks He able te . .. —
themarl
- understand. the importance of evaluating food before itiis‘Sorcaatk ante n
_ © know the different types of evaluation and the various tests conducted =>
-e define and differentiate between different tests
_e select the proper testortechnique for evaluating specific.characte ‘istics
a
_ appreciate the special é ny oomenta nd) tons andprecautions to befolloy red foraccurac
in test results. -
oe understand the limitations of both subjective A objective tests 7
INTRODUCTION
“ood is constantly being rated for its quality either consciously or sub-
consciously by all people. Consumers choose food on the basis of its quality
and their individual likes and dislikes. The attractiveness of food is clearly a
quality which is important both to the manufacturer and to the consumer. When
consumers make a selection they basically look for food that is attractive in terms
of colour, flavour, and texture, apart from other psychological and social factors
which they may associate with food. The nutritional quality and shelf life or keep-
ing quality and cost factor are other criteria which may affect their selection.
The distinctive and attractive colours of food are not only pleasing but an indicator
of good quality and freshness. The senses of taste and odour help us in detecting
Evaluation of Food 143
and appreciating different flavours and deciding on whether we like the food. The
feel and texture of food entering the mouth be it firm, juicy, crisp, or bland are
extremely important characteristics that dictate the acceptance of a food. Todays con-
sumers are discerning, demanding, and more knowledgeable about food. They
expect products that are safe, of good value, and of high sensory quality. Therefore,
knowing consumer’s preferences and perceptions of the sensory characteristics of
food and beverage products is vital to food manufacturers as well as caterers.
Without appropriate evaluation, there is a high risk of market failure.
Importance of evaluation to the food industry:
1. The food industry depends on evaluation in developing new products and
maintaining quality in existing products.
2. How the consumer reacts to a particular food dictates the quality to be produced.
3. Catering supervisors in institutional food service depend on evaluation to
identify changes in menus to make food acceptable.
Studies of platewaste provide valuable information regarding food acceptability.
To assist in determining the shelf life of a product.
To understand how their product performs against competitors products.
NED
Oe To determine whether or not consumers can detect differences between
products due to recipe modification.
METHODS OF EVALUATION
Scientific methods of evaluation of food are gaining importance in assessing the
acceptability of food products. Methods of evaluation can be broadly categorized
into two categories — subjective evaluation and objective evaluation.
Subjective Evaluation
This is carried out by a panel of individuals who are given a scoring system based
on various characteristics that can be judged by using the senses. This evaluation
is also called sensory, organoleptic or psychometric evaluation. In subjective
evaluation, distinctions among foods, i-e., either differences or preferences are
obtained by our senses. Preference testing is valuable in developing new foods and
in evaluating quality. Difference testing can be used to test the sensitivity of judges
and to determine whether an inexpensive ingredient could replace an expensive
ingredient in a recipe, e.g., if saffron essence could replace pure saffron strands in
the sweet ‘Shrikhand’. The type of information which is required should be clear as
this will determine the type of test which needs to be conducted.
Evaluation of food
fo a? Hip oa ee ne A,
Subjective evaluation Objective evaluation
Acceptance preference test In this method, a single sample or two samples may
be tested. It is used to find out whether a product will be used by consumers and
this also shows their preference for the sample being tested. If a new food is intro-
duced, only one sample is offered to the consumer panel, but if a food is modified
then two samples are offered and their preference is requested.
The consumer panel is made up of untrained, inexperienced judges who repre-
sent a segment of the population for whom the product is being introduced, e.g.,
if the product is ready-to-eat chicken biryani, the panel would consist of housewives
and young working professionals. The size of the panel should be about 50 to 100
people to avoid any experimental error.
The Hedonic scale is most commonly used for evaluation. Hedonic relates to
pleasant and unpleasant states of an organism. In this scale, ratings of preference or
liking and disliking are measured. This scale is generally used with untrained asses-
sors. The Verbal Hedonic Scale consists of a nine point scale with phrases such as
. ‘like extremely’ to ‘dislike extremely’ (Fig. 10.2).
Neither
Dislike :
extremely | very much | moderately | slightly vast slightly |moderately |very much | extremely
Disadvantages: The Hedonic Scale indicates likes or dislikes for a specific charac-
teristic of food such as colour, flavour, or texture. It does not indicate change in
intensity of that characteristic.
Food action rating scale (FACT scale) The fact test is a more sensitive method
made up of a nine point food action rating scale. The codes used clearly indicate
the action the panelist would take regarding the food being tested, i.e., how often
the subject would like to eat the food.
Table 10.1 Food Attitude Rating Form for FACT Method
Nammegturuitesri
ei ogt Department
Date ese Booth
Code
| would eat this at every opportunity
| would eat this very often
| would frequently eat this
| like this and would eat it now and then
| would eat this if available but would not go out of my way
| do not like it, but would eat it on occasion
| would hardly ever eat this
| would eat this only if there were no other food choices
| would not eat this even if | were forced to
Never tried
Comments:
Code:
In addition, the respondent may indicate that a food was never tried.
Preference frequency scales are of two types. One scale uses verbal categories
of frequencies like the one listed above and the other uses quantitative categories
as listed here.
Often
Twice a day
(Continued)
MEG GoadSi enca nGNuit On a
Once a day
Every other day
Twice a week
Once a week
Every other week
Once a month
Every 3 months
Once a year
Never
Paired comparison In this test, two samples are presented together and one
has to judge the difference in the samples regarding a specific character-
istic and identify the sample with the greater level of characteristic being
measured. For example, a sweeter piece of cake in.comparison with a
standard cake. The judge has a 50% chance of being right.
Duo-trio test In this test, three samples are to be tested of which two are
control samples and one is the variable sample. One of the control sam-
ples is presented first, followed by two other samples, and the judge is
requested to identify which of the two samples is different from the con-
trol. The chances of guessing correctly is 50%.
Variable
Siero
or |
or
or
Triangle test Three samples are given, and all the three are presented
together. The judge is asked to identify the odd sample. Chances of guess-
ing correctly is 33%. The judge may be asked to indicate any distin-
guishing feature in the odd sample. Of the three samples two are similar
and one is different.
Dilution test This test is used to measure the quality of an ingredient which
has been substituted. A standard sample is presented to the judges fol-
lowed by other samples which may or may not contain the unknown at
a definite level of dilution, e.g., use of dried egg powder with fresh eggs.
Higher the quality of the dried egg powder, greater will be the difficulty
in detecting it. A poor quality product would be detected at low concen-
tration or high dilution.
Taste threshold test This test determines the lowest concentration of a sub-
stance that can be detected. It also indicates the lowest concentration of
a substance required to be able to identify it. The taste threshold of sweet,
salty, sour, and bitter tastes can be detected.
Rank order In this test a series of samples are ranked in increasing or
decreasing order of intensity for a specific characteristic. This test is done
when several samples need to be evaluated for a single characteristic,
e.g., pineapple flavour in pineapple souffle. Ranking gives the direction
for the difference, but does not measure the degree of difference.
Numerical values may be given to ranks and the highest value indicates
the best product.
148 Food Science and Nutrition
Descriptive tests These tests describe the sensory attributes of food in exact words ~
and the judge/evaluator is asked to select the exact word description from the score
card which matches with the sample. These tests are superior to preference tests
which provide information about acceptability of a food sample and discrimination
tests which detect deviations between samples.
Accurate descriptions of each characteristic of the sample to be evaluated by the
judges is described over a range. The score cards need to be carefully designed for
descriptive testing.
There are two types of descriptive tests — profiling and score cards.
Profiling In this method, a panel of experts sit together and formulate a
very detailed word description, generally of flavour, which is used as a
standard for evaluating further products.
Score cards In this method, food samples are individually evaluated by
judges with the help of score cards which have a series of descriptive
terms or levels of a characteristic. Numerical values or scores are
assigned to each descriptive term.
For example, the juiciness of meat which is a textural characteristic is evaluated
on the basis of one of the following terms:
Extremely juicy - 6
Moderately juicy - 5
Slightly juicy - 4
Slightly dry - 3
Moderately dry - 2
Extremely dry - 1
While evaluating the food, the judge should think of the appropriate descriptive
adjective and take a decision and not decide on the basis of the score. It is preferable
not to mention the numerical score on the score card which is given to the evaluator.
Score cards need to be designed for all recipes which use descriptive terms.
The following are the points to be kept in mind while preparing score cards.
(i) Select the different characteristics of a food product which need to be evalu-
ated, e.g., appearance, colour, flavour, and texture.
(ii) Select appropriate descriptive terms pertaining to the characteristics chosen,
and arrange in sequence.
(iii) Give numerical values to the descriptive terms.
(iv) All products which are to be evaluated should be given a code. Codes should
be in the form of geometric shapes, such as A, O, and O, colours, or randomly
selected three digit numbers such as 519, 267, or 483. Avoid codes such as
123 or ABC as they suggest first choice.
(v) Standard specifications for a standard high-quality product should be described.
neI Evaluation of Food
EvaltionvotiFood 149
Gt49
The numerical scores are not mentioned on the score card but have been assigned and are tabulated after evaluation is
over.
150 Food Science and Nutrition
Presentation/
appearance
Colour
Texture/consistency
Flavour/taste
(Continued)
Evaluation of Food 151
Score cards could be descriptive or they could utilize Hedonic ratings as depicted
in sample score cards in Tables 10.1 and 10.2.
Objective Evaluation
Objective methods of evaluation of food consist of various physical and chemical
tests to measure physical features, such as volume, viscosity, and specific gravity,
and chemical composition such as nutrients present and pH of food. These tests
supplement the data obtained through sensory evaluation. These tests are necessary
because sensory tests rely on panelists who may sometimes present highly variable
Volumeter
Upper
chamber
Column
Calibrated
column
results. Personal problems related to health or emotional upsets may have a major
influence on the individuals ability to evaluate food. To overcome the human error
in evaluation, additional data in the form of objective tests is necessary.
Objective tests are important because of the following:
1. They do not depend on human senses.
2. They are more reliable as they are less subject to error.
3. If the test chosen is appropriate, then results will agree with those of sensory
evaluation.
4, Well-maintained, accurate testing devices are necessary.
Physical methods These methods include the following tests.
Test for volume
Seed displacement Volume of firm food products can be determined by displacement.
The volumeter is used for measuring vclume by seed displacement. In the volumeter,
the volume of seeds in a closed system is determined with and without the sample.
The actual volume of the sample is the difference between the two measurements.
This method is used mainly for baked products such as cakes and bread.
Disadvantage: The test can be conducted only after the product is 24 hours old.
Index to volume Indirect means of comparing volume by measuring the circumfer-
ence of a cross section of the product. It is essential that the slice be taken from
exactly the same portion on each sample. A detailed outline is traced by a pointed
pencil or by making an inkblot or a photocopy of the slice. A planimeter is then
used to trace the enter outline of the sample making sure that all indentations and
protrusions are recorded, and the final measurement on the planimeter represents
the exact circumference of the slice.
iy
AS.EEE OEE GGsee
\\
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SORRY
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S02) ae
©Rae
SS
Seah
ES EID oz ee
os...
The inkblot is made by pressing the food sample onto an inkpad and making the
imprint of the inked sample on paper.
Specific gravity test This test indicates the amount of air incorporated into prod-
ucts such as egg white foam, whipped cream, and cake batters. This test is used for
comparing the lightness of products physically unsuited to volume measurements.
Specific gravity (S. G.) is a measure of the relative density (R. D.) of a food sample
in relation to that of water. The measurement is obtained by weighing a given vol-
ume of the sample and then dividing that weight by the same volume of water. Low
specific gravity and density indicates larger amount of air incorporation and is asso-
ciated with good volume of the product.
Test for Moisture
Press fluids The juiciness and moisture content of a food sample can be judged sub-
jectively and objectively. The juiciness of meat, poultry, and fish is measured by the
succulometer, a machine that applies pressure. The amount of pressure applied and
length of time applied for is measured. The sample is weighed both before and after
pressure has been applied. The greater the weight loss the greater the juiciness of
the sample.
Wettability It is the ability of a cake or other food to absorb moisture during a
controlled period of time (5 seconds). High moisture retention means good
wettability.
Penetrometer
Food sample
Drying oven Food is gradually dried in an oven till its weight is constant.
initial weight — dried weight Xx 100
Moisture content = ————————————___—— = moisture %
initial weight
This gives percentage of moisture content in the sample.
Texture Texture refers to mechanical properties of tenderness, hardness, cohesive-
ness, adhesiveness, fracturability, viscosity, gumminess, springiness, and chewiness.
Objective methods for determining texture should reflect the action of the mouth
in ingesting the food, action-of tongue and jaw in moving food, action of teeth in
cutting, tearing shearing, grinding, and squeezing food.
Penetrometer It is used to measure tenderness of some foods, e.g., meat. The instru-
ment is provided with a heavy cone, the action of which stimulates the biting action
of the teeth. The force required to shear the meat sample which is cylindrical in
shape is recorded on a scale and this determines the texture. The tenderness of gels
and baked products may also be measured this way.
Tensile strength This is the amount of force required to pull apart a small sample of meat.
The force required to pull apart the meat sample, when the fibres are parallel to
the force gives the strength of the muscle fibre.
Puncture testing This determines the texture of fruits and vegetable, i.e., the firmness
of the tissue. It measures the amount of force required to penetrate a sample to a
specific depth.
Shortometer This determines the texture of a baked product, e.g., cookies, crackers,
and pastries. The pastry or wafer is placed across two horizontal bars. A single hor-
izontal bar is brought down by means of a motor until it breaks the wafer and the
force is recorded. Shortometer values are highly correlated with sensory values for
tenderness.
Shortometer
Food sample
(cookie)
Viscosity
Line spread test This is suitable for foods such as white sauce, starch puddings, and
batters. Food is placed in a hollow cylinder open on both ends in the centre of the
template. When the food has reached the desired temperature, the cylinder is lifted
and the product is allowed to spread for a specific period of time (30 seconds to 2 min-
utes). Consistency is measured in distance (centimetre) spread in a fixed period of
time on all four lines, i.e., at 90° intervals, and the mean of all four values is the line
spread.
Amylograph This is used for determining the viscosity of starch pastes at con-
trolled, selective temperatures.
Farinograph It determines the consistency of a dough, thereby predicting the
quality of the final product.
Viscometer This is a device for measuring viscosity of liquids that flow.
Jelmeter It measures the adequacy of the pectin content of fruit juices used to
make jams and jellies.
Photocopy This furnishes actual size and shape of a sliced or half baked prod-
uct. It also indicates grain. The sliced samples are arranged on a clear plastic
film placed on the glass plate of the photocopying machine.
Ink print method Refer to the Index to Volume method.
Test for colour The colour of the food sample is tested against a colour sample
to match the colour of the food being identified.
A spectrophotometer and the Hunter colour difference meter is commonly
used to identify food colours.
Test for cell structure The cell structure of baked products:is an important char-
acteristic which can be measured by making photocopies of cross sectional
slices. The uniformity, size, and thickness of cell walls are revealed three
dimensionally.
Chemical methods
SUMMARY
The consumer today is more well read and demanding about high-quality food
and looks for products which are not only safe and wholesome but appealing and
attractive. Evaluating foods for its sensory characteristics is of importance to both
food manufacturers and caterers, and food likes and dislikes or preferences of
consumers have to be considered to eliminate the risk of market failure.
Food is evaluated both subjectively as well as objectively. Subjective evalua-
tion is done by a panel of individuals who are given a scoring system based
on various characteristics such as appearance, texture, and flavour which can |
be judged by using the senses. Subjective tests include preference and difference
testing methods. In difference testing methods, the judges are asked to discriminate
158 Food Science and Nutrition
KEY TERMS
Farinograph An instrument used for measuring interchangeably with the term sensory or subjective
the physical properties of a dough, i.e., time taken evaluation.
to make standard dough, time it can maintain
Profiling Detailed description of characteristics of
consistency, and extent to which it falls on further
food developed by trained panel experts, which is
mixing.
used as a standard for quality product evaluation.
Hedonic Pertaining to pleasure. Hedonic rating Proximate analysis Analysis of protein, fat, and
measures the degree of pleasure provided by the
ash content of food, and calculating carbohydrate
characteristic of food being evaluated.
content by subtracting the value obtained from the
Objective evaluation Evaluation of various charac- total. Carbohydrate value may be corrected for
teristics of food such as texture, viscosity, and crude fibre.
colour by accurate testing devices, often used to
Score card Numerical evaluation of various charac-
supplement sensory evaluation.
teristics of food on cards which are specific for each
Organoleptic Affecting an organ or the senses; used recipe with appropriate descriptive terms for which
to evaluate the taste and aroma of a food. Used numerical scores are assigned.
SMM RIA SE MUM ESS SMM ELEM MME OPEN MPL LISS TELMNETTLES SSSR LEST
UTELLET TLL ETEEMELINE MTSE MS ESS RUPE RUM
SEA RU
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Why is sensory evaluation of importance to the food industry?
Describe the environment necessary for conducting sensory tests.
What precautions should you take while
i Selecting the panel
ii Preparing and presenting the sample
Evaluation of Food 159
Differentiate between
Subjective evaluation and objective evaluation
Preference testing and difference testing
Profiling and scoring
Duo-trio test and triangle test
Design a score card for any recipe you have prepared in the food production
practical class.
Which technique would you select for measuring the following
Volume of cake
Tenderness of meat
Crispness of biscuits
Tenderness of lemon souffle
Sugar concentration in jam
Why should objective evaluation of food supplement subjective or sensory
evaluation.
INTRODUCTION
ur eating habits have changed dramatically in the last decade. Food is|
no longer just a source of energy but a sensory, cultural, and social
phenomenon. With the number of working couples on the rise, the
fend to prepare elaborate menus at home is fast fading away. We look for food
which is enjoyable, healthy, tasty, convenient to purchase, and quick to prepare. It}
should be available all year round in the nearest supermarket and reasonably priced. |
Technological developments in the food processing industry and recent research
has made it possible to choose from an enormous variety of high quality food)
products to suit every budget and group or community.
Our lifestyle and eating habits have undergone a radical change creating an
imbalance between calorie intake and physical activity. Medical science is empha-|
sizing the increased risk for chronic illnesses and debilitating diseases particularly!
New Trends in Foods 161
SOYA FOODS
Soya bean, the golden bean, is used to prepare soya milk, soya paneer or tofu,
herbal tofu, shrikhand, amrakhand, patties, kababs, cheese spread, and textured
vegetable protein (refer Chapter 4 on proteins). With extrusion techniques good
quality meat analogues can be produced from textured vegetable protein. Soya milk
is the basis for manufacturing the wide range of dairy products mentioned previ-
ously. Soya milk is extracted from soya beans by processing in an equipment called
soya Cow.
Benefits of consuming soya products
1. Soya milk is lactose free and can be digested by people who are lactose intol-
erant.
2. Soya milk has twice the protein of cow’s milk and half the fat content.
3. Soya milk is cholesterol free.
4. It contains isoflavones which provide the following benefits.
Soya milk can replace whole milk in preparations such as curds, raita, lassi, or
kadhi. The meal left after extraction of soya milk can be used in cutlets, koftas, etc.
Soya beans should always be processed prior to use to destroy the trypsin inhibitor
present in the raw bean. The beans may be boiled whole in their green pod, or
sprouted and used in dishes. Soya beans are classified as oilseeds as they contain
approximately 20% oil.
Lecithin, a phospholipid and an emulsifying agent, is extracted from soya bean
and used as a thickening agent in yoghurt and as an emulsifier in mayonnaise. It has
many applications in the food industry.
FOOD FADS
The consumer today is more health conscious and aware of the consequences of
eating junk food, and does not mind spending more for foods available in special
stores in posh shopping malls which make tall claims in curing diseases and main-
taining vigour and vitality.
Millions of people around the globe fall prey to food faddists and quacks who
ascribe special curative properties to foods. Foods such as raw milk, yoghurt, stone-
ground wheat flour, wheat germ, seasalt, and vegetable juices are said to have
miraculous properties for promoting good health. The food faddist criticizes the
food available in the market as being inferior in nutritive value because of being —
subjected to chemical fertilizers, pesticides, different processing methods, and added
chemicals in the form of additives. The use of health foods, live foods, natural foods,
and organic foods available at an added premium is being widely promoted. If we
compare the nutritive value and shelf life of pasteurized milk vis-a-vis unpasteurized
raw milk, the former will be superior. Similarly, stone-ground wheat flour and
whole meal flour milled with 100% extraction would be comparable; the latter
being readily available to the consumer.
The foods with exaggerated claims which are available in the market today are
organic foods, health foods, natural foods, and live foods.
ORGANIC FOODS
Organic foods in Europe are those foods which are produced in accordance with
legally regulated standards. For plant foods, it means crops grown on soils that have
been treated only with organic matter, ie., manures and plant compost. It also
means that no conventional pesticides, artificial fertilizers, or sewage sludge has
been used, and that they have been processed without ionizing radiations or food
additives.
For animal food, it means milk or meat obtained from animals that have been fed
no antibiotics or hormones.
New Trends in Foods 163
Organic food initially was the produce obtained from small family run farms and
was available only in the farmers’ markets. Now special stores in supermarkets and
malls sell organic foods to the health conscious affluent consumer at higher prices
as compared to the conventional fare. The sales at the organic food store is grow-
ing rapidly every year.
Consumers are gradually turning towards organic foods because they are envi-
ronment friendly. Apart form health concerns it is also a social priority. The organic
foods market lacks a good distribution network, the quality of organic produce is
variable, and the cost of organic food is high, which make it difficult for the caterer
to incorporate these products in their day-to-day menus.
The consumer selects organic produce because it contains fewer contaminants and
not for its nutritional value. A better approach for the future would be towards envi-
ronment friendly food products and processes rather than emphasizing on organic
foods, live foods, or health foods. Environment friendly practices would include:
1. Converting biodegradable waste into vermicompost by vermiculture
2. Limiting the use of fertilizers and pesticide sprays
3. Using environment friendly packaging material
4. Using processes which save electricity and water.
Health Foods
Health foods are defined as foods which are believed to be highly beneficial to
health, especially foods grown organically and free from chemical additives.
Natural Foods
Natural foods are those foods which have come straight from the farm. They have
not been processed or refined in any way and contain no additives. They may or
may not have been organically grown. They are similar to live foods.
Live Foods
Live foods are raw foods which have not been heated above a certain temperature
and include raw fruits, vegetables, seeds, unpasteurized dairy products, eggs, meat,
and honey. These foods contain enzymes which are released in the mouth when
vegetables are chewed. These enzymes along with the enzymes from our digestive
system enhance the process of digestion.
Fruits and vegetables are physiologically active even after they are harvested.
Enzymatic and respiratory processes continue to take place. This can be seen by the
ripening of green fruits and the moisture which collects if vegetables are stored in
. unperforated plastic bags. This loss of moisture from fruits and vegetables is called
transpiration. Whole grains and seeds are also living. When they are soaked in
water and sprouted, we see signs of life in them.
164 Food Science and Nutrition
The caterer should understand that the additional virtues ascribed to these foods
does not justify the additional price which one has to pay to obtain these foods.
Modern techniques of food processing retain most of the nutritive value of food and
restore the losses of vitamins due to processing. Food substitutes like margarine
instead of butter is fortified with vitamins A and D. Modern processing techniques
increase the safety of food, for example, pasteurization of milk and other dairy
products destroys pathogenic bacteria and increases the shelf life of milk. Processing
prevents wastage of food by preserving excess for later use.
Good nutrition and balanced meals which include a variety of foodstuff is a better
and economical option for all caterers.
Aseptic Packaging
This is the most popular form of packaging used today. In this process, the food to
be packed is sterilized and then packed in a sterile container. Such packages can be
stored without refrigeration for one to three months. This method is superior to
canning because of the following reasons:
1. Natural flavour and nutrients are better retained as heat treatment Pees is
much lesser.
2. Cost of the container, i.e., foil lined cartons, plastic cups, and plastic bags is less.
New Trends in Foods 165
EDIBLE FILMS
Food materials need to be protected from loss of volatile flavour and reaction with
other food ingredients, moisture, and oxygen when they are stored in intimate mix-
tures. Edible film forms a protective package or coating around the food particle or
piece. It forms a primary package or part of the food itself.
The film could be in the form of a thin layer of maize protein zein, starch, gel-
atin, or gum arabic which is flavoured, or in the form of confectionery glaze used
on desserts or coating nuts with monoglyceride derivatives to prevent oxidative
rancidity.
Edible films have a wide variety of applications. The films may be cast into small
packets which can hold ingredients and which dissolve on addition of water to
release the ingredients. Edible films require an outer wrapper to protect it from
contamination.
SUMMARY
The food processing industry is growing at a rapid pace to provide meals to the
millions in a variety of packages available off the shelf. With food products being
available all year round because of innovative processing and packaging techniques
the health conscious consumer is offered an array of health foods, organic foods,
natural foods, or live foods. These foods are claimed to have curative properties and
special health benefits. Most of these are natural, with minimum processing and use
of pesticides or chemical additives. The consumer does not mind paying an addi-
tional price for the benefits it claims to offer. However, the educated consumer should
New Trends in Foods 167
be able to select cost-effective foods as these special foods do not have added nutritive
value but reduced contaminants. By selecting a meal wisely and ensuring variety in
selection, a balanced wholesome meal can be planned without spending extra on
organic or natural foods purchased from select stores.
In the packaging industry there has been a revolution. It is now possible to store
perishables such as whole milk at room temperature safely for a month. By modi-
fying the atmosphere inside the food package, it is possible to extend the shelf life
2 to 3 times. Edible films are extensively being used to retain flavour, moisture, and
crispness in ready-to-eat foods.
SSS
SSS SSS SSS RRR
KEY TERMS
Aseptic packaging Filling aseptic packages with Trans fat A fat having a higher melting point than its
commercially sterilized food under aseptic conditions cis form because hydrogen is attached to the carbon
which can be stored at ambient temperature. atoms on either end of the double bond from oppo-
Edible film A thin protective coating around food site directions.
particles or small pieces which keep the packed (¢ H
contents intact when food is stored in intimate ne Hh
C=C
mixtures. H” Xe
Food fad_ A style of eating which remains in vogue
for a short time. Vegans Strict vegetarian diet which includes only
MAP Modified atmosphere packaging in which air in plant foods.
the package is replaced by a mixture of purified gases Vermiculture Conversion of organic waste into a
to prevent microbial spoilage and extend shelf life. highly enriched biofertilizer by bacteria in the gut of
Pathogen Disease producing micro-organism. special species of earthworm.
(RSIS TTS ET MTA LTH LLL ET IETS ETE ELIE TALES LLL EY TLL ELEM TELE TELET POE ETS LTT LIOR TTS PT PSS LL LAS LUT SET TES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Why are soya-based products recommended in our diet? List the different
products available to the consumer.
Why do you think food fads occur? What are the present fads among the
affluent?
Discuss the concept of modified atmosphere packaging.
Why does a tetrapack carton of juice not spoil at room temperature?
Edible films are used in a vast variety of products. Name any four products
you have tasted which use this technology.
Q6_ Define the following terms
i Live food
ii Organic food
iii Health food
NUTRITION}
Introduction to Nutrition
- Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you ae be able to:
_ © understand the significance of food in our daily life
e distinguish between the functions of food and various nutrients
_e define the terms food, health, nutrition, malnutrition, and nutritional status
Classify the various nutrients into six major categories
© appreciate the need for Recommended Dietary Allowances —
-eunderstand the relationship between good nutrition and health —
. ‘identify the various processes by which food is broken down for body use, and k
ee steps are a ees
INTRODUCTION
“ood is a basic need for all living beings. Just as we cannot live without air and|
water, we cannot live without food. Food gives us energy to carry out our
day-to-day activities and keeps all the systems in our body functioning well.
Food supplies the nourishing substances needed by our body to build and repair)
tissues and to regulate various functions. |
Since food has so many functions to perform to keep us in good health, a study|
of the composition of various foods and the functions performed by these compo-|
nents is essential if one has to enjoy good health. |
Introduction to Nutrition 169
Food does much more than keeping us alive and healthy. It adds pleasure to life.
We enjoy the flavours, aromas, colours, and textures of different cuisines. We use
food as a way to celebrate special events and festivals with family and friends. The
main functions of food are listed here.
1. Physiological functions
2. Psychological function
3. Social function.
Different foods contain different amounts of nutrients, hence no two foods have
identical nutritive value. Some foods contain only one nutrient, for example, sugar
contains the nutrient carbohydrate.
Nutrients Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food, which the body
needs to carry out its functions. Food is the source of all nutrients except vitamin D.
There are six major groups of nutrients, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vita-
mins, minerals, and water. Each group has several nutrients in it, and each nutrient
has specific functions in the body.
Nutrition is the science of nourishing the body. It includes much more than just
consuming a balanced diet. Nutrition is a study of various nutrients, their character-
istics, functions, requirements, and sources. The effect of deficiency, excessive intake,
digestion, absorption, and utilization in the body as well as the interrelationships that
occur among some nutrients is an important part of nutrition.
Thus, nutrition refers to the various processes in the body for making use of food.
It includes eating the right kind and amount of food, absorption of nutrients into the
blood stream, use of individual nutrients by the cells in the body, maintenance and
growth of cells, tissues, and organs, and elimination of wastes.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition (mal means faulty) is an impairment of health resulting from a defi-
ciency, excess, or imbalance of nutrients in the diet. It includes both undernutrition
or deficiency and overnutrition or excessive consumption.
Undernutrition
It refers to a deficiency of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An
undernourished person is underweight.
Overnutrition
It refers to an excess of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An exces-
sive intake of calories results in overweight which can lead to obesity. An excessive
intake of fat-soluble vitamins can cause hypervitaminosis or vitamin toxicity.
Diet
A diet means the kinds and amounts of food and beverage consumed every day. A
diet may be a normal diet or it may be a modified diet which is used in the treat-
ment of a specific disease or condition.
Kilocalorie (kcal)
It is the unit for measuring the energy value of foods or the energy needs of the body.
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1,000 gm water by 1°C.
1 kcal = 4.184 kilojoules (kJ)
Health
The World Health Organization defines health as a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Health is a positive state of complete well-being and not just the absence of
disease. When we are tired or exhausted, we cannot concentrate on our work. To
remain healthy a balance between work and rest or recreation is necessary. This
improves our work efficiency.
Introduction to Nutrition 171
A person must look healthy, feel healthy, and have a balanced mind and be a
socially responsible individual.
Nutritional Status
The nutritional status of an individual is defined as the condition of health as influ-
enced by the utilization of nutrients in the body.
The nutritional status of an individual or a community can be assessed by sur-
veying the kind and amount of food being consumed, signs of ill-health or defi-
ciency symptoms if present, height, weight, and other measurements as well as level
of nutrients in the blood and excreted in the urine.
Good nutrition and health are closely interlinked. Clean, wholesome, and nutri-
tious food promotes health and keeps away disease.
A balanced diet is one of the essential factors in ensuring good health. The other
factors are the wholesomeness of food and a clean environment in which it is pre-
pared and eaten. The food handler should maintain high standards of personal,
food, and environmental hygiene to prevent transmission of food-borne disease.
To ensure that the consumer obtains the maximum health benefits from the food
that is served, all food handless concerned with purchasing, storing, cooking and serv-
ing food, and planning meals should have a basic knowledge of nutrition and hygiene.
Regulation of body processes Food also regulates numerous activities in the body
such as the beating of the heart, maintenance of body temperature, clotting of blood,
and excretion of wastes. Each of these processes is controlled and carried out by spe-
cific nutrients, for example, vitamin K and calcium are necessary for clotting of blood.
Protective function Nutrients keep body cells in a healthy condition to ward off
infection. They help in building up the body’s resistance to disease and help the
body recover rapidly from any infection. These functions are performed by vita-
mins and proteins.
Psychological Function
We all have emotional needs such as need for love, attention, and security. Food can
play an important role in fulfilling these needs. A mother can express her love for her
child by preparing the child’s favourite meal. Food can be given as a reward for good
behaviour or deprived as a punishment for bad behaviour.
People feel comfortable and secure when they are served food they have been
used to consuming. Many people eat to relieve anxiety and frustration, while some
may eat less or refuse food when they are depressed and lonely.
Certain foods may be associated with sickness, e.g., sago kheer and khichdi while
others such as pedha are associated with good tidings. Food is therefore strongly
associated with one’s emotions and feelings.
Social Function
Food carries a lot of social significance. Warmth and friendship are expressed
through sharing one’s food or inviting people to dine. Preparing special foods or
one’s favourite food is a way of showing respect or affection.
Functions of food
CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS
Nutrients are the essential constituents of food that are required by the body in
suitable amounts. There are approximately fifty nutrients which are placed in six
categories, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
Based on their requirement in the body, nutrients are divided into two major
groups — the macronutrients and the micronutrients. Most of the weight of the food
we eat is that of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and water. These are the macronutrients.
Vitamins and minerals are required in minute amounts and are also present in food
in very small quantities. They are classified as micronutrients. Both macronutrients
and micronutrients are equally important for good health, and one cannot enjoy
good health without including all nutrients in the diet.
The requirement for macronutrients is in grams, while the requirement for
micronutrients is in milligrams and micrograms.
Nutrients
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Macronutrients Micronutrients
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Carbohydrates Fats Minerals
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Introduction to Nutrition 175
calculated for different age groups for males and females based on activity levels
and ensure that good health will be maintained. These tables are based on scientif-
ic knowledge and accordingly nutrient intake is recommended for infants, pre-
school and school children, adolescents, and adults. Additional allowances for some
nutrients are included for periods of physiological stress such as pregnancy and
lactation.
No two individuals of similar height, weight, and age have the same nutritional
requirements as the actual requirement is influenced by many factors. The
Recommended Dietary Allowances are not actual requirements but allowances that
are high enough to take care of almost everyone in that particular group (refer
Table 12.1).
(=D Saliva
~~ Polemarel ry
SS land:
Mouth 4.—\ Tne
SS
Oesophagus
Liver
ie a Fundus of
Gall bladder stomach
Pylorus of
stomach
Duodenum sy
Transverse
= ar ep colon
Pancreas ~~)
¢( Small
PY intestine
Ascending
colon Descending
colon
Rectum
Sigmoid
Anus colon
Large intestine
(Caecum)
The sight, smell, and aroma of food increases the secretion of saliva and
gastric juices. Of all the nutrients, carbohydrates are digested fastest. Glucose
needs no further breakdown and is immediately absorbed giving instant
energy. A mixture of carbohydrate, protein, and fat gives satiety and remains
in the digestive system for a longer time.
Absorption
Absorption is the process in which the end products of digestion of nutrients are
transferred from the intestine into the blood and lymph circulation.
The wall of the small intestine is made up of 4 to 5 million folds or finger-like
projections called villi. Each villus has blood vessels and lymph vessels. The pres-
ence of villi increases the total area from which absorption can take place. Most
nutrients are absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum, and remaining in the ileum.
Nutrients are absorbed across the epithelial cell walls lining each villi by two
methods:
1. Passive diffusions, i.e., movement of water and minerals from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Sometimes a carrier
is required to help ferry water soluble nutrients across a cell membrane with
fat-like material.
2. Most nutrients are absorbed by active transport from an area of lower
concentration to an area of higher concentration. Active transport requires
energy for transportation. The nutrients absorbed into the lymph are fatty
acids, some molecules of fat, and fat-soluble vitamins. Glucose, amino acids,
water-soluble vitamins, and minerals are transported by the portal circulation
to the liver.
Metabolism
From the blood stream, nutrients are supplied to all the cells in the body where each
nutrient performs its specific functions. It is either oxidized'to release energy (cata-
bolism), or it is used in the synthesis of complex substances (anabolism).
Anabolism is the term used for all chemical reactions in which simple substances
are used to synthesize more complex substances, e.g., amino acids are used for
specific protein synthesis.
Catabolism is the term used for all chemical reactions in which complex
substances are further broken down to simpler compounds, e.g., glucose is oxidized
to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Glucose and fats are stored as potential energy in the form of adipose tissue. Glucose
is also stored as glycogen in the liver. Amino acids are used for synthesis of new cells,
enzymes, or hormones. Minerals and vitamins carry out regulatory functions.
Introduction to Nutrition 179
The waste products of digestion, absorption, and metabolism are excreted by the
bowels, kidneys, skin, and lungs.
SSSSSS
SSS SSS SS SSSI FE BETTY UTRUTTER UME RAST PU ESE EH SU
SUMMARY
Food is our basic need which we cannot live without. Food gives us energy, builds
and maintains our body, and regulates the innumerable functions which take place
in our body. Apart from the physiological function, food adds pleasure to our life
and helps fulfil our emotional and social needs. There are six groups of nutrients
present in food, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and
water. Different foods contain different proportions of nutrients and no two foods
are alike in their composition. ,
Nutrition does not only mean consuming a balanced diet, but it is also concerned
with the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of various nutrients. The nutrients,
we consume, should be utilized by the body and this is reflected in our nutritional
status. How much of each nutrient should be consumed everyday varies from
person to person. The RDA table gives allowances that are adequate for almost
everyone in a particular age group.
The food we consume needs to be broken down into simpler substances which
the body can absorb and utilize. The digestive tract is made up of the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. The digested food is absorbed in
the small intestine and sent to the blood circulation via the liver. The cells and
tissues in the body are provided nutrients by the blood. Both anabolism and
catabolism take place in the body, and waste products of metabolism are excreted
via the bowels, kidneys, skin, and lungs.
_KEY TERMS
-Anabolism The process in which complex body sub- Enzyme Enzymes are made up of proteins and act as
stances are synthesizéd from simpler ones in living catalysts for chemical reactions in the body.
organisms such as building of body tissues. Growth Ahn increase in the size and number of cells.
Catabolism The process in which complex sub- Hormone A secrection of ductless glands into the
stances are progressively broken down into simpler blood stream which have specific effects on specific
substances generally accompanied by release of organs.
energy (opposite of anabolism). Impairment Appearance of weakness or damage
Celi The smallest unit of life which is capable of causing health to deteriorate in quality or lessen in
functioning independently. strength.
Deficiency A state or condition caused due to inade- Infirmity Physical or mental weakness.
quate dietary intake of one or more nutrients in the diet. Kilocalorie The unit of measuring energy in nutri-
Duodenum The first portion of the small intestine tion, i.e., energy value of food or energy needs of the
immediately after the stomach. body. It is 1,000 times larger than the physics calorie,
180 Food Science and Nutrition
and is defined as the amount of heat required to raise Overweight A condition in which weight is 10-19%
the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. more than desirable weight.
1 kcal = 4.184 kJ Tissue A group of similar cells.
Obesity A condition of overweight in which body Underweight A condition in which weight is
weight is 20% or more than desirable weight. 10-20% less than desirable weight.
SUNT TURES URL LETS TEBE EM LESION
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql What are the functions of food?
Q2 Classify nutrients into two major categories.
Q3 Define the following
i Food
ii Nutrient
iii Malnutrition
iv Kilocalorie
Q4 What does RDA stand for? and why is it important?
Q5 List the organs in the digestive tract and state the main function of each.
Q6_ Briefly explain absorption and metabolism of nutrients in the body.
°= sugarsubstitutes available and theirenergy value
INTRODUCTION
P
waste products
of metabolism
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates which are of importance in the diet are classified on the basis of the
number of sugar units present in them (Fig. 13.1, Table 13.1). They may also be classified
as:
Availabte carbohydrates Carbohydrates which can be digested in the human body
and yield energy when they are oxidized in the body.
Unavailable carbohydrates Carbohydrates which cannot be digested because the
human body does not contain the enzymes necessary for their breakdown.
Unavailable carbohydrates do not provide any energy to the body but are neces-
sary as they perform some important functions in the body such as regular elimina-
tion of faecal waste.
Dietary carbohydrates
Available Unavailable
Ptyalin or salivary amylase in saliva acts on cooked starch and partially breaks it
| down into dextrin. If ptyalin acts on starch long enough, i.e., if food is chewed well,
: some maltose may be formed. The stomach does not secrete any starch-splitting
: enzyme, hence no digestion takes place in the stomach. In the small intestine, pan-
creatic amylase acts on starch and dextrin breaking it down into maltose.
The intestinal wall secretes maltase, lactase, and sucrase which acts on maltose,
lactose, and sucrose, reducing them to their respective monosaccharides. Some fruc-
tose may be converted to glucose. The monosaccharides are absorbed into the blood
vessels lining the small intestine and carried to the liver for their further metabolism.
The absorbed monosaccharides, i.e., glucose, fructose, and galactose may be con-
: verted into glycogen and stored in the liver, or converted into glucose and released
: into the blood stream to be oxidized as a source of energy for various tissue cells.
84
41
Food Science and Nutrition
Salivary
Mouth glands
Mechanical Q
digestion of Some starch broken by
starch
j= salivary amylase to maltose
Oesophagus : =
Ja No chemical action
Some glucose
converted to
glycogen and
stored in liver
bladder
In human metabolism, all sugars are converted into glucose. In the muscle cells, some
glucose may be stored as glycogen. The fasting level of glucose in blood is maintained
at 70-100 mg/100 ml blood. After consuming a meal rich in carbohydrates, it
increases to 140-150 mg/100 ml blood. Glucose is taken up from blood by the body
cells and oxidized as a source of energy.
In the cells, glucose is first oxidized to-form pyruvic acid, and ultimately through
the various metabolic cycles, energy is released in the form of adenosine triphos-
phate (ATP). The waste products of carbohydrate metabolism, i.e., carbon dioxide
and water are released from the cell and excreted by the body. The energy released
is used by the body for its various voluntary and involuntary processes and to main-
tain body temperature (Fig. 13.2).
Carbohydrates 185
Breakdown of
ened aarhalauteate Synthesis of glycogen (glycogene
glycogen to glucose :
(glycogenolysis) Synthesis of fat
Blood
Synthesis of other carbohydrate
ipa .oe glucose compounds, e.g., chondroitin sulf:
ow in bones and cartilage, DNA and
RNA, etc.
Conversion of amino
acids into glucose
; Excretion in urine if renal thresho
(gluconeogenesis) is exceeded
If the level exceeds 170 mg glucose/100 ml blood, it crosses the renal threshold and
glucose is excreted in the urine. This condition is observed in diabetic patients. A fast-
ing blood glucose level above 140 mg is called hyperglycaemia and below 70 mg is
called hypoglycaemia. The body tries to maintain the normal fasting level-by remov-
ing glucose from blood when the level is high and adding glucose to blood when the
level falls, e.g., when a person is fasting. The hormone insulin, secreted by the cells of
the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, helps in regulating the blood glucose level.
Insulin is required for glucose utilization by the cells and synthesis of glycogen from
glucose. If insulin is deficient, glucose is not utilized by the cells and blood level of
glucose increases. Insulin is the only hormone which lowers blood sugar levels, other
hormones, such as the thyroid hormone, increase blood sugar levels (Fig. 13.3).
SOURCES
Daily diet should provide up to 50-70% kcal of energy from carbohydrate, which
means that the diet of an individual who needs 2,400 kcal should consume 60% of
2,400, i.e., 1,440 kcal or 360 g of carbohydrates/day. Carbohydrates are not only an
economical source of energy but are also readily available and easy to store as they
have a long shelf life.
All foods of plant origin contain carbohydrates in varying amounts. With the
exception of milk, animal foods do not contain carbohydrate. Although milk is not
consumed as a source of carbohydrate, some milk products, such as khoa and milk
powder, contain significant amount of carbohydrate lactose.
The important sources of carbohydrates in the diets of Indians are cereals and
millets, roots, tubers, pulses, sugar, and jaggery (Table 13.2).
All sugars provide 4 kcal/g of energy. The carbohydrate and calorie content of a
food can be reduced by using sugars which are sweeter than sucrose so that the
quantity of sugar required will be less.
186 Food Science and Nutrition
FUNCTIONS
Carbohydrates have many functions in the human body.
I. The chief function of carbohydrate is to provide energy to the body so that it
can carry out day-to-day work and maintain body temperature. All carbohy-
drates except fibre provide 4 kcal/g of energy. It is the cheapest source of
energy available.
Glucose is the only form of energy used by the central nervous system. When
blood glucose levels fall, the brain does not receive energy and convulsions
may occur.
Carbohydrates spare proteins from being broken down for energy and are
used for bodybuilding and repair. In carbohydrate deficient diets, proteins
meant for bodybuilding and repair are oxidized to meet the most important
and first need of the body, i.e., energy.
They are required for complete oxidation of fat. In a deficiency, fats are bro-
ken down rapidly for energy and intermediate products such as ketones are
formed in large amounts resulting in a condition called ketosis.
Carbohydrates can be converted into non-essential amino acids, provided a
source of nitrogen is available.
The sugar lactose helps in the absorption of the minerals calcium and phos-
phorus.
Lactose helps certain bacteria to grow in the intestine. This bacterial flora is
capable of synthesizing B-complex vitamins in the gut.
Dietary fibre plays an important role of increasing faecal mass by absorb-
ing and holding water, stimulating peristalsis, and eliminating faecal waste.
Carbohydrates 187
9. Fibre also helps in lowering blood cholesterol levels by binding bile acids and
cholesterol.
Deficiency
The daily diet should not contain less than 100 g of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate
deficiency is uncommon in our country as diets are cereal based. A deficiency of
carbohydrate in the diet results in utilization of fat for energy. In severe deficiency,
incomplete oxidation of fats causes ketone bodies to accumulate in the blood.
Excess Carbohydrates
1. Excessive consumption of refined sugars could be one of the causes of den-
tal caries or tooth decay.
2. Excessive sugar depresses the appetite, provides hollow calories, and could
result in malnutrition.
3. High intake of sugar and refined carbohydrates increase the blood triglyc-
eride levels leading to heart diseases.
4. When excessive carbohydrates are consumed they are converted into fat and
deposited in the adipose tissue, which could lead to obesity, i.e., body weight
of 20% or more than desirable weight.
5. Excessive fibre could irritate the intestinal lining causing cramps or bloating
due to gas formation.
6. Excessive fibre interferes with the absorption and availability of mineral ele-
ments such as iron and calcium.
Insoluble fibres
ile Cellulose 1. Insoluble fibre Bran, whole grain cereals,
2. Holds water specially wheat, rye, apples,
pears, tomatoes,
3. Increases stool bulk
cabbage, beans
4. Reduces intraluminal colonic
2. Hemicellulose Boa ce Bran, whole grain cereals,
5. Prevents constipation
specially millets — jowar, bajra, ragi
6. Binds minerals such as Ca
3. Lignin (non- and Fe Whole grain cereals pears,
carbohydrate source) | 7. Binds bile acids peaches, plums, mature vegetables
8. Reduces transit time
Soluble fibres
aks Pectins 1. Soluble fibre Guava, apple, citrus fruits,
2. Binds cholesterol and bile wood apple, berries,
acids carrots, and green beans
Di Gums 3. Holds water Oatmeal, pulses and beans,
aI 4. Fermented in the colon to dinkache ladoo, processed foods
3 iueeiecs seaweeds, | volatile fatty acids and gas by
Thickener in food products,
and algae the normal bacteria flora of
stabilizer, gelling agent in puddings
the colon
Rice
Wheat
(continued )
190 Food Science and Nutrition
Guava 2 112
10.9 eA
Coconut dry aN
NO
=
Miscellaneous
Sugar | Ne)A©
|
Honey
|
Jaggery |©1
|
|}
KO)
eS
Sago
Sugar cane
MARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
These are also known as non-nutritive sweeteners. Artificial sweeteners are
100-350 times as sweet as sucrose and provide no or very negligible calories. A wide
variety of sweetening agents are available in the market and are used for low-calorie
products such as diet coke. These processed products are specially manufactured
for obese individuals, weight watchers, and diabetic patients. They are used quite
successfully in bakery items such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, Indian sweetmeats,
confectionery products, beverages, puddings, and chewing gum. Saccharin, aspar-
tame, sodium cyclamate, and stugar are some of the commonly used substitutes
for sugar. Their use is not recommended in soft drinks and other food consumed
: by children as these foods may be a substitute for essential nutrients.
ALCOHOL
Ethyl alcohol is produced by yeast fermentation of carbohydrates under anaerobic
conditions. Different carbohydrates are used to manufacture alcoholic beverages.
Alcoholic beverages do not supply necessary nutrients but contribute significant
amount of energy (Table 13.5). Alcohol contributes 7 kcal/g or 5.6 kcal/ml and in people
who consume alcoholic beverages, up to 10% of total energy needs may be derived
from alcohol. Some chronic alcoholics may consume insufficient food and suffer from
malnutrition while the reverse may be observed in the case of social drinkers whu
consume large amount of high-calorie foods such as starters, nuts, and wafers along
with their drinks. These high-calorie snacks are rich in carbohydrate, fat, and sodium.
Alcohol is absorbed rapidly, directly into the blood stream. Drinking on an empty
stomach increases the alcohol level in blood twice as fast as on a full stomach. It is a
good rule to have some light snacks along with alcoholic beverages.
= 78 kcal
SUMMARY
- Carbohydrates are nutrients which,form the bulk of our diet. They include sugars,
starch and fibre and occur abundantly in the plant kingdom. They are made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Sugars and starches are available carbohydrates and provide 4 kcal/g of energy
on oxidation. Sugars are classified as monosaccharides and disaccharides of which
glucose is the sugar present in blood, and sucrose or table sugar is consumed in
large quantities compared to other sugars. Polysaccharides include starch, the form
in which carbohydrate is stored in plants, glycogen or animal starch stored in the
muscles and liver and dextrins, which are formed on partial breakdown of starch.
These polysaccharides are made up of glucose units and after digestion and absorp-
tion all available polysaccharides are converted to glucosé and used as a source of
energy by all body cells via the liver and blood. Unavailable polysaccharides play
an important role in our diet by regular elimination of faecal matter and regulating
the levels of bile acids and cholesterol.
Carbohydrates are an essential nutrient and a minimum quantity should be con-
~ sumed daily. They perform many important functions in the body. The diet should
not provide more than 70% energy from carbohydrates and at least 25-30 g fibre
should be consumed daily. An excessive intake of sugar and starch may lead to
obesity and dental caries, while excessive fibre may cause gastric irritability and
malabsorption of minerals.
Carbohydrates 193
Today, sugar is being replaced by artificial sweeteners, which are many hun-
dred times sweeter than sugar and provide no calories. In people who consume
alcoholic beverages, the intake of calories from alcohol need to be considered
because alcohol does not provide any nutrients other than energy. Many bever-
ages and fast foods contain large quantities of refined sugars and starches, which
could be detrimental to health if they are not combined with nutrient-dense
foods.
SSSQaSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSS SESS SSSSSPELYST ELUTED NEL EEE LEM PETTERS FAUST
GWA il EULESS
PLE SAE
KEY TERMS
‘Agar Unavailable polysaccharide made up of galac- Glycogenolysis Breakdown of glycogen to glucose
tose
}
units and obtained from a seaweed (algae). when energy is required.
‘Bran The outer layers of cereal grain, which are Hollow calories or empty calories Term used to
largely removed when the grain is milled. describe foods which only supply energy and have
Dietary fibre Term used to describe the unavailable very few or no nutrients.
polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, Insulin A hormone secreted by the pancreas, which
pectin, gums, mucilages, seaweeds, and lignin regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
(a non-carbohydrate), which are not digested by Invert sugar Mixture of glucose and fructose, sweeter
humans but are necessary in the diet. than sucrose, produced by hydrolysis of sucrose and
Gluconeogenesis Formation of glucose and glyco- prevents crystallization in confectionery items.
gen from non-carbohydrate substances such as glyc- Lignin A substance which is not a carbohydrate but
erol and amino acids. present along with carbohydrates in the cell wall of
Glycemic index The rise in blood glucose produced plants and forms part of dietary fibre.
by the carbohydrate present in a given food as com- Renal threshold Blood level of a substance at which
pared with the rise by an equal amount of glucose. it cannot be further reabsorbed by the kidneys and is
Glycogenesis Synthesis of glycogen from glucose excreted in the urine, e.g., renal threshold of glucose
when excess glucose is present in blood. _is 170mg/100 mi.
YDS
LLG LAI) LP ELAN LTT SPELEER REMAN SAU cee Oe UMPIRE RAUL EROS RPSL OPIS UES UN SS LE EH TTT LTE TUSSLE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1 Describe the important functions performed by carbohydrates.
Q2 Classify carbohydrates of importance in human nutrition and give one rich
food source for each category.
Q3 List ten rich sources of carbohydrate and fibre in your daily diet. -
O4 List ten preparations rich in fibre from the menu card of a typical Indian
restaurant.
Q5 What are hollow calorie foods? Name any five such foods, which are pop-
ular amongst teenagers. Suggest alternate nutrient-dense substitutes for
the same.
Q6 What are the beneficial effects of fibre in the diet of an adult man sedentary
worker? How much fibre should be consumed daily?
194 Food Science and Nutrition
Learning Objectives.
_ After reading this chapter, |
you‘should be able
© appreciate the importance of proteins in our daily diet
e describe the chemical nature of proteins— ! i...
¢ understand the difference between complete and nee proteins oS 2
_ © understand the importance of ee es of Loe pepe value inourirmeals
_ © list rich sources of protein. —
_ improve the protein quality of meals servedin catering eo eee —
: gain knowledge about novel sources$ ofprotein available |
inthemarket oo ,
INTRODUCTION
rotein is the basic material of every living cell and is the most important of
all known substances in the organic kingdom. It is the only nutrient that can
make new cells and rebuild tissues. Therefore, an adequate amount of protein
in the diet is essential for normal growth and development and for the maintenance
of health.
Definition
Proteins are large, complex, organic compounds made up of carbon, hydragen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. The presence of nitrogen distinguishes proteins from
196
TIG™ Food
FOOR' Science
SCIENCE: and Nutrition
ANG INUTTOR
carbohydrates and fats. Apart from nitrogen, elements such as sulphur, phosphorus,
copper, and iron are also found in some proteins.
The basic units from which proteins are built are the dmino acids. Each amino
acid contains a carboxyl group (COOH) or acid group and an amino group (NH))
or basic group.
R — Various groupings because of which amino acids differ from one another
Fig. 14.1 An amino acid
Proteins consist of chains of amino acids that are linked to each other by a pep-
tide linkage (-CO—-NH-.).
H
|
H N. R COOH fe
ian een v/a a | |
C OH : is oth ene
aoe eZ
Sqeiebet eas mone |
+ H HN R : : +H,O
O O H
Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide Water
Fig. 14.2 A protein ;
Twenty-two different amino acids are widely distributed in nature. However, the
proteins obtained from plants and animals are quite different both in amounts present
and in quality. The proteins that make up the skin, bones, muscles, hair, and nails
in the body are obviously very ditferent from each other. Egg, milk, meat, and pulse
proteins also differ both in quality and in quantity. This is because the amino acids
present in each of these proteins are in different permutations and combinations.
Thousands of different proteins exist in nature and vary widely from one another
in quality. No two proteins will have an identical amino acid content.
The protein content of any food can be estimated by measuring the nitrogen
content of the food. Since proteins contain 16% nitrogen, each gram of nitrogen
measured is equal to 6.25 g of protein.
eee: Alanine
sealehis
“nefe eeres Asparagine
ae Aspartic acid
to
*Recent studies indicate that histidine may be essential for adults as well
PROTEIN QUALITY
No two food proteins are identical in their quality, i.e., with the efficiency with
which they can be used in the body. The quality of protein depends upon the kind
and amount of amino acids present in them in relation to the body needs. Protein
quality is an important criterion for tissue synthesis. Each body protein performs a
specific function and cannot be replaced by another protein. When a new protein has
to be synthesized, all the amino acids, which make up the protein, must be available
198 Food Science and Nutrition
85 Wheat
83 Groundnuts
|Meat 75 Gelatin
at the same time and in sufficient quantity. Even if one amino acid is missing or
deficient, protein cannot be synthesized just like a word cannot be made if even one
of the alphabets of which it is made up of is missing.
Biological Value
It is an index of protein quality. It is defined as the amount of absorbed nitrogen
retained in the body. The digestibility factor is not taken into account. Biological
value (BV) is a quantitative measure of the nutritive value of a protein food. A pro-
tein of high BV will retain more nitrogen than a protein of low BV.
Cereals and pulses consumed together will have a higher BV than the average
value of the individual cereal or pulse. This is because of the complementary nature
of proteins. Amino acids deficient in cereals will be compensated by the amino
acids present in pulses. }
The perfect protein has a BV of 100.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins may be classified on (1) the basis of their structure or on (2) the basis of
their quality, i.e., the amino acids present in them.
Classification by Structure
Simple proteins These proteins are made up of amino acids only, e.g., zein in
corn, albumin in egg white, and gliadin in wheat consist of amino acids only.
Conjugated proteins These proteins have a non-protein molecule attached to the
protein, e.g., blood protein haemoglobin, which contains a haeme (iron) group
attached to protein and milk protein casein, which has a phosphate group attached.
Derived proteins These result from a partial breakdown of a native
protein.
Proteoses, peptones, and polypeptides are formed when digestive enzyme
s begin
their action on proteins.
Proteins 199
From the nutritional point of view, classification of proteins on the basis of their
quality is more relevant than classification by structure and is explained in the next
section.
Classification by Quality
Proteins are classified into three groups on the basis of their quality.
Complete proteins These proteins contain all essential amino acids in sufficient
proportions and amounts to meet the body’s need for growth and repair of tissue
cells. A complete protein food has a high BV. Eggs, milk, meat, fish, and poultry are
complete protein foods. They are found in animal foods.
Partially complete proteins These are proteins in which one or more essential
amino acids are present in inadequate amounts. They cannot synthesize tissues
without the help of other proteins. The value of each is increased when it is
consumed in combination with another incomplete protein at the same meal.
They can maintain life. They are found in plant foods. Cereals, pulses, nuts, and
oilseeds are partially complete protein foods. Cereals contain inadequate amounts
of essential amino acid lysine, and pulses are deficient in essential amino acid
methionine.
Incomplete proteins These proteins are incapable of growth and repair of
body cells. They cannot maintain life. One or more essential amino acids
may be completely lacking in these proteins, e.g., gelatin and zein in corn.
Gelatin lacks three essential amino acids and is the only animal protein which is
incomplete.
Structural Function
Growth The primary function of food protein is the synthesis of body cells.
All body tissues and fluids except urine and bile are made up of protein.
Proteins are the major constituent of muscles, organs, endocrine glands, and
collagen. Collagen is the main structural protein of bones, tendons, ligaments,
skin, blood vessels, and connective tissue. All enzymes and some hormones,
e.g., insulin are made up of proteins. Proteins are required for the formation
and growth of all these substances. During periods of rapid growth, additional
proteins are needed for synthesis of body components.
ROO EoweisclenceandsNGbitimi ee
Regulatory Functions
All amino acids from food protein are used for growth and maintenance. Certain
amino acids and proteins have highly specialized functions in the regulation of body
processes and protection against disease. Some of the regulatory functions are as
follows.
1. Haemoglobin, an iron containing protein in the red blood cells, performs an
important role by transporting oxygen to the tissue cells.
2. Plasma proteins maintain water balance and regulate the osmotic pressure in
the body.
3. Antibodies that are protein in nature perform a protective function by
increasing the body’s resistance to disease.
4. All enzymes and some hormones, e.g., insulin are made up of protein. The
hormone insulin regulates blood sugar levels. Enzymes act as specific cata-
lysts to metabolic processes in the body.
5. Some amino acids have specific functions, e.g., tryptophan serves as a precur-
sor for niacin, a B-complex vitamin. The amino acid tyrosine in combination
with iodine forms the hormone thyroxine.
Energy
Like carbohydrates, proteins too provide 4 kcal/g when broken down in the body.
The basic need of the body is energy and this takes priority over protein synthesis.
If the diet does not supply adequate calories from carbohydrates and fats, the
proteins from the diet will be oxidized to meet the energy needs of the body.
If the diet is deficient in calories, the body uses up its protein and fat stores. Using
protein as a source of energy is not advisable as it puts an extra burden on the body
and the pocket. Protein is used by the body as a source of energy only when no
other source of energy is available.
them to polypeptides. After the partially digested proteins reach the small intestine,
three pancreatic enzymes — trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase — continue
the process of chemical digestion. The peptidases secreted by the intestine finally
reduce the smaller peptides and dipeptides into amino acids, which are the end prod-
uct of protein digestion.
Dipeptides
Amino acids
Nitrogen-free Gluconeogenesis
residue
Aa
Glycogen Fatty acids
Glycogen Oxidation
(energy)
Water
202 Food Science and Nutrition
After digestion, the amino acids in the small intestine are absorbed by the blood
and carried to the liver and all body tissues where they are metabolized.
The body needs varying compositions of amino acids to build and repair the
different tissues of the body. All essential amino acids must be present if body cells
have to be built or repaired. Surplus amino acids are sent back to the liver where
they are deaminated by splitting off the amino group. The remaining part of the
protein is vsed for energy or stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles or as fat in
the adipose tissue. The end products of the metabolism of amino acids are carbon
dioxide, water, and nitrogen. Some of the nitrogen is excreted as urea by the kidneys.
Some nitrogen may be retained and used again to synthesize non-essential amino
acids as and when required by the body.
Mouth =
7 = Salivary
glands
Oesophagus
Deamination and
gluconeogenesis ;
8 Liver Partial protein digestion by
enzyme pepsin to proteoses,
Gall bladder ia peptones, polypeptides
| Final conversion to
amino acids
Appendix < \
Little undigested
protein in faeces
Plant proteins are being used successfully to stretch the supply of expensive
animal proteins. When plant proteins are consumed with a small quantity of animal
protein, the quality of the mixture is likely to be as effective as if only animal protein
204 Food Science and Nutrition
Pregnancy
Lactation (0-6 months)
(6-12 months)
i
Dietary Stomach i
Polypeptides i
Intestine i
Amino Bl pod Body
protein Dipeptides acids = ~<e+++++ Sema des proteins
(breakdown) Liver: (synthesis)
tissue cell; ex:
pees CO, + H,O + Energy
tig. Fats and
Deamination Stored Carbohydrates
(-NH))
ri anee cae Urea
has been consumed. A good rule while planning menus would be to include some
animal protein at each meal instead of concentrating it all in one meal.
( Growth
(
(c) Convalescence
(d) Infection and fever
(e) Injury or surgery
3. Adequacy of calorie intake
4. Quality of protein and efficiency of digestion
5. Previous state of nutrition
Body weight The protein requirement is based on a persons ideal body weight.
| Adults require 1 g protein/kg body weight from a mixed diet. The Indian reference
man weighs 60 kg and requires 60 g protein/day and the reference woman weighs ~
50 kg and requires 50 g protein/day from a mixed diet.
Special physiological needs Infants and growing children require additional
protein for synthesis of new cells as compared to adults. They need 1.6-2 g pro-
tein/kg body weight. Whenever new tissue or protein needs to be synthesized, addi-
tional protein greater than the amount needed for maintenance should be
included in the diet. Protein requirement increases during illness or disease as pro-
tein is needed for rebuilding new tissue. In traumatic injury, surgery, burns, and
fever, there is breakdown of tissues, which need to be repaired. Extra physical activ-
ity does not require any additional intake of protein.
Adequacy of calorie intake The diet should contain adequate carbohydrates and
fats to have a protein sparing effect.
Quality of protein and efficiency of digestion The quantity of protein required
will be more if the protein quality is poor. Plant proteins have a lower digestibility.
The method of cooking also affects the availability of protein. Overcooking and
toughening of animal proteins affects digestibility.
Previous state of nutrition Malnourished and underweight individuals require
more protein as compared to healthy individuals.
DIETARY SOURCES
Proteins are present in both plant and animal foods. Animal food sources provide the
highest quality or complete proteins such as eggs, milk and milk products — cheese,
paneer, mawa, milk powder, curds, condensed milk - meat, fish, shell fish, poultry
and organ meats.
100 5
90 +
80 + ] B p
Complete
: | @ Partially
ad complete
BN [-] Incomplete
(g)
Protein
content
4
| romther
5B othr)
=| Mier
ae) i
£ iceiotes’
2 oO P| rising
az) GIT
S Stipe=]
S 5 aa) = al =} 3 = Fe ae) 3 i)
By
oO BS = Ax 3
S |
5 oO
°
ajo} )=
bo
4
nN
Food stuff
Fig. 14.6 Protein quality and content of some commonly consumed foodstuffs in g/100g edible portion
important sources of protein in the Indian diet. Cereals contain 6-12% partially
complete proteins and as they form the bulk of the diet, they contribute significantly
to the protein content. Vegetables, with the exception of peas and beans, are poor
sources of proteins. Green leafy vegetables contain a small percentage of good
quality protein (approximately 1-3%). Fruits do not contribute towards the protein
content of the diet. A
SSS
SSS SSS SSF
SUMMARY
Proteins are important constituents of all living cells and are made up of units called
amino acids. Proteins differ from one another because of the different kinds and
amounts of amino acids of which they are composed. Amino acids are classified as
essential and non-essential. Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the
body in required amounts. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body
and must be included in the diet. The quality of any protein depends upon the
essential amino acids present. On the basis of quality, proteins are classified as com-
plete, partially complete, and incomplete. Animal proteins except gelatin are com-
plete proteins while plant proteins are partially complete proteins. The quality of
plant proteins can be improved when several plant foods are combined together or
small quantities of animal proteins are included in each meal. For tissue synthesis to
take place all essential amino acids should be present at the same time.
Proteins perform three basic functions, namely the structural function of body
building and repair, the regulatory and protective function, and as a source of energy
when no other source is available.
The chemical digestion of protein begins in the stomach where protein is broken
down to polypeptides. In the intestine, polypeptides are further broken down into
dipeptides and amino acids, which are absorbed into the blood stream and sent to
various tissue cells via the liver.
Proteins are present in abundance both in animal and plant foods such as eggs,
milk, meat, pulses, especially soya beans, groundnuts, and textured vegetable proteins.
Most vegetables and all fruits are poor sources of protein. How much protein an
individual will require depends on many factors such as age, body weight, special
physiological needs, adequacy of calorie intake, quality of protein, and previous
state of nutrition.
208 Food Science and Nutrition
KEY TERMS
Amino acids They are organic acids that contain an Essential amino acid An amino acid that cannot be
amino group (NH2) and an acid or carboxyl synthesized by our body and needs to be supplied by
group (COOH) attached to the same carbon atom. our diet.
They are the basic units from which proteins are Non-essential amino acid An amino acid that can
built. be synthesized in the body and need not be present
Biological value The percentage of absorbed nitro- in the diet.
gen retained by the body. Peptidases Enzymes that breakdown short polypep-
Collagen The intercellular cementing protein/ tides and dipeptides into amino acids.
structural protein in bone, cartilage, connective tissue, Peptide linkage The linkage between the amino
etc. group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
Deamination The removal of the amino group from another amino acid.
the amino acid by the liver. Proteolytic enzymes Protein-splitting enzymes that
Digestibility The percentage of protein that is reduce proteins to shorter chain polypetides and
dipeptides.
ETRE RS STL SY PEI ES EI H,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql List five cereal pulse combinations, which are popular items in a fast food
restaurant.
How can the protein quality of a vegetarian diet be improved?
List the names of amino acids essential for children. What is the difference
between essential and non-essential amino acids?
Classify proteins on the basis of their quality.
Define the following terms
i Essential amino acid
ii Biological value
List and briefly explain the functions performed by proteins.
List the symptoms of protein deficiency in adults.
Why are proteins called an uneconomical source of energy?
Recollect and list the sources of animal and vegetable proteins, which you
have consumed in your diet yesterday.
Proteins 209
INTRODUCTION
\ats and oils belong to a group of compounds called lipids, which are insolu-
ble in water but soluble in fat solvents. Like carbohydrates, they are mainly
. made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They contain much smaller
proportions of oxygen than carbohydrates and larger proportions of carbon and
hydrogen. Hence, they are a more concentrated source of energy providing 27,
times more energy than carbohydrates and proteins.
The lipids of importance to our health are fatty acids, fats, oils, phospholipids
lipoproteins, and sterols.
Lipids 211
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Classification based on Structure
Simple lipids They constitute more than 98% of food and body fats. Simple lipids
are made up of three fatty acids attached to glycerol. They are mixed triglycerides
which means that more than one type of fatty acid is present in the fat, e.g., cooking
oils and butter.
Compound lipids They are fats in which at least one fatty acid is replaced by
carbohydrate, protein, or phosphorous, i.e., they are fats + non-fat molecule, e.g.,
phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoprotein.
Derived lipids They are the breakdown products of fats and include diglycerides,
monoglycerides, glycerol, and fatty acids.
Sterols They are not made up of fatty acids and glycerol but have a benzene ring
structure. These fat-like substances include cholesterol and fat soluble vitamins A,
D, E, and K.
As mentioned in Chapter 6, the basic chemical structure of fats and oils is a
molecule of glycerol to which three fatty acids are attached. Such a fat is called
a simple triglyceride. Triglycerides constitute 90% of all food fats.
H H
|
H—C—OH
|
H—C—O—C—R
i
|
H—C—OH + 3RCOOH ——~ H—C—O—C—R
y, + 3H,0
O
| Fatty acids | VY Water
Tonk He -Siosd eB
H H
Glycerol (CH,OHCHOHCH,OH ) Triglyceride (fat)
R is the carbon chain of varying length ending with methyl group (CH3) and
COOH is the acid group and is a double bond.
FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids consist of chains of carbon atoms with a methyl (CH) group at
one end and a carboxyl (COOH) group at the other end. Fatty acids may
have short chains or they may have long chains (12-22 carbon chains).
They may be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fats have single bonds
between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fats have one or more double
212 Food Science and Nutrition
Lipids
a OV>Pa—eOOoooooTT
Simple Compound Derived Sterols
lipids lipids lipids»
(made up of glycerol RGaER Ltt SUES a ‘t Cholesterol VitaminD
+3 fatty acids) Phospholipids Lipoproteins MOG re Ergosterol
Lecithin HDL 7-Dehydrocholesterol
Fats Oils LDL
Butter Groundnut VLDL
Cream Sesame Chylomicrons
Hydrogenated Sunflower
fat Safflower
Suet Rice bran
Lard Olive
Tallow
bonds between the carbon atoms. Fatty acids with two or more double bonds are
called polyunsaturated.
Unsaturated fatty acids are highly reactive to oxygen at the point of unsaturation
and turn rancid. Hydrogen is added at the double bond during hydrogenation of
oils. The more the number of double bonds, the more unstable is the fat.
Food fats are generally a mixture of both types of fatty acids. Natural fats contain
more than one kind of triglyceride molecules. Fats are mixtures of triglyceride mol-
ecules differing in length and in degree of unsaturation of the fatty acid chain. For
example, butter contains thirteen different fatty acids esterified to glycerol.
Both fats and oils are triglycerides but fats have a higher proportion of saturated
fatty acids and are solid at room temperature, while oils have more unsaturated fatty
acids and are liquid at room temperature.
The type of fatty acids present in fat determines the nature of the fat, its flavour,
and other properties such as smoke point and melting point.
eae
a 09To
H H
Single bond Double bond
Fatty acids
Saturated Unsaturated
(no double bonds)
Stearic ‘Monounsaturated ~ Polyunsaturated
Palmitic (1 double bond) (2 or more double bonds)
Myristic Oleic Linoleic
Butyric Linolenic
Arachidonic
Fig. 15.3 Classification of fatty acids
it ns soc Lipids
is 2138
Pe
ile Bale
PeePoset ops Boney
HSH Hehe AH gts Gea ! i i i
Stearic acid C,,H;;COOH Long-chain
saturated fatty acid
G laadlsteat ¢Lissal
Ho-C—¢—C-—-
AnH
Butyric acid C3;H,COOH Short-chain
saturated fatty acid
‘sr
ee tigge r hp bad po
OSH
eee
Hdd oh SH Et Hy Hee JEOCH
8
am
O1AH oH WH, 4H H
HO-C—C-C-c-C_-¢-¢ ¢:
HHH i
Acid group (COOH) Double bond (=) Methyl end (CH3)
Linoleic acid C,7H3;COOH Polyunsaturated fatty acid
(18:2 w 6)
Fig. 15.4 Chemical structure of fatty acids
Monounsaturated Fats
Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid and has one double bond. It is found in
groundnut, olive oil, corn oil, etc. They may help lower blood cholesterol levels.
Polyunsaturated Fats
The polyunsaturated fatty acids are those with two or more double bonds. They
include linoleic acid (two double bonds) linolenic acid (three double bonds), and
arachidonic acid (four double bonds). They help in lowering blood cholesterol
levels and prevent atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.
Essential fatty acids Two of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) cannot be
synthesized by the body. They have to be provided in the required amount by our
diet and are called essential fatty acids.
214 Food Science and Nutrition
They are linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, and linolenic acid, an omega-3
fatty acid.
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty
acids with the end most double Lond on the third carbon from the methyl end.
Omega (w) is the last letter of the Greek alphabet used by scientists for naming
fatty acids.
18:3 @ 3 is the abbreviation for linolenic acid which is a long chain fatty acid
made up of 18 carbons with three double bonds with the last double bond between
carbons 3 and 4 from the methyl/omega end.
Fish oils are especially rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) which is abbreviated
as 20:5 w 3, i.e., a 20-carbon fatty acid with five double bonds, and the last double
bond is on carbon 3 from the omega end.
Omega-6 fatty acids have the last double bond located on the sixth carbon from
the methyl or omega end. Essential fatty acids linoleic acid (18:2 w 6) and arachi-
donic acid (20:4 w 6) are omega-6 fatty acids. They are present in a number of
foods.
Omega-6 rich oils include safflower, sunflower, cottonseed, corn, sesame, and
groundnut.
Omega-3 rich foods include olive oil, fish oils, mustard oil, soya bean, flax seed,
fenugreek seeds, mackerel, blackgram, rajmah, and green leafy vegetables.
When consumption of omega-6 goes up, need for omega-3 increases. Omega-3
and omega-6 in the correct ratio helps in reducing blood cholesterol levels.
Eating 200-300 g of fish/shellfish per week or 15-20 g of flax seeds daily meets
the RDA (0.5-1.0 g/day of omega-3 fats).
To ensure that the body gets the required amounts of essential fatty acid, a blend
of different oils should be used for cooking.
Oils recommended for cooking:
1. Sesame + mustard
2. Groundnut + mustard:
3. Soya bean + olive
4. Corn + rice bran
Omega-3 fatty acid is an essential part of each and every cell membrane. It helps
in maintaining the cells membrane and prevents free radicals from attacking DNA
in the cell.
Free radicals are O, OH, CO, NO, and NOO.
The percentage of free radicals increase because of the following:
¢ High protein diet
° High fat diet
Lipids 215
e = Stress
¢ Smoking
e Alcohol
An optimum balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is essential for
maintaining good health. They are beneficial for the cardiovascular system, for
inflammatory reactions, and immune response.
In the body, linoleic acid is converted to arachidonic acid which is required for
normal growth, healthy skin, and metabolism of cholesterol. Hence, arachidonic
acid is not an essential fatty acid.
_ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidation. Oxidation is the process
that turns newspaper yellow and cut apples brown. Oxidation leads to degener-
ative changes in our body, i.e., it contributes to the breakdown of body cells as
we age. Antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, and selenium
help protect against free radical damage. They scavenge free radicals and protect
body cells against cancer. They prevent atherosclerosis and coronary artery diseases
(CAD).
The sources of antioxidants are listed below.
1. Vitamin E: Soya oil, sunflower oil, almonds, spinach, and mint
Vitamin C: Amla, guava, green leafy vegetables, all citrus fruit, papaya, toma-
to, cabbage, and capsicum
3. Beta-carotene: All green leafy vegetables, and all yellow, orange, and red
fruits and vegetables
4, Selenium: Whole grains, whole pulses, green leafy vegetables, and cauliflower
5. Non-nutrient antioxidants: Phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and isoflavones
present in beans, cloves, oats, tea, coffee, grapes, turmeric, mustard, red wine,
etc. 2
We need to consume much more than the RDA for antioxidant effect.
Acetic acid
Caproic acid
Caprylic acid
Lauric acid
Fie menme
Linoleic acid Safflower, sunflower, cottonseed, corn,
soya bean, groundnut, salmon, tuna
Eicosapentaenoic
acid
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
They are composed of fats, phosphoric acid, and a nitrogenous base, e.g., lecithins
and cephalins. They are required for cell permeability and for the formation of
brain and nervous tissue. They help in transporting fats throughout the body as they
form a part of the lipoproteins.
LIPOPROTEINS
They include chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density
lipoproteins (LDL), and high density lipoproteins (HDL). They are composed of
lipids (triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids) and proteins in varying
proportions with percentage of proteins being least in chylomicrons and most in
high density lipoproteins (HDL). Lipoproteins are required for transporting triglyc-
erides to various tissues in the body via blood circulation. Triglycerides are encased
by a covering of water soluble proteins which helps them to circulate in water-based
blood. These lipid-protein complexes are called lipoproteins.
Since low density lipoproteins are the main carriers of cholesterol, an increase
in LDL increases the risk of heart disease. High density lipoproteins help in low-
ering cholesterol levels. An LDL/HDL ratio of less than 3 is desirable.
GLYCOLIPIDS
They contain glucose or galactose in place of one of the fatty acids in the triglyc-
eride molecule.
Table 15.3. Percentage of fat in some Indian foods
:
rngectnwes fos Turmeric
Fruits
Mackarel
Oil/vanaspati 100
218 Food Science and Nutrition
CHOLESTEROL
It is a fat-like substance present in food. It is different in structure from triglycerides,
as it has a ring structure. It is present in all cells of the body and in large amounts
in brain and nerve tissue. Cholesterol if consumed in excess is responsible for diseases
of the cardiovascular system. The normal blood cholesterol level for adults should
be below 200 mg/100 ml blood.
The human body gets cholesterol from two sources:
1. Synthesis in the liver
9. Food rich in cholesterol.
If the diet is deficient in cholesterol, the body can synthesize the required cho-
lesterol.
The functions of cholesterol are listed below.
Sources
Cholesterol is present in animal foods only. Whole milk, butter, ghee, cream, egg
yolk, organ meats, and shellfish are rich sources.
It is also synthesized by the body independent of the dietary intake.
FUNCTIONS OF FATS
Energy Fats are a concentrated source of energy in our diet. One gram of fat/oil
gives nine kilocalories when it is oxidized in the body. All tissues except those of
the central nervous system and brain can utilize fat as a source of energy.
Protein sparing action ‘The kilocalories from fat spare dietary proteins from being
oxidized for energy. An adequate intake of fat in the diet allows proteins to perform
their main functions of growth and maintenance.
Thermal insulation Subcutaneous fat acts as an insulation and helps in retaining
body heat.
Protection of vital organs Fat provides a protective padding to vital organs from
mechanical shock and keeps them in place.
Absorption of fat soluble vitamins Fat is necessary for the absorption of fat solu-
ble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Lipids 249
Essential fatty acids An adequate intake of fats/oils is necessary to meet the
body’s requirements for linoleic and linolenic acids.
Satiety value Fats slow down the secretion of gastric juice and speed of digestion.
Food is more flavoursome because of volatile essential oils naturally present and
fats used for cooking. A well cooked meal containing fats is more satisfying than a
meal devoid of fats.
Synthesis of cell membranes Fats are an important constituent of all cell mem-
branes.
Synthesis of hormones The lipid cholesterol is necessary for the synthesis of some
j
: hormones, e.g., sex hormones.
Digestion
No chemical digestion takes place in the mouth. Fat is broken into smaller particles
by chewing and is mixed with saliva.
In the stomach, peristaltic movements churn the food along with the gastric juice.
Two enzymes help in digesting fats, namely, gastric lipase in the gastric juice and
pancreatic lipase from the pancreas which acts in the small intestine. For fats to be
digested, they first need to be emulsified. Gastric lipase acts on emulsified butterfat,
and the main digestion of fats begins in the small intestine.
The presence of fats in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of bile from the
gall bladder. Bile acts as an emulsifier and breaks down large fat globules into smaller
particles. This increases the total surface area of fat and increases the efficiency of
enzyme action. The alkaline nature of bile helps pancreatic lipase to remove fatty
acids fromthe triglyceride, converting them to diglycerides and monoglycerides
and finally to fatty acids and glycerol.
The final products of fat digestion to be absorbed are fatty acids, glycerol, mono-
glycerides, and diglycerides. Some remaining fat which is undigested may be
excreted through the faeces.
Absorption
Since fats are insoluble in water, they cannot be directly absorbed into the intestines
and blood stream without making them absorbable. Bile helps in absorption of fat
by forming a complex with fatty acids and glycerides which is absorbed by the
220 Food Science and Nutrition
Mouth
——+» Salivary
a glands
—-+- Oesophagus
From lymph
Chylomicrons
enter blood
circulation
[Liver 4 Gastric lipase
action begins
Bile gr Stomach
Presence of fat ! VQ
stimulates bile Pancreatic lipase converts
secretion which triglyceride to mono- and
emulsifies fat diglycerides, fatty acids, glycerol
Absorbed into
lymphatic circulation
as chylomicrons Enteric lipase breaks mono- and
diglycerides into fatty acids
and glycerol
Undigested fat
excreted in faeces
intestinal wall. Once absorbed, bile separates and returns to the intestine to recom-
bine with fatty acids and glycerides and the process continues.
Metabolism
In the intestinal wall two important reactions take place.
1. The enzyme enteric lipase breaks down the remaining mono- and diglycerides
into fatty acids and glycerol.
2. The fatty acids and glycerol recombine to form new body fats or newly
formed triglycerides which need to be absorbed and transported via the
blood circulation. The newly formed triglycerides and fats are covered with
small amounts of protein to form lipoproteins called chylomicrons.
Lipids 221
Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation from lymph vessels in
the
small intestine. From the lymphatic system they enter into the portal
circula-
tion and are converted into other lipoproteins in the liver. These lipopro
teins
are circulated to all body cells for energy and other structural function
s, or
stored in the adipose tissue as a reserve source of energy.
FOOD SOURCES
Most foods except the bread cereal group and the vegetable fruit group (except
olives and avocado) contain varying percentages of lipids. Some fats are visible such
as fats and oils added to food or used for frying. Many sources are hidden or invis-
ible such as the fats and oils naturally present in the food , e.g., milk, egg yolk, oily
fish, and meat. Both visible and invisible sources must be taken into account while
calculating the fat content of a meal.
Plant Sources
All oils and oilseeds like groundnut, sesame, soya bean, rice bran, coconut, almond,
cashewnut, corn, safflower, sunflower etc. and all hydrogenated fats and margarine
are sources of lipids.
Animal Sources
Table 15.4 Approximate cholesterol content of some common foods (per 100 g edible portion).
eS a CaN
‘Mawa-based sweets 65
Mutton, pork, fish, poultry, milk, and milk products such as butter, cream, yoghurt,
cheese, eggs, and organ meats.
Invisible Sources
Invisible sources of fats are nuts, salad dressings, flesh food, desserts, cookies, cakes,
milk, eggs, milk-based sweetmeats, etc., which are rich in fat, but the fat is not visible.
DEFICIENCY OF FATS
A deficiency of fat causes a deficiency of essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic
acids, and subsequently a deficiency of arachidonic acid. These polyunsaturated fatty
acids are required for healthy cell membranes and their permeability. A deficiency
results in characteristic eczema and skin lesions. It is seen in infants as dry scaly
lesions on the skin. Toad skin or dry papules are seen on upper limbs.
A deficiency of fat may result in a deficiency of fat soluble vitamins, and growth
and weight may be affected in children.
Since fat is present in minute quantities in almost all foods including cereals and
pulses, a deficiency in adults is unlikely because these foods are consumed in largé
quantities. What is of greater concern today is the problems related to excessive intake.
Fats, oils, and fat-like substances belong to a group collectively known as lipids. Lipids
of importance in human nutrition include simple fats and oils such as butter, cooking
oils, phospholipids, lipoproteins, and cholesterol. Simple fats which constitute 98% of
dietary fats are made up of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules. Food fats or triglyc-
erides are mixed triglycerides with saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Two fatty acids which are polyunsaturated, namely linoleic and linolenic
acid, are essential as they cannot be synthesized by the body and must be present in
the diet. They belong to omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids which are essential for main-
taining the integrity of cell membranes and lowering blood cholesterol levels.
Depending on whether saturated or unsaturated fatty acids are present, the fat is
solid or liquid at room temperature. Different foods contain different percentages of
fat. Cereals, pulses, fruits, and vegetables are low in fat, but yet make a significant
contribution because they are consumed in fairly large quantities in the Indian diet.
Fats are a major source of calories providing 9 kcal per gram of fat/oil. They help in
absorption 6f fat soluble vitamins and provide thermal insulation and protection to
vital organs. A deficiency of fat leads to a deficiency of essential fatty acids which
manifests itself as eczema in children. Polyunsaturated fatty acids help lower blood
cholesterol levels. Hence, a mixture of oils is preferable to using only one type of oil.
An excessive consumption of saturated fats leads to raised levels of blood cho-
lesterol, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases. Excess fats are converted to
adipose tissue and stored as body fat which is a reserve source of energy for the
body. A 20% or more rise in body weight leads to obesity. The diet should not
exceed more than 30% of total calories from fat of which less than 10% should be
saturated and at least 10% should be polyunsaturated.
224 Food Science and Nutrition
KEY TERMS
Adipose tissue It is a fatty tissue. Essential fatty acid The fatty acid linoleic acid and
Arachidonic acid A 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty linolenic acid which cannot be synthesized by the
acid with four double bonds. In the body it is syn- body and should be supplied by the diet. It serves as
thesized from essential fatty acid linoleic acid. a precursor for arachidonic acid.
Atherosclerosis A condition of narrowing of the Ester Compound formed when an acid reacts with an
lumen of the arteries due to deposition of cholesterol alcohol. Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and fatty
and other material and hardening of arterial walls. acids.
Bile Greenish yellow brown alkaline secretion of the Glycerides Group name given to mono-, di-, and
liver which is stored in the gall biadder and is needed triglycerides meaning fats and oils found in adipose
for digestion of fat. It is composed of bile salts, tissue and plant and animal foods.
cholesterol, etc. Lipoproteins Compound lipids made up of lipid and
Chylomicrons Lipoprotein complexes of very fine protein present in four forms, namely, chylomicrons,
droplets of fat covered with a protein casing so that very low density lipoproteins, low density lipoproteins,
they can be transported through the intestinal wall and high density lipoproteins. Form in which trigly-
into lymphatic circulation, giving lymph a milky white cerides, cholesterol, and other fats are transported in
appearance. water-based blood.
Cocoa butter A yellowish white fat prepared from Lymphatic system All vessels and structures that
cacao seeds (cocoa beans). carry lymph from the tissues to the blood.
Coronary heart disease A disease resulting in a Mixed triglycerides Triglyceridesin which all three
reduction or stoppage of blood supply to part of the fatty acids attached to glycerol are different.
heart muscles due to narrowing or blockages in a Obesity A condition of overweight in which
blood vessel. weight exceeds more than 20% of desirable body
weight.
Eczema _A skin disorder with inflammation and dry
scaly lesions seen in essential fatty acid deficiency. Omega-3 fatty acids Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
Erucic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid present in acids with the first double bond between carbons 3 and
rape seed/mustard seed. Amount used in hydrogenated 4 from the omega or methyl end (omega means last).
fat is limited as it is known to damage heart muscle in Portal vein The vein carrying blood from the wall of
experimental animals. Low erucic acid varieties are the intestine to the liver.
being developed.
EER PL RE AI ES ETL TSE LE ERE UM RU SSE ER SPA OSS ER A GER eR
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1 Differentiate between
i Fats and oils
ii Monounsaturated and poyunsaturated fats
iii Omega-3 and omega-6 fats
iv Visible and hidden fats
Q2 Fill in the blanks
i Simple fats are made up of and
ii Fats supply times the energy as compared to carbohydrates.
Lipids 225
ater is so familiar and so large a constituent of the body that its funda-
mental importance in both structure and functioning of all tissues tends
to be overlooked. |
Water is the most essential constituent of our body. It accounts for 55-70% of
our total body weight. Men have a higher proportion of water in their body as
compared to women. Lean individuals have more water than the obese, and infants
and children have a greater proportion of water than adults.
The total body fluid is distributed among two major compartments.
1. The extracellular fluid or water present outside the cells in the interstitial
spaces and blood plasma.
2. The intracellular fluid or the water present inside the cells.
Water 227
FUNCTIONS
1. Water quenches thirst and is the most refreshing and cooling of all liquids.
2. It is a structural component of all cells. In the bone, water is tightly bound,
but in most tissues, a constant interchange takes place between the body com-
partments of water.
3. Water is the medium in which all chemical reactions take place.
4. It is an essential component of all body fluids such as blood, lymph, cere-
brospinal fluid, bile, digestive juices, and urine.
5. It acts asa lubricant and helps food to be swallowed and digested food to pass
through the gastro intestinal tract. aly
6. It acts as a solvent for the products of digestion and helps in transporting
these products to different tissues.
7. Water regulates body temperature by taking up and distributing heat pro-
duced in cells when metabolic reactions take place.
8. It helps in excreting waste products of metabolic reactions.
9. Water is essential to maintain the turgidity of cells.
Beverages and liquid foods Hot and cold beverages such as tea, coffee, milk ©
shakes, fruit juices, and soups are largely made up of water. Both stimulating bever-
ages and refreshing beverages are important sources of water and nutrients.
Water content of solid foods Another important source of water is fruits, veg-
etables, and the water used for cooking food. Solid foods contain varying percent-
ages of water.
228 Food Science andNutrition
The water consumed from beverages and solid food amounts to 2,100 mlday
approximately.
The intake of fluid varies among different people and also varies according to the
climate, habits, and physical activity on a day-to-day basis.
Water loss in faeces Only a small amount of water (100 ml/May) is normal-
ly lost in faeces. The saliva, gastrointestinal secretion, and bile may together add to
8 litres or more fluid per day. All but a small proportion of this is re-absorbed in the
gut (large intestine). If thereisdiarrhoea or vomiting, fluid losses may be large and
cause dehydration.
ES ae are Ss te Water 229
Note Prolonged heavy workout may result in sweat losses as great as 1-5 litres/day accompained by
a reduction in urine output.
WATER BALANCE
Deficiency of Water
Excessive loss of water could take place due to diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, excessive
perspiration, strenuous exercise, and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. It can result in
dehydration. Dehydration can be classified as
mild <5% fluid loss
moderate 5-15% fluid loss
severe 15-20% fluid loss.
A 20% loss of fluid from the body can be fatal.
A dehydrated person feels thirsty, has a dry mouth, sunken and dry eyes, and
may feel restless, irritable, or even lethargic or unconscious in severe cases. The skin
when pinched does not go back quickly. A dehydrated person is usually managed
by Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT). The WHO recommends Oral Rehydration
Salts (ORS) that are to be dissolved in 1 litre of water. This is to be sipped till hydra-
tion returns to normal.
Table 16.2 Oral Rehydration Salts
230 Food Science and Nutrition
Oral rehydration salts are most often prescribed in cases of diarrhoea. Glucose
present in ORS enhances the absorption of salt.
Apart from ORS, ORT also includes any of the following.
1. Sugar and salt solution
40 g sucrose + 4 g NaCl in 1 litre of water
2. Rice water with salt
50 g rice + 4 g salt in 1 litre water
3. Dilute salted lassi
4. Plain water, lemon water, coconut water, thin soups, or dal water may also
be given along with ORT.
If vomiting is severe, intravenous fluids such as normal saline (0.9% NaCl) and
dextrose need to be administered. When the body loses fluids, it loses both water
and electrolytes, hence ORS or Dextrose Normal Saline (DNS) is given. Dehydration
cannot be treated by giving pure water only.
Retention of Water
Oedema is the retention of salt and water in the interstitial fluid giving rise to
swelling of the skin. A pit or depression is formed when pressure is applied with the
finger to the swollen skin and this is how oedema is distinguished from swelling.
Water and salt may need to be restricted.
Daily Requirement
A minimum of six to eight glasses of water is recommended to enable the body to
perform optimally and keep one active and refreshed throughout the day. It should
be consumed at regular intervals so that the body is always well hydrated. This
quantity is independent of other fluids consumed.
SUMMARY
Water is a vital constituent of our body necessary for the structure and functioning
of all cells and tissues in the body. It accounts for 55-70% of our body weight. Body
fluid is distributed as extracellular and intracellular fluids. Intracellular fluid is
present inside the cell while extracellular fluid is present between cells in tissues and
in blood plasma. The concentration of electrolytes in both extracellular and intra-
cellular compartments needs to be maintained at all times.
Apart from the water which we drink, the body gets water from beverages, liquid
and solid foods, and from the oxidation of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in the
body. The body loses water by evaporation through the skin, perspiration, urine,
Water 231
and faeces. The major loss is through the kidneys in the form of urine, by which
toxic metabolites are excreted from the blood.
Water performs many functions in the body and is the medium for all chemical
reactions. It acts as a lubricant, solvent, temperature regulator, and a means of
excreting waste products. It is present in all cells and body fluids and maintains the
turgidity of cells.
Excessive loss of water results in dehydration while accumulation of water in the
extracellular spaces is called oedema. Both cases need to be treated because a loss
of 20% fluid from the body could be fatal. Dehydration is treated by ORT in which
ORS are given gradually.
For optimum health, a minimum intake of six to eight glasses of water is recom-
mended.
SS SSS
SSSSSS SSSR TE LLL IL LTE TIT
KEY TERMS
DNS Dextrose normal saline is an intravenous fluid lon A charged particle.
containing 5% dextrose and 0.9% normal saline. Oedema_ The accumulation of large amount of fluid
Electrolyte A chemical element or compound that in extracellular spaces.
dissociates into ions when in solution. ORS Oral rehydration salts are a mixture of elec-
Homeostasis A state of equilibrium in the body trolytes and glucose used for ORT.
between body parts and functions. ORT Oral rehydration therapy is used for treatment
Interstitial fluid Fluid present in the spaces or inter- of dehydration by orally feeding fluids to which sugar
stices between the cells and tissues in an organ. ple SES
and saltare. added.
mL
_
SRS SEUSS (Sl ATAU TU STPLESY TEED
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Why is water an essential nutrient? Discuss the functions of water.
Q2 List the various ways of water loss from the body.
Q3 What are the major sources of water to our body? Explain, giving suitable
examples.
Q4 List the various conditions which lead to excessive loss of body water.
Q5_ Explain briefly
i Oedema
ii ORT
iii Water balance
INTRODUCTION
“he term vitamin was coined from the words ‘vital amine’ as early scientists
felt these chemicals which are vital for life were amines. Vitamins were dis-
covered one at a time from 1900 to 1950, some asa cure for classic diseases
such as beri-beri, pellagra, and scurvy, while others were discovered after research —
on various body functions. :
Vitamins like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are organic compounds. Unlike ~
these nutrients, vitamins are required in minute quantities and are also called —
micronutrients. They do not provide energy and are present in very small quanti-
ties in food, but nonetheless are vital for life processes. All vitamins can be synthe-_
sized on a commercial scale, though fresh foods are always preferred.
Vitamins 233
Definition Vitamins is the term used for a group of potent organic compounds
other than proteins, carbohydrates, and fats which occur in minute quantities in
food and which are essential for some specific body functions such as regulation,
maintenance, growth, and protection. Many of them cannot be synthesized, at least
in adequate amounts, by the body and must be obtained from the diet.
CLASSIFICATION
Vitamins are grouped according to their solubility in either fat or water.
Fat-soiuble vitamins The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K.
They require fat for their absorption and can be stored in the body. If their intake
is poor, but body stores are ample, deficiency symptoms will not be seen imme-
diately.
. Vitamin | B-complex
(retinol, retinal, retinoic acid) . Vitamin B,
Precursor — carotenes such as (thiamine)
a-, B-, and y-carotene and _ Vitamin B>
cryptoxanthin (riboflavin)
. Vitamin D . Niacin
(a) D2- activated ergosterol (a) Nicotinic acid
or calciferol (b) Nicotinamide
(b) D3 — activated . Vitamin Be
7-dehydrocholesterol (a) Pyridoxine
or cholecalciferol (b) Pyridoxal
. Vitamin E (tocopherols) (c) Pyridoxamine
(a) a-Tocopherol . Vitamin B42 é
(b) Tocotrienols Cyanocobalamin or
. Vitamin K (quinones) Cobalamin
(a) K, — phylloquinones . Folic acid or folacin
(b) Kz — synthesized by . Pantothenic acid
intestinal bacteria 8. Biotin
(c) K3 — menadione Il Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
(the water soluble
synthetic form)
234 Food Science and Nutrition
Rhodopsin
(visual purple in the retina)
Retinal + Opsin
t
Some loss occurs
on breakdown
3. Vitamin A is required for normal bone and tooth development, and proper
growth.
4. It helps the body to fight against infections by keeping mucous membranes
in a healthy condition which act as a barrier to infection.
Deficiency If the body has sufficient stores, deficiency does not develop at once.
Night blindness or nyctalopia It is one of the earliest signs of vitamin A deficiency.
In this condition, an individual is unable to see well in dim light, especially after
coming from a brightly lit area. This happens because there is insufficient vitamin
A to bring about quick formation of rhodopsin.
Epithelial changes The epithelium becomes dry, scaly, and rough. Goose pimples
are seen on upper forearms and thighs.
Changes in the eyes are:
Bone development Growth failure and stunted bones are seen in children.
Hypervitaminosis A High doses of vitamin A is not recommended as excess is
stored in the liver. This excessive accumulation of vitamin A in the body is toxic.
Symptoms of toxicity are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, loss of hair, thickening
of long bones, and joint pain.
Sources Animal foods such as whole milk and milk products, egg yolk, oily fish,
fish-liver oils, organ meats, butter, cream, and clarified butter or pure ghee are
rich sources.
Sources of carotene All yellow, orange, and red fruits and vegetables such as car-
rots, pumpkin, mango, papaya, peaches, and apricots, and all green leafy vegetables
such as fenugreek leaves, spinach, colocasia leaves, amaranth, curry leaves, and
turnip greens are rich sources of provitamin A.
Requirement An adult requires 600 pg of retinol or 2,400 ug of B-carotene
per day; 4 pg of B-carotene is converted to | jig of retinol in the intestinal wall
and liver.
236 Food Science and Nutrition
Vitamin D
It is a fat-soluble vitamin. The two important forms are vitamin D» (activated ergos-
terol or calciferol) and vitamin Ds (activated 7- dehydrocholesterol or cholecalciferol).
Vitamin D3 is produced when 7- dehydrocholesterol in the skin is exposed to the
UV rays in the sun. Vitamin D differs from other fat-soluble vitamins because it is
synthesized in the body, and we do not depend on our diet for it. Being fat soluble
it requires fat for its absorption.
Functions
1. Absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the small intestine requires the
presence of vitamin D and the hormones of the parathyroid and thyroid gland.
2. Mineralization of bones and teeth — after calcium and phosphorus is absorbed,
vitamin D is required to ensure that these minerals are deposited in bones and
teeth to strengthen them.
3. Regulation of calcium and phosphorus levels in blood.
Sources Sunlight is the main source of vitamin D. The precursor in skin is converted
to active vitamin D3. Barriers such as clothing, soot, fog, window glass, and melanin
(pigment in the skin) interfere with synthesis of vitamin D. Sunscreen lotions with.
high SPF also prevent vitamin D formation.
It is found in fish liver oils, fortified milk, vanaspati, and margarine. Natural foods
such as butter, milk, and fish have it in small amounts.
Hypervitaminosis D Large doses of vitamin D can be toxic. Excessive use of forti- _
fied foods lead to loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhoea, growth failure, and calcifica-__ |
tion of soft tissues and kidney stones.
Deficiency Vitamin D deficiency leads to lowered absorption of calcium, low
serum levels of calcium, and reduced bone mineralization. Bones cannot withstand
the weight and bend into deformities.
Rickets is seen in infants and children especially dark- Khed children. Bones
are soft and yield to pressure. Joints are enlarged and theré is delayed closing of the
skull bones. Symptoms of rickets include enlarged skull, pigeon chest, poor muscle
development, pot belly, and bowed legs or knocked knees.
Osteomalacia or adult rickets is more common in women who consume a diet |
deficient in calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, and have had several pregnan- —
cies. The softening of bones leads to a deformed spine, rheumatic pain in the legs |
and lower back, a waddling gait, and spontaneous fractures.
Vitamin E
|
Vitamin E or tocopherol is a fat-soluble vitamin. It is stable to heat and acids. Itis |
rapidly oxidized in rancid fats. | |
Vitamins 237
Many claims are being made that supplements of this vitamin can prevent or
cure a wide variety of diseases, from reproductive function to skin problems such
as psoriasis and acne, but there is no proof.
Functions Vitamin E is the most potent natural antioxidant found in food.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids form a structural part of all cell membranes. They
are prone to oxidative breakdown by free radicals in the cell. The main func-
tion of vitamin E is to act as an antioxidant. Vitamin E itself gets oxidized and
protects cell membranes from oxidative damage. It performs the following
functions:
1. Prevents oxidation of vitamin A in the intestine
2. Protects normal cell membranes by preventing their breakdown
3. Prevents hemolysis of red blood cells
4, Prevents oxidation of PUFAs.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is essential in the diet because it is needed for synthesis of prothrombin
and other blood clotting factors. It exists as K (found in plants), Ko (synthesized by
bacteria in the intestinal tract), and K3 (synthetic form). Being fat soluble, it requires
fat and bile salts for efficient absorption.
Functions Vitamin K is required for the formation of prothrombin and several
other proteins involved in clotting of blood. The ability of blood to clot is dependent
upon a high blood level of prothrombin.
Deficiency” A deficiency of vitamin K is uncommon in adults. New born infants
have a sterile intestinal tract, hence they are given a single dose of vitamin K to
prevent haemorrhagic disease.
A deficiency interferes with formation of prothrombinogen and, thus, reduces
clotting tendency of blood. It may occur during diseases of malabsorption, oral use
of sulfa drugs and antibiotics, or certain drugs which are vitamin K antagonists and
can cause haemorrhages.
Sources Bacterial synthesis in the intestinal tract supplies at least half of the daily
needs. Green leafy vegetables, cabbage, cauliflower, and pork liver are excellent
sources. Cheese, egg yolk, and tomato also supply vitamin K.
238 Food Science and Nutrition
Table 17.2. Recommended Dietary Allowances and main sources of fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables, liver, cheese, egg yolk, intestinal flora
Sources Foods rich in protein such as pork, liver, pulses, groundnut, and eggs are
good sources. Whole grain and enriched cereals, parboiled rice, unpolished rice,
and sprouted pulses contribute B,. Soya bean is a rich source.
Effect of cooking and processing _B, is easily destroyed by cooking food in neutral
or alkaline medium. Losses are greater when food is cooked at high temperatures,
overcooked, and cooking water discarded.
Deficiency The symptoms of deficiency occur because the tissue cells are unable
to receive sufficient energy from glucose. Therefore, they cannot carry out their
normal functions. The gastrointestinal, nervous, and cardiovascular systems are
specially affected.
Early symptoms of deficiency include fatigue, irritability, depression, poor
appetite, tingling, and numbness of the legs. A severe deficiency causes beri-beri.
Beri-beri is of two types.
1. Dry beri-beri: Polyneuritis or inflammation of the nerves, numbness of
extremities, muscle weakness, and cramps are the main symptoms.
2. Wet beri-beri: Severe oedema, enlargement of the heart, palpitation, and
increase in rate of heart beat are seen in wet beri-beri.
A person may suffer from either type of beri-beri. Beri-beri is also known as ‘rice-
eaters’ disease because it is seen in people whose chief diet consists of polished rice.
Prevention Parboiling rice to retain Bj.
240
240 Food science
Food Science and
and Nutrition
NUUIUIOM
Sources Milk and cheese are rich in By. Organ meats, eggs, dark green leafy
vegetables, and enriched cereal foods.
Deficiency
1. Swelling of lips with cheilosis
2. Cracks in the skin at the corners of the lip, i.e., angular stomatitis
3. Redness and swelling of the tongue or glossitis
4, Eyes look bloodshot, eye fatigue, itching, burning, watering, and sensitivity
to bright light, i.e., photophobia.
Functions Like B,; and By, niacin is also required for enzymes that bring about
breakdown of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids to yield energy, i.e., for release
of energy from food.
1. As a constituent of two co-enzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), to release
energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
2. For a healthy skin, normal gastrointestinal tract, and maintenance of the
nervous system. ;
Because this vitamin takes part in many reactions of energy metabolism in the
breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, its requirement is related to calorie
intake (6.6 mg/1,000 kilocalories). Although milk is not a good source of niacin it con-
tains essential amino acid tryptophan which is converted to niacin in the body.
60 mg tryptophan aa a? 1 mg niacin
6
Sources Protein rich foods such as poultry, fish, meat, groundnut, beans, and peas
are good sources. Grains are fair sources except maize and rice, green leafy vegetables,
Vitamins 241
potatoes, milk, eggs, and cheese are poor sources of preformed niacin but rich
sources of tryptophan.
Effect of cooking and processing It is most stable of all B-complex vitamins. Fairly
stable to heat, acid, alkali, light, oxidation, and autoclaving.
Anaemia-preventing Vitamins
Folic acid, vitamin Bj, and vitamin Bg help in the formation of either red blood
corpuscles (RBCs) or haemoglobin and help in preventing anaemia.
Folic acid or folacin Derives its name from Latin word ‘folium’ which means leaf.
Sources Liver, kidney, green leafy vegetables, whole pulses, and yeast, and in fer-
mented food such as idli, dhokla, and dosa. Some bacteria present in the intestinal
tract are capable of synthesizing the vitamin.
Functions In order to perform its functions, folic acid needs to be converted into
its active form. Vitamin C is needed for this conversion.
Functions
inactivated when eggs are cooked. Having a few raw egg whites in a week is not
harmful and do not cause a deficiency.
Vitamin C
Vitamin C, also known as the fresh fruit and vegetable vitamin, was discovered as an
acid in lime juice which prevented scurvy among British sailors on long voyages at
sea. It was named ascorbic acid because of its antiscorbutic or antiscurvy properties.
It is highly soluble in water and most easily destroyed as compared to all other
vitamins. It is readily oxidized and destroyed by heat and presence of alkali. It is
lost when food is dehydrated.
Functions
formed in them. 85% of the vitamin is formed in the grain and 15% in the sprout.
Green gram contains thrice as much vitamin C as compared to bengal gram.
Sprouted pulses are a good alternative to fresh fruits and vegetables during periods
of scarcity. Sprouts can be lightly steamed or consumed raw.
Berries such as zizyphus, strawberries, gooseberries, and cashewfruit are seasonal
rich sources. Amla is the richest source providing 600 mg/ 100g as compared to
oranges which provide 30 mg/100 g, i.e., amla contains 20 times as much vitamin C
as compared to orange. Heating and dehydration reduces the vitamin C content of
all fresh fruits except amla which retains some vitamin C in the preserve.
1. Select good quality, fresh fruits and vegetables. Stale, wilted, and poor quality
produce may be cheaper, but has lower vitamin content.
2. Always wash fruits and vegetable before peeling or cutting and not afterwards,
as water-soluble vitamins get leached into water and are lost.
3. Cut fruits and vegetables for salads just before they are to be served and store
in a cool place. Keep food covered. This prevents oxidative losses.
Avoid cutting into small pieces as more surface area is exposed.
a Avoid soaking in water as water-soluble vitamins leach out.
6. Cook in minimum quantity water so that extra cooking is not required to dry
up the excess liquid. Use shortest cooking time.
7. Cook ina covered pan, except while cooking greens — cook uncovered for a few
minutes to allow volatile acids to escape which helps in preserving green colour.
8. Do not overcook. Refresh greens and use pot liquor or cooking liquid in
soups, gravies, or for kneading dough.
9. Do not add alkali (soda bicarbonate) to enhance green colour or hasten the
cooking of pulses such as kabuli channa as B-complex and vitamin C are
readily destroyed in an alkaline medium.
10. Store food in a refrigerator, covered with a lid, aluminium foil, or cling film
to retain nutrients.
11. Reheat only what is required. :
12. Pressure cooking helps in retaining vitamins as food is cooked in a covered
container for a shorter time.
13. Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during deep fat frying, if the food to be fried is
not coated prior to frying.
14. Vitamin A and carotene are lost due to oxidation and dehydration.
RAE A AST NAA PO el LM PRE AE
SRDS
SUMMARY
Vitamins are vital organic compounds required by the body to perform specific
functions such as the release of energy from food and other growth related, protective
and regulatory functions. They are required in minute amounts and hence are
categorized as micronutrients. They are broadly classified as fat soluble (vitamin A,
D, E, and K) and water soluble (B-complex and vitamin C) vitamins. Each vitamin
has a specific role to perform and cannot be replaced by another vitamin. Fat-soluble
vitamins require fat for their absorption and can be stored in the body. Water-soluble
vitamins are readily absorbed but are not stored in the body. Excessive intake of
fat-soluble vitamins leads to toxicity or hypervitaminosis.
Vitamin A is present in animal foods orily. Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is
present in yellow, orange, and red fruits and vegetables, and in green leafy vegetables.
We get our requirement of vitamin D from sunlight. The precursor in the skin
246. Food Science and Nutrition
i a ORAS TE
KEY TERMS
Anaemia A condition in which number of RBCs or called megaloblastic anaemia, caused by deficiency
haemoglobin content of blood is reduced. of folic acid and Byp.
Antagonist A substance that interferes with the Neuritis Inflammation of the nerves.
action of another substance. Oedema Retention of fluid in extracellular spaces.
Antioxidant A substance naturally present or added Sodium, the electrolyte in. the extracellular fluid, is
to a product to prevent its breakdown by oxygen. also retained along with water resulting in swelling.
Carotene Reddish orange colour pigment in yellow/ Parboiling Steaming of rice in the husk before
orange/red fruits and vegetables and green leafy milling so that B-complex vitamins diffuse from the
vegetables which include a-, B-, and y-carotenes and husk and bran into the grain.
cryptoxanthin. Pernicious anaemia Chronic macrocytic anaemia
B-Carotene A fat-soluble carotenoid pigment which caused by absence of intrinsic factor needed for
is present in plants and is a precursor of vitamin A. absorption of B,2 accompanied by nervous distur-
Cheilosis Swollen, cracked, and red lips. bances.
Co-enzyme A substance that must be present along Photophobia Abnormal sensitivity to light.
with an enzyme for a specific reaction to occur. Precursor Another term used to describe provitamin.
Collagen Intercellular cementing substances which is Preformed vitamin Active form of the vitamin.
protein matrix of cartilage, connective tissue, and bone. Provitamin A provitamin is a substance which can be
Glossitis Inflammation of the tongue. converted into the active vitamin in the human body.
Hypochromic anaemia Hypo means less and chroma Rhodopsin or visual purple A light sensitive pigment
means colour. A type of anaemia in which RBCs are in the rods of the retina needed for vision in dim light
pale in colour. It is seen in iron and Be deficiency. or for dark adaptation.
Intrinsic factor A mucoprotein in gastric juice which Vulnerable age group The ages when nutrient needs
helps in absorption of vitamin By. are high because of synthesis of new tissues, e.g.,
Macrocytic anaemia Macro means large and cytes infancy, preschool children, adolescents, pregnant,
means cells. A type of anaemia in which large, imma- and lactating women. They are more susceptible to
ture RBCs or megaloblasts are released in blood. Also deficiency diseases.
MRM
Vitamins 247
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1 Define vitamins and classify them.
Q2 Differentiate between water soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
Q3 Explain the following briefly:
i Role of vitamin A in vision
ii Role of vitamin E in maintaining the integrity of cell membranes
iii Role of vitamin K in coagulation
iv B-complex vitamins and energy metabolism
Q4 List the anaemia preventing vitamins and their functions.
Q5 List five rich sources of each of the following vitamins:
i Carotene
ii Niacin
iii Vitamin By»
iv Ascorbic acid
v Vitamin E
Q6 List any ten measures which will help in retaining vitamins while cooking.
Q7 What are the symptoms of the following deficiency diseases
i Beri-beri
ii Pellagra
iii Scurvy
Q8 Match the following items in column I with a suitable answer from column II
Definition
Minerals are inorganic elements required by the body in varying amounts to carry out
various body functions. They remain largely as ash when plant and animal tissues are
ignited.
CLASSIFICATION
Minerals may be classified into three groups.
Major minerals or macrominerals Seven minerals are required in large amounts of
over 100 mg/day, e.g., calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magne-
sium, and sulphur.
Minor minerals These are required in small quantities, less than 100 mg/day, e.g.,
iron and manganese.
Trace elements A few micrograms to a few milligrams are required per day, e.g.,
iodine, fluorine, zinc, and molybdenum.
Calcium
The adult body contains 1.2 kg of calcium of which 99% is present in bones and
teeth. The bones provide:
1. A rigid framework for the body and
2. Reserves of calcium
Phosphorus
Phosphorus comprises 1% of total body weight. It occurs along with calcium in
human nutrition and also has many other functions in the body.
1. Building bones and teeth along with calcium and magnesium.
2 DNA and RNA, the nucleic acids needed for genetic coding contain phos-
phorus.
As phospholipids, they regulate the absorption and transport of fats.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP)are neces-
sary for storing and releasing energy according to body needs.
As part of enzymes needed for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and pro-
teins.
Sources Phosphorus is widely distributed in foods. Milk and meat are rich in phos-
phorus. Whole grain cereals, legumes, nuts, carrots, and fish are also rich sources
of phosphorus.
Deficiency Phosphorus deficiency is rare since a diet that contains adequate pro-
tein and calcium will be rich in phosphorus. Deficiency symptoms are similar to
calcium deficiency.
Iron
The human body contains 3-5 g of iron of which 70% is in the circulating haemoglobin.
Functions:
1. Essential for carrying O, to the lungs where O, is released arid CO, is picked
up to be exhaled by haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
Z, It is an essential part of several oxidative enzymes.
252 Food Science and Nutrition
3. It helps in specific brain functions such as a good attention span and capaci-
ty to learn and memorize.
4. It facilitates the complete oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats with-
in the cell and release of energy for performing physical work.
Diet provides iron in two forms:
1. Haeme iron, i.e., iron associated to the protein, globin, to form haemoglobin.
Haeme iron is found in flesh food only.
2. Non-haeme iron is the form present in all plant sources and in 60% of animal
sources.
Haeme iron is present in small quantities in food. About 40% iron in flesh food
is haeme iron while 60% is non-haeme iron. It is rapidly absorbed and transported.
About 23% is absorbed.
Non-haeme iron is the larger portion of iron in food. It is tightly bound to organic
molecules in the form of ferric iron (Fe’**). In the acidic medium of the stomach,
it is dissociated and reduced to its more soluble ferrous form (Fe"”). The absorption
rate of non-haeme iron is slow and approximately 8% is absorbed.
Vitamin C from the diet and hydrochloric acid in gastric juice help in converting
ferric iron to ferrous iron.
Factors affecting iron absorption The following factors enhance absorption:
Body need In periods of extra demand or in a deficiency, more iron is abso-
rbed.
Acidic medium Gastric acidity and ascorbic acid in the meal favour absorption.
Form of iron Haeme iron and ferrous form are better absorbed.
Liver, organ meats, shellfish, lean meat, egg yolk are all good sources
Green leafy vegetables, whole grain, and enriched cereals, legumes, and jaggery
Garden cress seeds and niger seeds are excellent sources
Peaches, apricots, manukas, and figs
sh Use of iron cooking utensils contributes significantly to the iron content of the diet
ae
i
hy
Non-haeme iron is present in plant foods such as green vegetables, and cereals.
40% iron in meat, poultry, and fish is haeme iron and 60% is non-haeme iron.
Deficiency Iron deficiency or anaemia is very common in the vulnerable age groups
in all developing countries. Haemoglobin level may be as low as 5-9 g. Normal
haemoglobin levels for females are 11.5-14.5 g% and for males 12.5-16.5 g%.
Symptoms General fatigue, breathlessness on exertion, giddiness and pallor of
skin (paleness), oedema of ankles and spoon shaped nails are the common symp-
toms of iron deficiency.
Iron deficiency causes microcytic and hypochromic anaemia. Red blood cell’s
appear pale and smaller in size. Iron deficiency may also be seen if excessive blood
loss occurs or because of faulty absorption, intestinal disease, or parasites especially
hookworm and roundworm infestations.
Iodine
Most of the iodine in an adult body is found in the thyroid gland. The only known
function of iodine is as a constituent of thyroxine. The thyroid hormone regulates
the rate of oxidation within the cells. The iodine absorbed is incorporated into the
amino acid tyrosine to form the hormone thyroxine.
Sources Seafood contains maximum iodine and fruits contain the least. Wide variations
are seen because food content of iodine depends upon the soil where they are grown. ‘To
provide sufficient iodine, salt is being iodized. Salt is a universally used dietary item. It is
cheap and addition of iodine does not affect its flavour. It is added in the form of sodium
or potassium iodide in the proportion of 1 mg for every 10 g of salt.
Deficiency Deficiency occurs when iodine content of the soil is so low that insuf-
ficient iodine is obtained through food, e.g., the soil in the Kangra valley in the
Himalayan belt is deficient in iodine. Deficiency of iodine results in goitre.
254 Food Science and Nutrition
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256
Be Food Science
—————————E——ee and
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Symptoms
1. Enlargement of the thyroid gland.
9. Cretinism in children (stunted growth). Cretinism is characterized by a low
basal metabolism rate (BMR), flabby and weak muscles, dry skin. Skeletal
development stops and mental retardation is seen.
Goitrogens — are substances in food known to interfere with the use of thyroxine
and can produce goitre. They are present in the red skin of peanuts and in vegeta-
bles such as cabbage and cauliflower, turnips and mustard.
Fluorine
Fluorine is the normal constituent of the body, found mainly in bones and teeth.
Small amounts of fluorine bring about striking reductions in tooth decay probably
because the tooth enamel is made more resistant to the action of acids produced by
bacteria in the mouth.
Sources Milk, eggs, and fish are important sources. Fluoridation of water to ensure a
concentration of 1 ppm is a safe and economical way to reduce the incidence of
dental caries.
Deficiency A deficiency results in dental caries and is seen in areas where drinking
water contains less than 0.5 ppm of fluorine. Adding fluorine at a level of 1 ppm
reduces the incidence of dental caries by 50%. Foods as well as water contain varying
amounts of fluorine. |
Fluorosis Fluorosis or mottling of teeth occurs in parts of the world where drink-
ing water contains excessive amounts of fluorine, i.e., 3-5 ppm. Teeth lose their
lustrous appearance. Enamel becomes dull and unglazed and chalky white patches
are seen. Sometimes enamel is pitted giving the tooth surface a corroded appear-
ance. Skeletal fluorosis may also be seen. There is hypercalcification of the bones.
Mottled areas may get yellow brown stains or discoloured.
Sodium
Sodium chloride or common salt is a daily ingredient in our diet. The adult body con-
tains 180 g of sodium most of which is present in the extracellular fluid of the body.
The functions of sodium are listed below:
Table 18.2
Main function
Mineral[A“Main function \Y ___| Deficiency symptoms |Sources
/
Sources Milk, egg white, meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables, bengal gram dal,
beetroot, and knolkhol are good sources.
The sodium from additives should also be included in the sodium content of a meal.
Deficiency A deficiency is seen in people engaged in heavy physical activities
such as farm and mine workers and in atheletes. It may also occur in cases of severe
vomiting or diarrhoea. It results in weakness, giddiness, nausea, and muscle cramps.
It can be treated by adding salt to water or lime juice and if this is not retained,
intravenous saline could be given.
Excess An excessive intake of sodium should be avoided as it predisposes a person to
hypertension. Salt is 40% sodium, which means that a teaspoon of salt provides 2 g or
2,000 mg of sodium. Sodium is presentinfood as well as in many ingredients added to
food such as sodium bicarbonate, monosodium glutamate, sodium benzoate, sodium
propionate, and sodium nitrate. These need to be curtailed on a low-sodium diet.
Potassium
It is present as the major electrolyte in all body cells.
Functions:
1. As acomponent of all cells in the intracellular fluid it helps in regulating the
water balance along with sodium.
2. It regulates the acid-base balance like sodium.
3. It helps in transmitting nerve impulses and contraction of muscle tissues.
Sources Fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, flesh food, and whole grains are rich in
potassium.
Deficiency Deficiency of potassium is unlikely in normal circumstances but may
occur in severe malnutrition, chronic alcoholism, surgery, and prolonged infection.
Magnesium
About 60% is found along with calcium and phosphorus in the bones and teeth.
The remaining 40% is present in tissues and body fluids and performs the following
functions:
1. Itis present mainly in the intracellular fluid and helps in maintaining fluid bal-
ance along with sodium, potassium, and calcium.
2. It helps in transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contractions, and regula-
tion of the heart beat.
3. It acts as a co-factor in many metabolic reactions.
SUMMARY
Mineral elements are organic compounds present in body tissues and fluids in small
amounts and are referred to as micronutrients. They constitute 4% of body weight
and do not provide any energy. They are classified into three groups based on the
Minerals 259
Betel leaf Leaf of the creeper Piper betel, which is Niger seeds Also called black gingelly seeds.
consumed along with slaked lime and betel nut for its Non-haeme iron Iron present in plant foods and
digestive properties. partly in meat, fish, and poultry, which is not associ-
Co-factor A mineral element which activates an ated with haemoglobin.
enzyme. Oxalic acid An organic acid present in green leafy
Electrolyte An element or compound which dissoci- vegetables and cocoa.
ates, when in solution, into ions. Phytic acid An organic acid present in outer layers of
Garden cress seeds Maroon red seeds, which when cereals which combines with calcium forming insoluble
soaked in water develop a mucilaginous covering. calcium phytate.
Haeme iron Iron associated with the haemoglobin
molecule and is better absorbed than h iron
REIS RE LOESISTERS ANTRTELS LEM AIL
|
REVIEW QUESTIONS
List the seven major minerals? Describe the functions of minerals in general.
Classify mineral elements giving two examples for each.
State the factors which affect absorption of iron and calcium in the body.
Define the following terms
i Mineral elements
ii Co-factor
iii Trace elements
iv Goitrogens
Q5 List the various sources of sodium in our diet.
260 Food Science and Nutrition
Q6 The iodine content of food depends on the iodine content of the soil on
which it has grown. Explain this statement.
Q7 Match the following minerals in column I with’a deficiency symptom in
column II.
I II
1. Calcium a. Tooth decay
2. Iron b. Cretinism
3. Sodium c. Muscle cramps
4. Iodine d. Alkalosis
5. Fluorine e. Spoon-shaped nails
6. Chloride f. Macrocytic anaemia
7 Phosphorus g. Osteoporosis
h. Glossitis
i. Tetany
1 Night blindness
iM
INTRODUCTION
ext to air and water, the body requires food as a continuous source of
energy to stay alive and keep all organs and systems functioning efficiently.
Just as every engine requires fuel to keep going, the human body too
requires fuel in the form of food as a source of power to work continuously.
The human body is far more complex than any machine invented and as long as
there is life, its energy supply cannot be turned off.
The first and foremost function of food is to supply energy to the body. This takes
priority over building of new tissues, repair of wear and tear, and regulation of body
functions. For example, if a diet contains adequate protein but is deficient in carbohydrate
and/or fat, the protein will be oxidized to meet the energy needs first and balance
used for other functions.
262 Food Science and Nutrition
Glucose
Baily eds
glycerol
oe Oxia i 60, | + 10+ : ENERE
Amino acids deamination
(if sugar or (-NH,)
fat is deficient)
When food is digested, the complex nutrients carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
are broken down into monosaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids,
respectively. These simple forms are absorbed into the bloodstream and supplied
to the millions of cells in the body to be oxidized by a series of complex steps to
release energy.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy exists in several forms. The
forms of energy important in nutrition are:
Solar energy
(light energy)
Chemical energy
(food)
Living cells are capable of releasing the energy stored in certain nutrients. This
energy is used to perform various activities in the cell such as synthesis of proteins,
maintaining warmth, and contraction of muscle.
The energy from the breakdown of food is stored in the body in the from of a
high-energy compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenosine triphosphate
acts as a store of energy-rich phosphate bonds. Living cells can use energy only in
the form of energy-rich phosphate bonds.
When energy is required for cellular activity, living cells release energy from
ATP which gets converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). One mole (molecular
weight in gram) of ATP provides 8 kcal/33 kJ of energy. Adenosine diphosphate is
reconverted to ATP by addition of phosphate ions. Phosphate ions help in release
and transfer of energy.
ATP ADP + 8 kcal
adenosine triphosphate ______~~—~=~—~—~—— adenosine
+ phosphate diphosphate
ion
Fig. 19.3 Release and transfer of energy
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The energy present in food or the energy needed by the body is measured in units
called joules or calories. The calorie in nutrition is the large Calorie or kilocalorie.
The kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 kg (1,000 g) of water by 1°C. This calorie is 1,000 times bigger than the calorie
used in physics.
The international unit for energy is the joule (J) and it is the energy expended
when 1 kilogram (kg) is moved | metre (m) by a force of 1 newton (N).
Scientists and nutritionists are concerned with large amounts of energy, so they use
the units kilocalorie, kilojoule (kJ = 10°J), or megajoule (MJ = 10°J)to express energy.
1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kilojoules
1 megajoule = 239 kilocalories
Calorimetry
The bomb calorimeter is based on the principle of calorimetry. It measures the heat
produced when the food sample is ignited by an electric spark in the presence of
oxygen and platinum which acts as a catalyst. The bomb calorimeter is made up of
264 Food Science and Nutrition
eett
ol TM
tel|
Ge
Ea
7
oeieoFTo TR Sedeo
Pel:i ee
Rt
tt
aed
a =
Ess
B E
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NYNN NS
A bomb calorimete
S —Stirrer
T — Thermometer
W — Weighed amount of water
O — Pure oxygen
D — Outer double-walled insulating jacket
F — Platinum dish with weighed food sample
E — Fuse ignited by electric current
B — Bomb chamber ,
Fig. 19.4 Measuring the potential energy of food
two main parts — an inner part in which a measured quantity of food sample to be
tested is placed and an outer portion which contains a known volume of water.
When the food sample is electrically ignited, the surrounding water absorbs the heat
produced. The energy value of the food is calculated by measuring the rise in tem-
perature of water, based on the definition of the term calorie...
Carbohydrates
wee 4.15
|i
Energy Metabolism 265
Proximate composition
This is a simpler and faster way of determining the calorie content of food. The
approximate carbohydrate, fat, and protein content of a food given in the food com-
position tables is multiplied by their fuel factor, i.e., calories provided by 1 g of the
nutrient and this total gives the energy value of a food.
The energy content of food given in the food composition tables are derived values.
The carbohydrate content is calculated by difference, subtracting water, minerals,
proteins, fats, and crude fibre content. However, foods contain undigestible carbohy-
drates which do not provide any energy and these values need some correction.
The energy value of food obtained by igniting it in the bomb calorimeter is the
potential energy value of food.
The potential energy present in food when measured in a bomb calorimeter is high-
er than the energy released in the body. This is because some losses occur during diges-
tion, absorption, and metabolism. The potential energy value must be corrected to allow
for the losses that occur during digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients.
The physiological fuel factors are based upon the corrections for losses of unab-
sorbed nutrients in the faeces and nitrogenous products excreted in the urine. On a
mixed diet containing high-quality protein, 85-90% carbohydrate, 95% fat, and 92%
proteins are digested and absorbed.
The carbohydrates and proteins which are absorbed are fully oxidized.
However, when proteins are oxidized as a source of energy, they first need to be
deaminated (removal of amino group). The amino group is converted to urea and
is excreted in the urine. Hence, the body loses a part of the protein that is digested
and absorbed. This loss of protein is about 25%.
The net energy value obtained from food by the body is lesser than that meas-
ured in a bomb calorimeter.
Reference woman The reference woman is between 20-39 years of age, healthy,
and weighs 50 kg. She is moderately active and spends 8 hours is routine household
work or in light work. She spends 8 hours in bed, 4-6 hours sitting or moving
around and performing light activity, and 2 hours in walking or active recreation or
household chores. On an average her energy requirement is 2,225 kcal.
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide us with energy. About 60-65% of the
total calorie requirement should be from carbohydrates, the energy from fat should
not exceed 30%, preferably 15% calories from fat of which 15 g should be polyun-
saturated vegetable oils to meet the requirement for essential fatty acids; and
10-15% calories from proteins.
Body size Heat is continuously lost through the skin. A tall well-built person has
a greater skin surface area than a shorter or smaller person and loses more heat
through the skin and hence has a higher BMR.
Body composition The amount of muscle tissue and adipose or fatty tissue in the body
affects the BMR. An athlete with well-built muscles and little body fat has a higher
BMR than a non-athlete with more body fat of the same weight. The metabolic activ-
ity in muscle tissue or lean tissue is much more as compared to adipose or fatty tissue.
Age During periods of rapid growth, the BMR increases by 15-20% because the
growth hormone stimulates cell metabolism and new cells are formed. It is high
during infancy, pre-school years, and puberty. During pregnancy and lactation it
rapidly increases once again. The BMR gradually declines with age at the rate of
2% for each decade after the age of 21 years.
Sex The BMR is 10% higher in males as compared to females. The difference in
BMR is attributed to a higher proportion of adipose tissue in females and hormonal
variations between the sexes.
268
Se Food
a Science ed
and Nutrition i eee eee ee ee
Fever Fever increases the BMR by 7% for each degree Fahrenheit rise in body
temperature. This is one of the reasons for loss of weight during fever.
State of health The BMR is low during starvation and malnutrition because of
reduction in muscle tissue. In diseases and conditions where catabolic processes are
high such as cancers, tuberculosis, and burns, BMR is high.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
Physical activity increases the energy requirement above the basal metabolism.
There is a wide variation in the energy required for physical activity among indi-
viduals. Physical activity includes energy needed for work, recreation, and mental
activity, i.e., all voluntary activities. Some people use up more energy for physical
activity than for basal metabolism.
On the basis of occupation, activities are grouped under three heads.
1. Sedentary/light work
2. Moderate work
3. Heavy work
Energy Metabolism 269
ENERGY BALANCE
The human body is constantly using energy which needs to be replaced. For this a
constant supply of energy is required. Energy is used for basal metabolism, specific
dynamic action, and physical activity. The energy from the food we eat, mainly
carbohydrates and fats, is used to meet the energy demands of the body. When
food is not available during fasting or starvation, the body draws upon its own stores
to meet the energy needs of the body. The body has three types of energy store.
Glycogen The form in which carbohydrate is stored in the muscles and liver is
adequate to last for 12-48 hours. Approximately 300 g glycogen is stored in the
muscle and 100 g in the liver.
Muscle Protein is stored in limited amounts in the muscle.
Adipose tissue Fat is stored in the adipose tissue and the amount stored varies
vastly from one person to another.
A person in energy balance neither gains weight nor loses weight. Excessive
consumption of calories as compared to the output or activity leads to a condition
called over weight, which in severe cases is called obesity. A deficient intake of
carbohydrates and fats in the diet leads to underweight or undernutrition. Both
underweight and obesity are undesirable conditions which need timely correction,
Definition Energy balance is a condition in which the energy provided by food is
nearly equal to the total energy expended by the body resulting in a steady body
weight.
Energy balance : Energy output = Energy input
270 Food Science and Nutrition
Overweight
Overweight and obesity affect over 25% adults in developed countries and can lead
to serious health consequences if not treated early. When an individual’s energy
intake consistently exceeds energy expenditure, weight gain occurs initially, leading
to obesity. Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed
from one form to another, the excess chemical energy from food is converted into
fat and stored as potential energy in the adipose tissues.
Overweight A person whose body weight is 10% more than the prescribed height
for weight standards for his age and sex.
Obese A person whose body weight is 20% or more than that of the prescribed
standards.
Grossly obese A person who weighs 45 kg or 100% more than accepted standards.
Underweight A person whose weight is 15-20% below the accepted standards.
Body mass index The concept of ideal or desirable body weight has been changing
from time to time and ideal weight for different body frames was initially computed.
Today the weight of an individual is assessed on a more scientific basis known as
the body mass index (BMI).
Weight in ki
Body mass index = a SEN OS — at
(Height in metres) H
Normal values
Merete
H2
= g9205
Woman iW 9s 19-24
H2
BMI = 65.— 65 _ 9
i Salanoe
On the basis of BMI, obesity is graded as follows:
Obesity BMI
Grade I 25-29
Grade II 30-40
Grade III >40
Energy Metabolism 271
Causes of obesity
¢ Family food habits - rich high-calorie foods
¢ Ignorant of calorific value of food
¢ Skips breakfast, nibbles high-calorie snacks
* Sedentary lifestyle
* Lower metabolism with increasing age but failure to reduce intake
¢ Emotional outlet — eats more to overcome worry, stress, etc.
¢ Attends many social events
¢ Distress eating (to avoid wastage)
An obese person should lose one to two pounds per week. A reduction of 500
kcal/day will lead to a weight loss of one pound per week. Physical activity should
be increased for faster weight loss and better muscle tone.
If 1 lb weight is to be lost per week, then
3,500
. Weight loss in 1 day = = 500 kcal/day
Underweight
Underweight is caused due to undernutrition which is the result of ingesting insuf-
ficient quantity of food. An energy intake less than the need is the most common
cause. Other causes for underweight are poor assimilation of food due to digestive
disorders, faulty absorption, intestinal infestations, infections, poor food habits,
stress and tension, poverty, and lack of nutrition knowledge.
Carbohydrates
at cs beams
Alcohol
272 Food Science and Nutrition
Teenagers are weight conscious an.. sl ip meals or consume junk food to main-
tain their weight. Anorexia rervosa is a condition of self-induced severe weight loss
seen in adolescents and has psychological origins. :
Undernutrition affects ones growth, health, behaviour, and brain structure and
function. Such individuals should be prescribed a high-calorie, high-protein, mode-
rate fat diet for gaining weight. An excess of 500 kcal/day will help in gaining
1 Ib/week.
2o>eFat
= 740 kcal
The meal provides 740 kcal.
DIETARY SOURCES
All foods provide energy. While selecting food one must consider the other nutrients
such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and fibre present in the food and make a wise
choice.
The nutrients carbohydrates and fats are consumed mainly as a source of energy.
All refined carbohydrates, i.e., sugars and starch and all foods rich in fats are
rich
sources of energy (refer chapters 13 and 15 for sources).
Energy Metabolism 273
The cereal group is another excellent source of, energy and supplies the highest
percentage of calories.
Hollow calorie foods or empty calories are provided by food which is rich in energy
but lack other vital nutrients. Sugars, fats, and alcoholic beverages are referred to as
empty calorie foods because they contain traces of vitamins and minerals. They are
low in nutrient density.
Nutrient dense foods are those food which are rich in one or more nutrients apart
from calories. It is a measure of the quantity of these nutrients supplied by a food
in relation to its calorie content. Nutrient dense foods are of special importance to
weight watchers and those leading a sedentary lifestyle. It helps them get all the
nutrients they need without consuming unnecessary calorie-rich foods and gaining
weight.
Table 19.3. Foods
Puffy pastry
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Energy Metabolism 275
Driving a bike
:
Total energy required id,rich ringtectign
Add energy cost of food intake (SDA) which is 6-10% of total calories. On a vege-
tarian diet it is about 6% and on a non-vegetarian diet it is about 10%, approximate-
ly 100 kcal.
Total energy requirement = BMR + Physical activity + SDA
= 1,080 + 1,620 + 100 = 2,800
= 2,800 kcal
_ Underweight
The cause of weight loss must be treated before a modified diet is prescribed.
To gain weight
¢ High-calorie diet, ie., 500 kcal more per day for weight gain of 1 lb/week
* High-protein diet with good quality protein 1.2 g/kg desirable body weight
¢ Adequate vitamins and minerals. Sometimes supplements may be necessary
* Modify diet gradually
¢ Have six small meals a day
* Keep meal times pleasant and food should be appetizing and attractively
served
Type of foods recommended
¢ Food which is easy to assimilate
¢ High-calorie, high-protein foods
¢ Salad dressings, cream soups
eeep Energy Metabolism
EMEIBY 277
METADOUSM 277
Desserts
Fresh fruits such as banana, mango, chikoo
Whole milk, whole milk curd, and paneer
Nutritious soups and stews
Animal protein - baked fish, mutton stew, cheese sandwiches
Do not force the individual to eat, but serve meals which will whet ones
appetite.
Overweight/Obesity
To reduce weight:
Low-calorie, high-fibre, high-protein diet
Low fat, no salad dressings
Low sugar and refined carbohydrate
Avoid sugar in tea and coffee
Use lean meat
Have three meals a day
Type of foods recommended Foods which give a feeling of fullness at the end of a
meal, i.e., low energy density meals, lots of substance but lesser calories.
To create satiety, increase
1! Bulk or fibre content
2. Volume
Foods suggested:
Soups — Large portion of liquid, rich in ingredients. The steamy aroma gives
a sense of satisfaction.
Vegetable juices — Served before a meal reduces quantity of food consumed
at mealtime.
Salads — A salad platter looks like a large portion of food served. It takes time
to chew, has lots of fibre, and is low calorie.
High-fibre breakfast cereal — Is lots to eat and chew, keeps blood sugar
levels steady.
Plain lassi - Made from skimmed milk and served diluted and unsweetened
could be had before or between a meal.
Smoothies - Appetite suppressing fruit protein drinks. The volume is
increased by whipping fruit and yoghurt/soya curd/protein powder in the
blender with crushed ice for a longer time.
278 Food Science and Nutrition
Td ANE URL EM MA Ee A
SUMMARY ®
The body requires a continuous source of energy to stay alive and to carry out all
body functions, processes, and activities. This energy is derived from the oxida-
tion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the tissue cells, resulting in production
of heat energy, and carbon dioxide and water which are excreted. The various
forms of energy necessary for life are interconvertible. Energy is stored in the
form of high-energy phosphate bonds in ATP. Energy is measured in kilocalories
or kilojoules. One kilocalorie = 4.184 or 4.2 kilojoules. The energy value of food
can be measured in an instrument called a bomb calorimeter or by using food
composition tables. This is the potential energy present in food. The energy avail-
able to the body is the physiological fuel factor that is lesser than the potential
energy as some losses of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats occur during digestion
and absorption. :
The body needs energy to carry out the involuntary work of the body or for basal
metabolism, for physical activity, and for releasing the nutrients or making them
available to the body, i.e., the specific dynamic action. Many factors affect the
BMR. The energy cost of different activities varies depending on the activity and
the speed and efficiency with which it is carried out. The body is in energy balance
if there is no weight loss or weight gain. Overweight and obesity result from an
imbalance between energy intake, which is more, and energy output, which is less.
Underweight results from deficient intake and more output. Both conditions can be
cured by modifying the energy intake.
LS RR TST
KEY TERMS
Adenosine triphosphate A compound with three Physiological fuel factor The energy in proteins, car-
phosphate groups in which energy is stored. bohydrates, and fats which is available to the body.
Aerobic exercises Exercises requiring oxygen. Physiological fuel factor for protein = 4 kcal/g, carb-
Basal metabolism The energy needed by the body ohydrates = 4 kcal/g, and fat = 9 kcal/g.
to carry out involuntary activities while at rest. Proximate composition The carbohydrate, fat, pro-
Calorimeters An instrument used to measure heat tein, water, minerals, and crude fibre content.
energy by noting the rise in temperature of a known Specific dynamic action Also known as post-prandial
volume of water. thermogenesis or calorigenic effect of food. It is the
Energy The ability to do work. Energy from food is energy required to transform food into nutrients to
expressed in kilocalories and kilojoules. be used by body cells and accounts for 6-10%
Se)
increase in energy expenditure.
Sa SAU AUR FUN UT RD SE ETT AES,
Energy Metabolism 279
REVIEW EXERCISES
Q1 Define the terms
i Kilocalorie
ii Basal metabolism
iii Specific dynamic action
iv Potential energy in food
v_ Physiological fuel factor
Q2_ The basal metabolism is the rate of oxidation occurring in the body at rest.
Why can the basal metabolism vary in two individuals of the same age?
Q3 On what factors does the total energy requirement depend on? Explain
them briefly.
Q4 One serving of pudding provides 30 g carbohydrate, 10 g fat, and 2 g of
protein. Calculate the calories provided by two such servings.
Q5 How are the fuel values of food estimated? Explain any two methods.
ji
7 Mls
wi
Balanced Diet
INTRODUCTION
For example, the requirement for iron in Western countries is 10 mg for adult
men and 15 mg for adult women respectively, while Indian RDAs suggest an intake
of 28 mg for adult men and 30 mg for adult women. This is because the form of
iron consumed varies and the factors interfering with absorption of iron such as
phytates in cereals and larger proportions of nonhaeme iron present in Indian diets.
The requirement for vitamin C or ascorbic acid is actually 20 mg, but since the vitamin
is easily destroyed during pre-preparation, cooking, and storage, the recommended
intake is twice the requirement and is 40 mg/day.
The RDAs apply to healthy individuals and are set high enough to cover individual
variation. They are based on gender, age, body size, activity level, and special
physiological state. Disease and drugs prescribed for treatment can alter the
requirement for one or more nutrients.
The RDA for B, is 0.5 mg/1,000 kcal, By is 0.55 mg/1,000 kcal, and niacin is
6.6 mg/1,000 kcal.
* The RDAs for protein are based on body weight. Adults need 1 g/kg body
weight while infants, children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating mothers
need more protein to meet the demands of growth and body building.
¢ RDAs, for practically all nutrients, increase during pregnancy and lactation
to meet the needs of the growing foetus during pregnancy and for production
of milk during lactation. These additional needs depicted by a + sign in the
RDA table take care of the physiological stress which results due to these
conditions.
¢ The RDAs for infants are expressed per kg body weight.
¢ The RDAs for vitamin A are expressed in terms of retinol (preformed
vitamin A) and £-carotene (precursor or provitamin A). B-Carotene needs to
be converted to vitamin A in the body. During this conversion certain losses
occur and on an average only 25% is converted to vitamin A. The total vitamin A
or retinol could be calculated using the formula given below
ug of B-carotene
Total vitamin A in pg = pg of retinol + =
ean
_ How much food each individual will need will depend on many factors which
have been considered while computing the Recommended Dietary Allowances.
Factors such as age, gender, and special physiological needs have been kept in mind.
The RDA table gives us the quantity of different nutrients to be included in our daily
diet. The second important factor we need to know to ensure the right selection of
food is its nutritive value. Most foods contain more than a single nutrient. The nutritive
value of different foods have been analysed in the laboratory and on the basis of this
information, food composition tables have been formulated.
These tables give us the percentage of important nutrients in the edible portion
of all foods we consume. If we know the weight of the food we have consumed, we
can calculate its nutritive value with the help of the food composition tables. This
can be compared with the RDAs which will tell us whether our diet is nutritionally
adequate or not. The RDA is a goal to be achieved and food is selected so that we
reach the goal.
However, this process is time consuming and not at all practical as lengthy
calculations are necessary. What is needed is a practical guide which can help
individuals to select foods of their choice according to their nutritional requirements.
Since no single food provides all the nutrients in desirable amounts, and all foods
differ in their nutrient content, it becomes necessary to divide food into groups to
help us consume a balanced diet.
Balanced Diet 283
Definition
Balanced diet A balanced diet is one which includes a variety of foods in adequate
amounts and correct proportions to meet the day’s requirements of all essential
nutrients such as proteins carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, water, and fibre.
Such a diet helps to promote and preserve good health and also provides a safety
margin or reserve of nutrients to withstand short durations of emergency.
The safety margin takes care of the days on which we fast, or on a certain day all
nutrients may not be consumed. If the balanced diet meets the RDA for an individual,
then the safety margin is already included as the RDA is formulated keeping extra
allowances in mind.
A balanced diet takes care of the following aspects:
It includes a variety of food items
It meets the RDA for all nutrients
Nutrients are included in correct proportions
Provides a safety margin for nutrients
It promotes and preserves good health
WO
Polk
Nes Maintains acceptable body weight for height.
Apart from proteins, this group also provides B-complex vitamins, vitamin A,
iron, and calcium. Animal proteins supply By) and cholesterol.
One serving from this group is equal to 30 g pulses, 1 egg, 40 g mutton, or 1 cup
of milk or curd.
At least three servings should be included from this group daily.
The protein quality of a nonvegetarian diet is far superior to that of a vegetarian
diet except when cereals and pulses are consumed together, the protein quality
improves. Those who depend on pulses for meeting their protein requirement can
improve the protein content of the meal by one or all of the following ways:
1. Including at least one serving from this group in every meal
2. Adding a small amount of animal protein in every meal
3. Combining cereals and pulses or cereals and animal protein
4. Including a variety of pulses, especially whole grain or split pulses with the
husk
5. Sprouting pulses to increase availability of nutrients and provide vitamin C
and B-complex vitamins specially B,, By, and niacin.
As a general rule, this group does not provide ascorbic acid or vitamin C to the diet.
One serving from this group provides approximately 7 g protein and 70-100
kilocalories.
é\c>
Soy
Cheese
Fish
Instant
Chicken
i@
Pumpkin Peas
Carrot Tomato
Spinach
Brinjal
Ta Zp
Apple
4
at y e -
Cauliflower Chikoo
Fats and oils, sugar and jaggery group
from carotene and vitamin C, this group provides negligible amounts of calories,
protein, and fibre. Green leafy vegetables provide iron, calcium, and folic acid.
A serving from this group gives 25 kcal and 1 g protein.
Secondary Protective Group or Other Fruits and Vegetables
All fruits and vegetables which do not come under the protective food group are
included in this category. This group provides some carbohydrates, minerals,
vitamins, and fibres to the diet. The main role of this group is to add variety to
the diet. Fruits such as banana, chikoo, pears, grapes, melons, custard apples, and
apples are included in this group.
Vegetables such as brinjal, cucumber, and lady’s finger; all gourds such as ash
gourd, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ridge gourd, and sponge gourd; tender peas and all
beans; and roots and tubers such as potato, onion, radish, and yam and colocasia are
also included in this group.
One serving from this group is equal to 50-75 g of vegetable or fruit which is half
a cup of cut vegetables.
Two or more servings from this group should be included everyday. One serving
provides 25-50 kcalories and 1 g protein.
Fats and Oils, Sugar and Jaggery
The foods in this group are a concentrated source of energy and mainly provide
calories only. Some foods such as animal fats provide vitamins A and D. Vegetable
oils provide essential fatty acids. Sugar provides only calories while jaggery and
honey provide small quantities of minerals as well.
This group includes sugar, jaggery, honey, molasses, and all forms of sugar such
as icing sugar, castor sugar, Demerara sugar, glucose, corn syrup, and all natural
sweeteners. All foods which are preserved with the help of sugar such as jams,
jellies, and marmalades are included in this group. One gram of sugar provides 4
kcal, and this energy is available quickly.
Fats and oils are a concentrated source of energy since one gram of fat gives 9 kcal.
Hydrogenated fat, margarine, butter, cream, and clarified butter are sources of fat.
Groundnut, coconut, sunflower, safflower, gingelly, rice bran, corn, soya, mustard, etc.
are sources of oil. Fats and oils should not exceed 30% of the total calories. This
includes the invisible fats in the diet. About 50% of the fat intake should be from at least
two to three vegetable oils to ensure consumption of essential fatty acids. 15-20% of
total calories from fat is recommended.
The diet should provide approximately 25-30 g of sugar and 25 g of fats and oils
per day. This amount will vary depending on the total energy requirement. One serv-
ing is one teaspoon sugar or 5 g sugar providing 20 kcal and one teaspoon or 5 g fat
providing 45 kcal.
This group does not contain any protein.
288 Food Science
BSN and
at Nutrition
ee ayea ae yg i Ee a eee
Cereal and All cereal and their 6-12 serving Carbohydrates, partially
millets products such as 1 serving is 1/2 cup complete proteins, fibre
wheat, rice, maize, cooked rice, 1 chappati, (except rice),
millets such as jowar, a slice of bread, 2 poories |B-complex vitamins,
bajra, ragi, semolina, a bowl of breakfast cereal |some are rich in iron
poha, bread, noodles, or calcium
pizza, puffed cereals
Protein or All pulses, nuts, and 3-6 servings of any of Partially complete
body building oilseeds such as the following proteins, carbohydrates,
foods Bengal gram, red gram, 1 serving is 1 cup dal iron, B-complex
| black gram, green vitamins B,, By, niacin
gram, lentils, soya Soya bean and oilseeds
beans, sprouts, provide fat
groundnuts, sesame, Sprouts provide
almonds vitamin C
(continued)
Balanced Diet 289
Fats and oils, All fats such as 5 servings of which Calories, oils provide
sugar and vanaspati, margarine, 3 servings should be vitamin E and essential
jaggery shortenings, vegetable oil fatty acids
fresh cream, non-dairy Fats provide vitamins
cream, butter, A and D
clarified butter
All oils such as
groundnut, corn, soya,
rice bran, sesame, salad
oil, olive oil, fish oils
Sugar, jaggery, honey, 5 servings Only calories
molasses, chocolates Jaggery, honey, and
Jam, jellies, marmalade preserves give very small
amounts of minerals
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SUMMARY
Nutrients are needed in specific amounts to ensure good health and well-being. The
nutrients needed by different age groups are mentioned in the RDA table. To
enable us to consume these nutrients, food has been divided into five groups. These
groups have been formulated on the basis of the nutrients present in them. If we
290 Food Science and Nutrition
select the number of servings recommended from each of the food groups,
we can get a balanced meal.
A balanced diet has all nutrients in correct proportions and amounts to
ensure good health and provide a margin of safety to take care of short
periods of emergency. Food groups help us in getting a balanced diet.
A choice must be made within each group since all foods in the group are
not identical in nutrient content.
utente
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KEY TERMS
Activity level Level of activity of a person, i.e., Lactation The period when the mother nurses her
sedentary or light, moderate, and heavy. This is closely infant.
related to one’s occupation. Physiological state State when nutrient needs
Balanced diet A diet which includes a variety of increase because of normal physiological events such
foods in adequate amounts and correct proportions as pregnancy and lactation.
to supply all essential nutrients which promote and Recommended Dietary Allowances Allowances of
preserve good health. nutrients which cover the needs of practically all
Demerara sugar Light brown sugar, a stage in sugar healthy individuals. They are not requirements for
extraction. any individual but guidelines which tell us the amount
Food group A number of foods sharing common char- of nutrient to be consumed daily.
acteristics which are grouped together. Characteristic Triticale Cereal which is a cross between wheat and
for grouping may be function, nutrient, or source. rye. Used in breakfast cereals
Ares LAR Ma eR Let
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Differentiate between the terms RDA and requirement.
Q2 Explain how the use of food groups simplifies planning of balanced meals.
Q3 List ten foods which belong to the protective food group, stating reasons for
your choice.
Q4 In which food group would you include the following?
i Orange marmalade
ii Orange juice
iii French dressing
iv Alcoholic beverages
v Coca Cola
vi Coriander leaves
vii Nutrinuggets
Q5 List the five basic food groups giving four examples for each. State the main
nutrients provided by each group.
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INTRODUCTION
n the past few decades, people ate in restaurants occassionally to celebrate a
special event such as an anniversary, a birthday, or an achievement. It was an
outing to look forward to, and if one indulged, it did not matter as these outings
were rare.
Today, the scenario is different. Eating out has become a way of life. Education
and employment has taken many of us away from home, and the mother’s role
now has an added responsibility of contributing to the family income. Modern day
292 Food Science and Nutrition
compulsions have made eating out a necessity. No longer does one find time for the
traditional fare of yesteryears and depends on the caterer for the following:
Food for festivals and celebrations
Meals at the work place.
Ready-to-eat meals picked up on the way home from work
Snacks and sweetmeats for daily consumption
Preserves, pickles, papads, etc.
WN
r
An All meals served in institutions such as hospitals, school/college cafeteria,
mess or dining hall, and boarding schools.
The number of reported cases of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, heart attacks,
etc. is on the rise and so is the number of meals consumed away from home. This
is not surprising because if one indulges practically everyday, it is bound to result
in ill-health because of malnutrition. The caterer’s role has become more significant
as the responsibility now lies with the caterer for planning nutritionally adequate
meals. Menu planning is the key to overcoming this problem.
Definition Menu planning is defined as a simple process which involves applica-
tion of the knowledge of food, nutrients, food habits, and likes and dislikes to plan
wholesome and attractive meals.
The caterer who is responsible for providing meals has to decide on various
aspects, such as:
Menu
Serving size
Food cost
Suppliers and quantities to be purchased
Standardized recipes to be followed
Type of service
Meal timings
Clientele
A la carte On this menu, dishes are individually priced and the customers can
compile their own menu which may be one, two, or more courses.
Banquet menus These are special menus for banquets or functions.
Institutional menus Hospital menus, boarding school menus, and industrial can-
teen menus.
Menus may be cyclic which means they are compiled to cover a specified period
of time. The length of the cycle may vary and is decided upon by the management.
A number of menus are set and repeated. They are often modified to take into
account variations which may arise for a number of reasons.
Nutritional Adequacy
The most important consideration in menu planning is to ensure that the meal ful-
fils the nutrient needs of the individual consuming the meal. For example, if the meal
is planned for an industrial worker, it must meet the RDAs for that age group. Foods
from all basic food groups should be included in each meal so that the meal is bal-
anced and nutritionally adequate. Nutrient needs may be modified for hospital diets
(therapeutic diets).
Economic Considerations
The spending power of the clientele has to be kept in mind and meals have to be
planned within the budget. Low cost nutritious substitutes should be included in the
menu to keep the costs low. The food cost should be maintained, if the organization
has to run profitably.
For example, two deep fried items would make the meal heavy. Simple processes
such as fermentation and sprouting not only contribute to improved flavour and
digestibility, but also enhance the nutritive value of the meal.
A well planned meal which is nutritionally adequate would have a good satiety
value and prevent the occurence of hunger-pangs before it is time for the next meal:
The nutritional adequacy of a meal in an a la carte service depends on the food
choices made by the customer. It is the duty of the caterer to offer adequate, nutri-
ent dense foods io the clients, to choose from.
Table 21.1 Serving size and nutritive value for food groups
Note: Two servings of green leafy vegetables = one serving of other vegetables.
While planning meals one should ensure that foods from all three groups is included
in each meal. This classification is simple and easy to use for menu planning.
3. Food Plan
Energy giving
Body building
Egg 1 50 70 7
(continued)
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 299
(continued)
Protective regulatory
4. Number of meals 04
5. Distribution of servings/meal
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Roots and 3
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Other veg. 3
(continued)
300 Food Science and Nutrition
(continued)
BRWN
An
Snags :
Value for 1
portion
Refer to the food composition tables for the nutrients present in 100 g of edible
portion of each ingredient.
Calculate the nutrients present for the quantities used in the recipe.
a Weigh the finished product to know the total yeild.
Divide these values by the number of portions to know the nutritive value per
portion.
For general calculations, do not include salt, spices, baking powder, stock,
or ingredients which are used in very small quantities (less than 10 g)
except for sugar and fat. Baking powder and salt are calculated for their
sodium content, and not for their proximate principles, for sodium-
restricted diets only.
Vi
efined flour
Milk
302 Food Science and Nutrition
ae 58 Ze7 52
cet dal
Spinach
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Other vegetables
Lady's
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Cucumber
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25. |40 |3.1 | f90 fas jaz
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(continued)
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 303
vo] [a
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rom [os [ones [oe oe
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means [S[oo[=
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rte [7
Surmai
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Milk 4.3
ot a oC
6.5 oO
nikon|s2 [ae
[aa[= [oa
(buffalo)
Milk 26 Pf
powder
Cooking
oil
Refined flour
Margarine
Amul butter
Castor sugar
Baking powder
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 305
Protein = ib 12¢g
Carbohydrate = a =13g
¢ 1.2 g protein
© 0O8%— fat
¢ 13 g carbohydrate
¢ 130 kcal energy
Protein The protein requirement increases by 15 g for the synthesis of foetal and
maternal tissues.
Lactation
Mother’s milk is the most nutritious food designed for an infant. The nutritional
needs during lactation are greater than the needs during pregnancy as the mother’s
body has to supply all nourishment to the rapidly growing infant. The conversion
of dietary protein to milk protein is only 50% which means 2 g of good quality pro-
tein is converted to 1 g of milk protein.
Energy Calorie requirements increase by 550 kcal during the first six months of
lactation, followed by a marginal decrease during the next six months with 400 kcal
being adequate to meet the additional demands.
Proteins An additional intake of 25 g in the first six months and 18 g in the next
six months is adequate.
Minerals Calcium requirement is 1,000 mg which is necessary for synthesis of
milk. Additional iron is not prescribed as milk is a poor source of iron.
Vitamins The requirement for vitamins A, D, B-complex, and.vitamin C increases
being
Vitamin A - 950 ug
Vitamin C - 80 mg
Folic acid - 150 ug
Vitamin By - 1.5 ug
Infancy
Human milk is the natural food for the infant. It is safe and convenient as it does
not involve sterilizing bottles and preparing formulas throughout the day. At the
same time, it is easy to assimilate, has the correct temperature, and gives a safe and
secure feeling to the infant, and sense of satisfaction to the mother.
During the first few days after delivery, colostrum is secreted which is not mature
milk but a substance richer in protein and vitamin A. Colostrum is secreted in small
quantities but is valuable as it increases the resistance to certain infections during |
the first few months of life. ,
The intervals of feeding should be fairly flexible instead of following a rigid
schedule or a self-demand schedule. For premature and low birth weight (weight
less than 2.5 kg) babies a fixed schedule is preferable.
Milk is deficient in iron, vitamin C, and vitamin D. The baby is born with stores
of these nutrients which suffice for 3 months. From the third month onwards, sup-
plements should be gradually added to provide those nutrients which are not sup-
plied by milk.
From the fifth to ninth month onwards, the infant should be weaned by substitut-
ing a cup feeding for a breastfeeding. This change should be gradual and at inter-
vals till the infant is weaned from the breast to the cup before the age of one year.
Nutritional requirements Human milk is the best food for infants. The next best
substitute is cow’s milk or modified buffalo milk. Buffalo milk is modified as it con-
tains a larger percentage of protein, fat, calcium, and energy as compared to human
milk and a lesser percentage of sugar. It is modified by partially skimming it, dilut-
ing it with water, and adding little sugar so that its composition resembles human
milk.
Supplementary foods during the first year The age at which supplementary foods
should be included depends on a number of factors such as literacy of mother, eco-
~ nomic factors, and time available. Supplements if not prepared, stored, and fed to
the infant in hygienic conditions is one of the main causes for diarrhoea and
gastro-intestinal upsets. While introducing a new food the following points should
be borne in mind:
1. Introduce one food at a time till the infant’s system is used to the new food.
Season with salt
Give a teaspoonful in the beginning
Never force-feed an infant
Start with a thin smooth consistency initially
Once the infant is used to supplements, introduce variety
Anak
wr Follow hygienic practices and do not give any leftover food or drink to an infant.
308 Food Science and Nutrition
Childhood
During these stages rapid growth takes place. There is an increase in height and
weight because of increase in the bone and muscle mass. Children use up a lot of
energy in playing. They normally carry their lunch, which should be nutritious and
interesting, or monotonous, in which case the packed lunch box comes back home
unfinished or unopened. Special efforts should be made so that they do not meet
their energy needs from junk food.
Proteins Good quality proteins should be included to take care of body building
and maintenance of tissues. Milk proteins are complete proteins and provide calcium
as well.
Carbohydrates and fats They provide calories, and spare proteins from being oxi-
dized for energy. Refined carbohydrates and poor dental hygiene are the reasons
for dental caries in children. The consumption of fruits and vegetables, both cooked
and uncooked, should be encouraged. Junk food and aerated beverages should be
discouraged.
Vitamins and minerals If the diet is well planned keeping the principles of menu
planning in mind, supplements may not be necessary.
Fluid Adequate fluid is necessary, specially in active children who play outdoor
games and sweat a lot. Fluids should not kill the appetite, which is seen when chil-
dren are thirsty and drink a lot of liquid just before a meal.
%
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 309
Points to be considered:
Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of physiological stress for the body because of extremely
rapid rate of growth. The appearance of sex characteristic is also accompanied by
mental and emotional changes: The diet plays a crucial role in promoting growth,
hence the RDAs for all nutrients are high during 13-18 years of age. Nutrients of
particular importance are carbohydrates and fats for energy and proteins, iron and
calcium for body building.
During adolescence the basal metabolic rate (BMR) accelerates once again
because of the growth spurt and other hormonal changes which take place. The
BMR of boys is higher than that of girls because of more muscle tissue. a
Food habits change drastically because of peer pressure, maintaining one’s figure
and weight, skin problems, and the newly found independence.
Energy Energy needs are high because of higher physical activity and BMR.
Sports and aerobic exercises increase the energy requirements for sports people.
Proteins A generous intake of high quality proteins is necessary for increase in
muscles mass and skeletal development. A deficiency of calories and proteins can
affect one’s optimum height increase and resistance to infections.
Girls grow rapidly between 11-14 years and boys grow rapidly between 13-16
years. Initially, girls are taller than boys between 11-12 years. But later the growth
rate is more in boys. Weight gain is a common problem in this age group which is
tackled differently by both the sexes. Boys prefer exercise as a means of losing
weight and body building while girls prefer going on a diet.
A deficiency of calcium/vitamin D during infancy or childhood results in rickets
(deforming of bones).The weak bones cannot withstand the weight of the body and
bend causing bow legs or knock knees. Once malformed, bones cannot be
straightened. The effect of rickets is seen in adolescents and adults. Along with
310 Food Science and Nutrition
weight, emotional stress has an adverse effect on health and diet. Friction between
parents and adolescents is another area of tension.
Snacks are the all-time favourite food, which often forms a large percentage of
energy intake, favourite snacks being burgers, pizzas, pastries, ice creams, french
fries, pav wada, pav bhaji, popcorn, and South Indian snacks. Milk is substituted
by tea/coffee (which is more of a social need) or aerated beverages. This trend
indicates a high consumption of refined flour, hydrogenated fats, and potato.
South Indian snacks are a better option as they are made from a cereal—pulse
combination.
In general, the diet is deficient in the protein food group and protective food group.
Food such as milk, green leafy vegetables, yellow fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits,
and whole grain cereals are deficient in the diet of adolescents. Deficiencies during
infancy and childhood may leave their scar in adolescence.
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 311
Anorexia nervosa This is a disorder seen in adolescent girls concerning figure and
weight control. The onset of puberty results in widening of the pelvis and deposi-
tion of subcutaneous fat creating a psychological problem in figure conscious young
girls. They resort to crash diets for weight loss. This self-induced starvation to attain
a slim figure leads to weight loss, loss of muscle tissue, a low BMR, and serious - \
health problems.
iis A low calorie diet of 1,000-1,500 kCal, as there is a reduction in the basal
metabolic rate (BMR).
Good quality protein, calcium, and iron. Vitamin A, vitamin C, and folic acid
to prevent anaemia.
Food should be easy to chew, liquid preparations should be included in each
meal as they are light and easy to digest.
Hot meals should be served attractively as appetite is low.
Five small meals should be preferred to a three meal pattern.
Gas forming foods and strongly flavoured vegetables such as bengal gram,
cauliflower, cabbage, and onion should be avoided.
Fibre rich foods such as whole grains, green leafy vegetables, pulses, and fruits
are nutritious and provide fibre necessary for normal elimination. They should
be incorporated into the diet gradually to prevent gastric irritation and gas.
Fluids: Ample fluids are necessary to flush out toxic wastes. The kidneys
function at a slower pace with age, but fluids help in excretion of toxins.
Low calorie density and high satiety value foods should be included.
vitamins. These products undergo polymerization and increase the viscosity of the
oil. The oil darkens in colour, has a lower smoke point, and foams when used for
frying. Such oil should be discarded. Fat soluble vitamins ‘dissolve in fat used for
deep frying specially if food to be fried is not well coated.
Effect of alkali Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegeta-
bles, make pectin soluble, and dissolve hemicellulose. It is also used as lye
(sodium hydroxide) to peel vegetables during processing. A pinch of sodium
bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening the green colour.
However, B-complex vitamins and ascorbic acid are destroyed in an alkaline
medium. The use of alkali to hasten the cooking process for vegetables and puls-
es should be discouraged. Excessive cooking in an alkaline medium not only
destroys vitamins, but makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to the
product.
Effect of acid An acidic medium while cooking helps preserve water soluble vita-
mins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and vegetables. Vegetables
ESS PS
Soaking and
sprouting
whole grains
Food combinations
Enhancing nutritive
value of food
and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic medium as acids precipitate
pectin and hardens vegetables.
Effect of washing and soaking While preparing food, water soluble vitamins and
minerals leach out into the cooking or washing water. These losses can be minimized
by washing the uncut fruit or vegetables and not soaking the cut vegetable in water.
Soaking grains or pulses is beneficial as soaking increases digestibility and
reduces cooking time.
Effect of sprouting and fermentation Soaking whole grains overnight in water
and tying them in a muslin cloth to allow them to germinate has many beneficial
effects.
1. In sprouted grains, the dormant seed becomes active and synthesizes
vitamin C.
2. Partial breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats begin, making it easier
to digest.
3. The bio-availability of nutrients especially calcium and iron increases.
4. The active seeds synthesizes vitamin C or ascorbic acid and thiamine,
riboflavin, and niacin content increases.
Exposure to air or oxidation Exposure of finely divided foods to oxygen of the air
reduces the vitamin C content by oxidation. The enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase is
released when fruits and vegetables are cut. The enzyme activity is temperature —
dependant and can be inactivated by blanching, or by storing cut fruits and vegeta-
bles at refrigeration temperatures or by adding acid.
Vitamin A is destroyed on exposure to air. The colour of cut carrots (carotene)
fades due to oxidation and B-complex vitamins are also affected.
316 Food Science and Nutrition
Milling Whole meal flour contains all nutrients present in the grain. In flour with
100% extraction no nutrients are lost. Low extraction flours (45% extraction) are
light in colour and are mainly starch with some protein and fat. Approximately 70%
of all B-complex vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre present in the whole grain are
lost during milling.
Polished rice (the form in which rice is consumed) loses 75% vitamin By or thi-
amine, while parboiling helps in retaining some of the vitamin.
Cooking and processing practices vary widely from one region to another,
hence no authentic information on exact losses can be known. While cooking
has both adverse and beneficial effects, proper practices can minimize the
adverse effects and maximize the benefits so that food can become more whole-
some and safe.
LR ALR SRO STEVE LR SR PLT PS LS TT ETT 3) ODED FEW ABR ETB NPE REHEARSAL MERLE REL LSE TEL LLL LANL TELE LETT,
SUMMARY
Meal planning and measures to retain nutrients in food cooked in large quantity is
gaining greater significance because of the change in lifestyle since the past two to
three decades. Eating out is no longer an occassional event but a way of life and the
dependency on the caterer to provide the day’s supply of nutrients has increased.
Lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and heart attacks are on
the rise because of lessened physical activity brought about by.mechanization and
increased intake of calorie and saturated fat dense foods for the innumerable cele-
brations that are part of one’s life.
The principle of menu planning is to provide wholesome and attractive meals
at an affordable cost to individuals in all types of food service establishment spe-
cially where the individual depends for all meals on the caterer. Meals are
planned keeping all factors of menu planning in mind. The nutritive value and
planning process can be simplified by following the three basic food group clas-
sification. This can be used to quickly check the adequacy of one’s diet. The nutri-
tive value of any recipe can be calculated using the food composition tables. This
is a lengthy process.
Nutritional needs change during our lifetime because of physiological, psycho-
logical, and social changes which influence our meal consumption patterns. The
changing needs should be kept in mind if optimum nutrition is to be maintained.
Food cooked in bulk needs prior pre-preparation and remains hot for a longer time.
It is reheated often over an extended lunch hour which further reduces its nutritive
value. The caterer should take all precautions to preserve and enhance the nutrient
content of foods served.
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 317
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LTR TTT
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KEY TERMS
Aging Process of gradual physiological changes which Osteopenia A disease characterized by very little
take place during life, specially visible in adulthood. bone mass.
Anorexia nervosa Loss of appetite due to psycho- Osteoporosis Reduction in bone tissue, weakening
logical disturbance resulting in loss of muscle tissue, | of the bones, making them prone to fractures.
weight loss, and low BMR. Self-imposed starvation. Pathogens Micro-organisms capable of causing disease.
Bulimia Gorging on food and throwing up to get rid Satiety value Feeling of satisfaction and fullness and
of what is eaten. not feeling hungry till the next meal.
Geriatrics The science dealing with disease and care Weaning Shifting the infant's feeding gradually from
of the elderly. breast to bottle or cup.
SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS PL ELE LGR EO ELE TR LEBEL LT ELE LLL ETLEE LLL IT TT TAIL LE TL ELE ENE,
REVIEW GUESTIONS
Ql What are the advantages of menu planning?
Q2 List any eight factors which influence menu planning.
Q3 Explain the three group classification of food. What is the basis for this
classification?
Q4 Why should a pregnant woman be particular about her diet?
Q5 List any five advantages of breastfeeding.
Q6 What changes in old age affect menu planning for the elderly?
Q7 Explain the following.
i Anorexia nervosa
ii Weaning foods
iii Food composition table
Q8_ As a chef in a restaurant, what measures would you take to enhance the
nutritive value of foods served?
Q9 Using the three basic food group classification check the nutrtient adequacy
of the meals consumed by you in one day.
Q10 With the help of the food composition table, calculate the nutritive value of
any four recipes you have prepared in the food production laboratory.
INTRODUCTION
n Chapter 20 on balanced diets, we have read that a balanced diet is one which
provides all the nutrients needed by a person to support life, maintain good
health, to hasten recovery from illness, and take care of any short durations of
emergency such as days on which one fasts, misses meals, or nutrients lacking in the
diet. Very often illness or disease may alter the nutrient requirements of individuals.
Sometimes the patient’s condition is such that he cannot tolerate or is not allowed
to consume certain nutrients. For example, a diabetic cannot utilize glucose. Since the
end product of carbohydrate digestion is glucose, the carbohydrate content of the diet
needs to be modified. In such cases, the diet is modified to bring down blood glucose
levels, hasten recovery, and prevent complications arising due to diabetes mellitus.
ae EE Modified
OGHIIC Diets | 319
VIEDS ONS
The normal diet is used as the basis for all modified diets.
Diet therapy is defined as the use of food in the treatment of a disease. This is done
by changing the normal diet in order to meet the altered requirements resulting
from the illness or injury.
The aim of diet therapy is to maintain or restore good nutrition.
The clinical dietitian in a hospital is responsible for planning therapeutic ciets for
patients as per the doctors diet prescription. The administrative dietitian manages
food service establishments.
Dietetics It is the science and art of feeding individuals or groups under different health
and economic conditions according to the principles of nutrition and management.
1. Modification in consistency
2. Modification in nutrient content
3. Modification in quantity
4. Modification in method of feeding
Modified diets
Modifications in Consistency
Clear fluid diet The clear liquid diet is used for short periods when there is acute
vomiting or diarrhoea, when minimal bowel residue is desired, and to test the indi-
viduals ability to tolerate oral food.
This diet is free from any solids, even those found in milk. The clear fluid diet is
inadequate in all nutrients and should be used only for 1-2 days. The main purpose
of this diet is to prevent dehydration and relieve thirst. It is high in simple sugars
and needs to be modified for diabetic individuals. The amount of fluid given initially
is 40-80 ml/hour, which is gradually increased to 100-120 ml/hour.
Foods included:
1. Fruit juices — apple, orange, grape juices
2. Cereal water — barley water, arrowroot water, sago kanji, rice kanji
3. Soups - clear consomme, fat-free broth
4, Beverages - tea, coffee with lime and sugar (no milk), lime juice, coconut
water, sugar cane juice, carbonated beverages
5. Flavoured gelatin and fruit ices.
Full liquid diet This diet is prescribed for individuals who are unable to chew,
swallow, or tolerate solid foods. It is given after the clear liquid diet and before starting
solid foods.
It is composed of foods that are liquid at room temperature. If it is well planned
it can meet most of the RDA’s. However, due to difficulty in consuming adequate
amounts of foods from the body building food and cereal food group, vitamin and
mineral supplements should be given if the diet is to be used for longer durations.
It is prescribed during acute infections, gastritis, diarrhoea when milk is permitted,
after surgery, and for people too ill to eat solid food.
Foods included:
1. Cream soups, dal soup, whipped potatoes
2. Eggnog, milk shakes, plain ice cream, China grass jelly, custard
3. Oat meal, arrowroot, and sago kanji with milk
4. Soyamilk, complan, lassi, cocoa.
Soft diet This diet is given between the full liquid diet and light diet or the general
hospital diet. It is given during convalescence, acute infections, gastrointestinal dis-
orders, and after surgery.
The foods included in this diet are soft in texture and consistency, easy to chew
and digest with very little fibre, spices, and condiments. Spicy, highly seasoned, and
fried foods are avoided as they may cause heartburn, belching, and indigestion.
Strongly flavoured vegetables and gassy foods can cause discomfort because of flatus
or gas produced by bacterial fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates.
Modified Diets 321
Foods included: A wide variety of foods from the basic food groups can be
seleced and a nutritionally adequate diet can be planned. Cooking methods
should be boiling, steaming, poaching, or stewing. Fruits and vegetables with
coarse skins, rough fibres, and seeds, e.g., guava and jackfruit should be avoided.
Strongly flavoured vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, onions; Bengal gram,
fried eggs, omelettes, all salads, sweetmeats, and masalas and pickles should be
avoided.
Mechanical soft diet This is also called a dental diet and is a variation of the soft
diet. It includes foods which are easy to chew and swallow. There is no restriction
on seasoning or method of preparation. The texture or consistency of food may be
modified by mechanical processing such as mashing, blenderizing, or chopping.
This diet is nutritionally adequate if well planned and is given to individuals who
have difficulty in chewing or swallowing because of teeth and gum problems.
Light diet or the general hospital diet It is similar to the soft diet and also includes
simple salads, fruit salads and paneer.
Pureed diet ‘This is given to individuals who have difficulty in chewing and swallow-
ing food. It includes all liquid and semi-liquid foods which require no mastication.
Foods included:
1. Milk and milk beverages, eggnog, lassi, cream soups, custard, ice cream
2. All fruit and vegetable purees and juices
3. Soft scrambled egg, boiled mashed dals
4. Soft cooked cereals, oat meal
Bland diet This diet is prescribed for individuals suffering from gastric or duode-
nal ulcers, gastritis, and ulcerative colitis. It includes foods which are mechanically,
chemically, and thermally non-irritating, Foods low in fibre are recommended.
Stimulating beverages and spicy foods increase the secretion of gastric juice which
in turn causes pain when in contact with the ulcer.
Foods to avoid include strong tea, coffee, alcoholic beverages, condiments, and
spices such as black pepper, red chilli powder, cloves, mustard seeds, and nutmeg.
High-fibre foods and hot soups and beverages should be avoided. Fried foods and
strongly flavoured sulphur containing vegetables should be avoided.
Foods included:
Lactose-free diet
This diet includes foods that leave a small faecal mass after digestion and absorption.
Only those foods which can be completely absorbed are included.
Foods such as arrowroot kanji, barley water, whey water, and sago kheer are
recommended. Foods avoided are fruits and vegetables high in fibre, nuts and
oilseeds, and whole grains. Refined cereals, meat, fish, poultry, eggs are permitted.
Milk is permitted in limited quantities as it leaves a residue. A maximum quan-
tity of two cups milk/day is permitted in the form of milk, paneer, or curds. Fruits
and vegetables with 2 g or less fibre are permitted. All fruit and vegetable juices
and cooked vegetables such as bottle gourd and potato are permitted.
Modifications in Quantity
The quantity of food served to the patient needs to be modified to check tolerance,
control nutrient levels, and bring about weight loss.
In acute vomiting, the quantity of fluid given is 40-80 ml/hour to check the indi-
viduals ability to tolerate oral feeding.
In a diabetic diet, the quantity of carbohydrate in each meal is as important as
the quantity of carbohydrate consumed in a day.
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (mel means honey) is a chronic disorder of carbohydrate metab-
olism characterized by high blood sugar level or hyperglycemia and a high level of
sugar in the urine or glycosuria. Along with carbohydrates, the metabolism of pro-
teins and fats is also affected.
Diabetes occurs due to a lack of insulin. The B-cells of islets of Langerhans
in the pancreas secrete the hormone insulin that is required for the uptake and
utilization of glucose by the cells. If insulin is deficient, glucose is not oxidized
in the cells, resulting in hyperglycemia. The normal fasting level of glucose in
blood is 70-110 mg/100 ml blood. When the fasting level of glucose rises above
170 mg/100 ml, the renal threshold is exceeded and sugar begins to appear in the
urine. In severe uncontrolled diabetes, blood glucose levels may be as high as
400 mg/100 ml.
Symptoms of diabetes include:
Hyperglycemia or high blood sugar level
Glycosuria or presence of sugar in urine
Polyuria or frequent urination
Polydipsia or excessive thirst
Polyphagia or excessive hunger
2
SS.
SoS Ketosis or accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood due to incomplete
oxidation of fats. Fats are rapidly broken down as a source of energy since
carbohydrates cannot be utilized. A diabetic diet is mainly modified in car-
bohydrate content which should not exceed 55% of total calories. The carbo-
hydrate content should not exceed 250 g/day. A minimum level of 100 g
should be included to prevent ketosis and protein breakdown and as a source
of energy for the nervous system.
Treatment of diabetes includes:
2. Higher proportion of PUFA vegetable oils | 2. Saturated fats and cholesterol in moderation —
hydrogenated fats, ghee, butter, cream
3. Good-quality proteins - lean meat, fish, 3. Alcohol, soft drinks, sweetmeats, nuts, and
eggs, pulses, milk oilseeds
All foods should be liquid to semi-solid Solid foods which are hard or tough, requiring
consistency. Smooth texture with no harsh lot of mastication
-| irritating fibres, strong flavour, or spicy food 1. Cereals — millets, cereal with bran or
1. Cereals — refined cereals in the form irritating dietary fibres such as whole grain
of kanji, custard, or kheer, phulka, cereals and cereal products
boiled rice 2. Fried, spicy pulse, and meat/fish/poultry
2. Good quality, easy to digest proteins — preparations
chicken soup, stew, milk-based 3. Leafy vegetables, raw fruits, and vegetables
beverages, eggnog, sweet freshly with harsh fibres
set curds, custard, complan, soft- 4. Pickle, papad
cooked khichdi, dal rice (moong dal),
boiled vegetables such as bottle ©
gourd, pumpkin, potato. Stewed
fruits, soft fruits, fruit juices, sugar
326 Food Science and Nutrition
Fevers may be due to acute infections such as influenza, septic wounds or chronic fever
lasting from several days to several months as in the case of tuberculosis, typhoid, etc.
Infection or entry and growth of micro-organisms in the body is one of the most
common cause of fever. A lowered resistance to infective agents results in their pro-
liferation in the body with production of toxic metabolites that give rise to symptoms
of fever accompanied by nausea and loss of appetite.
Diet should progress from a clear liquid diet to a full liquid diet to a soft diet.
Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are diseases of the heart and blood vessels. They
are very common in India, and the incidence of these diseases is increasing rapidly.
Atherosclerosis
Diabetes
Obesity
High blood lipid levels
Modified Diets 327
4. Salad vegetables, fruits, green leafy 4. Egg yolk, fish roe, shell fish, fatty meats,
vegetables, other root vegetables processed meats
5. Nuts, oilseeds, pickles
5. Lean meat, egg white, fish
6. Margarine, vanaspati, fried food
6. Vegetable oils, sugar, jaggery
7. Alcohol
328 Food Science and Nutrition
Deposition of Atheroma or
fatty material
Fig. 22.2 Observe the narrowing of the lumen and hardening of the artery
due to deposits of fatty material such as cholesterol, triglycerides.
pasta
2. Milk - all milk beverages and all milk 2. All stimulating beverages — alcohol, tea,
products, weak tea coffee, aerated drinks
Liver Disorders
The liver is the main organ associated with our digestive system. It is a complex
organ performing hundreds of functions related to nutrient metabolism, bile pro-
duction and excretion, and detoxification of poisonous substances.
Jaundice, a yellow pigmentation of the skin and tissues, is a common symptom of
liver disorders caused due to elevated levels of bile pigments. When the liver cells are
damaged due to agents such as micro-organisms, toxins, alcohol, and obstruction of bile,
the diet needs to be modified to give rest to the organ and protect and repair liver cells.
Common liver disorders are:
1. Hepatitis or inflammation and degeneration of liver cells. It is an infectious
disease which may be viral or drug induced. Type A hepatitis is caused
due to consumption of contaminated food or water mainly due to sewage
contamination.
Modified Diets 331
Kidney Disorders
The kidneys are the main organs for excretion of nitrogenous wastes arising from
protein metabolism. Urea, which is formed from the breakdown of food and tissue
proteins, is excreted by the kidneys via the urine.
332 Food Science and Nutrition
The main function of the kidneys is to maintain the normal composition and vol-
ume of blood and other body fluids. This is achieved by filtering blood to remove toxic
wastes. Blood is filtered through the millions of nephrons which are present in each
kidney. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and is made up of a
glomerulus or a filter and a long winding tubule that opens into a collecting duct
where urine is collected. Approximately 150 to 180 litres of blood is filtered by the
kidneys.
In kidney disorders, the waste products of protein metabolism, fluids and electrolytes
may accumulate in blood, or proteins may get filtered into the urine.
Common kidney disorders are:
Nephrosis or nephrotic syndrome It is a condition in which proteins are filtered into
the urine due to injury to the glomerulus. Accumulation of body fluids is also seen.
Renal failure The kidneys fail to function normally and waste material accumulates
in blood resulting in uremia (excess urea in blood) and ultimately coma.
Kidney stone Kidney stones or calculi form in any part of the kidney or urinary tract
causing extreme pain. They form when concentration of salts in urine is high or fluid
intake is less resulting in precipitation of salts in the form of crystals or stones.
Foods allowed will depend on the nature of mineral, e.g., calcium oxalate, calcium
phosphate, and uric acid stones. If the body loses protein, the protein content of the
diet will need to be increased. If urea accumulates in blood, the protein content of the
diet will have to be reduced. Fluids and electrolytes need to be controlled if there is
water retention. ,
In kidney disorders like liver disorders, nutrients have to be modified depending
on the symptoms and nature of the disorder. :
Table 22.9. High-protein, high-carbohydrate, low to moderate fat diet
SUMMARY
A well-planned balanced diet can not only promote and preserve good health but
can also act as a therapeutic aid in restoring health. A diet which is planned for
treatment of a disease is a therapeutic diet. There are many types of therapeutic
diets with modifications in nutrient content, quantity, consistency or texture, and
special method of feeding. The aim of diet therapy is to treat deficiency, diseases,
alter nutrient requirements according to the body’s ability to metabolize nutrients,
to give rest to the body or to an organ, and to change body weight.
The normal balanced diet is the basis for planning modified diets. Modified
diets include the liquid diets — clear liquid and full liquid diets, the soft diet, light
diet, pureed diet, mechanical soft or dental soft diet, and bland diet. Nutrient
content is modified to treat nutrient deficiencies or adapt to the body’s ability to
metabolize nutrients. Modifications in quantity and special methods of feeding
by a nasogastric tube or by intravenous fluids in case of patients who are too ill
to eat or in cases when an organ needs rest are also used as part of the treatment.
Special diets for diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and atherosclerosis — all
lifestyle diseases; for fevers and infections; gastrointestinal disorders; cardiovascular
diseases; and kidney and liver diseases have also been outlined for ready reference.
ene POLISH A AEN SI SDE STITT FLARE EAR LL RRL LE LES MLE A LEE HP TET MUTE TELE EETARR LTT ELLE TETLEELTEM IIE LEME
KEY TERMS
Clear liquid diet A diet comprising of clear liquids foods, or commercial formulas may be purchased. A
<
without milk which provides fluids and electrolytes nasogastric tube is used for feeding. Formulas should
and few calories. be smooth and free flowing.
Convalescence The period during which the clinical Full fluid diet A diet comprising of liquids and solids
symptoms of disease have gone but the person is not which liquify at body temperature and is generally
fit to resume normal work and needs rest and proper milk based.
nourishment. Gastritis Inflammation of the stomach.
Diverticulosis Tiny sacs or pouches in the colon called Nasogastric tube A flexible plastic tube inserted
diverticula which when inflammed cause diverticulitis. through the nose into the stomach through which
Enteral Any feeding involving the gastrointestinal a formula containing nutrients in required amounts
is fed. Used for persons who cannot chew or
tract. Term used specially for tube feeding when
swallowing food is difficult due to obstructions in the swallow.
oesophagus, surgery, etc. . Parenteral Method of feeding via the peripheral
veins when the intestine is not functioning.
Flatus Gas produced by bacterial fermentation of
indigestible carbohydrate in the colon. Protein hydrolysates Partially broken down proteins
in the form of small peptides and amino acids used in
Formula feeding Feeding the patient a nutritionally
formula feeding.
adequate meal which is made by blending ordinary LEAL TIIE ELE pense IR ERO UT ELBURN SR SOLAN ETT EIT ML MECN ON
ET CPR ETE LER EILE LLP EM LELE LE ILLES pa RRR LSESEIU
334 Food Science and Nutrition
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Answer briefly.
Why do calorie needs increase when suffering from fever?
Why is fat restricted in liver disorders?
i Why is protein restricted in kidney failure?
Why does blood sugar increase in diabetes mellitus?
Why is strong tea or coffee not served to peptic ulcer patients?
Match the following disease in column I with a suitable answer from column II
I II
Disease Symptom
a Diabetes 1 Atheroselerosis
b Hepatitis 2 Rise in body temperature
c. Cardiovascular disease 3 Dermatitis
d. Peptic ulcer 4 Hyperglycemia
e. Fever 5 Pain in the spinal cord
6 Jaundice
7 Dementia
8 Burning, gnawing pain in the stomach
Describe the following and state when it is prescribed.
Bland diet
Clear liquid diet
i Full liquid diet
Low residue diet
Classify the various types of modified diets and state the basis for classification.
Apart from diet, what are the other factors responsible for cardiovascular
diseases?
What foods need to be restricted in a low-sodium diet. List any ten foods.
Define atherosclerosis and hypertension, and diabetes mellitus.
How would you modify a diet to prevent constipation? What other advice
would you give the person?
List ten popular items on a typical Indian restaurant menu, which are suit-
able for a diabetic individual.
NEED FOR SERVING NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH-SPECIFIC MEALS
O-Fish
McDonald's French
Fries (large)
McDonald's Diet
Coke
Se
Pizza Hut Spaghetti
with Meat Balls
WwW
Bread (1 slice)
(6 pieces)
are dying a slow death as people are forgetting the richer, more varied, and nour-
ishing tastes of freshly harvested seasonal food. Some fast food chains are offering
healthy alternatives of fresh fruit and salads and low-fat items in their menu.
However, these foods are still high in fat and cholesterol and refined cereals. South
Indian fast food snacks are fermented food combinations which are more nutritious
than their Western counterparts. They are a blend of cereal and pulses and are non-
greasy, easy to digest, and safe to eat.
VBIERGYA.NI
MICROWAVE RECIPE
Take 300gms (3cups) ofbasmati riceina microwave bow! Add6 cups ofwater and salt (aspertaste)
and letitremain for half anhour. Cover and cook on micro 880 w for 18mins, Take another microwave bowl
and put int 388 gms ofchopped vegetables (eg. potato, cauliflower, peas, french beans, capsicum, carrot
ete.) and theentire packet ofParampara ¥eg Biryani Mix and 2 cups (300 mi} ofwater and mix itwell. Cover
and Cook onmicro 880w for10mins. Newspread thecooked
riceonitandadd cashew nuts, raisins and
pure ghee, Cover andkeepthisonmicro 458w. for8 mins. Delicious Veg Biryaniisready. (for 4 persons)
NOTE : Do not add anything else. This mix contains off and sait too.
oo WBE ES Wiel (Se. ane, Gerwe, Fev, Bea, Ren Prd, ior aD) 9 Ba GPR(224 FA.)
oR Tey at ah Pee wr Be Bar F aed} are Pener 9 fea aw wa) 300m (34)
TARA IRS THER (FUR AS She), WS ae Rage) IN Vag, Suwa gehs
Brame
1A 3HtaOR90 fire resWR Rene hor eakh dee ! (v cafe a fe 1)
TER: RA Seen Parl Hhorexa Fh see 8 aa A aes y wR Ba HH
INGREDIENTS:
Onion, Retined OW, Garlic, Ginger,
Coriander
leaves, Mint, Green Chilly,
Hydrogenated Vegetable fat, Chilty,
Salt, Spices, Corlandes, Suger, Lemon
(AllIngredients
inthis mix are
pure vegetarian)
Net Wt. : 100 g
STORE IN COOL PLACE
Best Betore : within 5 months from
the date ofpacking
2g
Manufactured by : Date of Packing :
PARAMPARA
FOOD PRODUCTS | patch No. :
OFFICE ; 99 Panch Pandav Soc., Retail
Gokhale Nagar, Pune -411 053,(india) taxes’
Phone : 5676968 Fax : 5675216 ee ee )
E-mail : parampra @satyam.net.in PUNE
FACTORY : Survey No. 27/1/2/2, ae es
Kharadi,
Pune - 411 014. (india) OUT OF PUNE
Rs.
industrially prepared often under strict regulation and control and sometimes bac-
teriologically safer than fresh goods, if they are not stored under temperature-
controlled storage during retailing, their nutritive value and overall quality can be
grossly affected.
Many products launched in the market make health claims which at times could
be misleading. Convenience is not the main criteria, but meeting the day’s nutri-
tional needs should be checked. Some newly launched products based on soy pro-
teins, flax seeds, carotene, and vitamin E rich oils have distinct benefits while other
foods such as non-dairy creams have both advantages because of no cholesterol and
disadvantages because of fatty acid composition of vegetable oils used. Bakery
shortenings in the market are specifically designed for a particular product and the
ready products are of superior quality but the trans-fatty acids present in these fats
are harmful to health.
Trans-Fatty Acids
These are geometrical isomers of unsaturated fatty acids that assume a saturated fatty
acid-like configuration. Trans-fatty acids are commercially introduced agents created
by partial hydrogenation of the essential fatty acid thereby reducing their content in
the fat. Their use has been eliminated from retail fats and spreads in many parts of
the world, but are still used in baked goods and deep-fat fried fast foods. |
They are popular in the food industry because they have a high melting point
compared to the cis-form and help in making crisper puff pastry and other baked
products. However, clinical studies have demonstrated that they are more athero-
genic than saturated fatty acids. They increase the LDL cholesterol or bad choles-
terol and decrease the HDL cholesterol or good cholesterol affecting the ratio of
LDL to HDL cholesterol thereby increasing the risk of coronary heart diseases.
Apart from industrially hardened oils, dairy and meat fats are also a source of trans-
fatty acids.
The type of fats consumed in the diet is more important than the total amount of
fat consumed. While the intake of saturated fatty acids need to be reduced in the
diet, both mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids need to be increased and the total
fat intake should be restricted to 30% of total energy for greater cardiovascular pro-
tection. This can be achieved through appropriate admixtures of different oils or
through genetic modification of oilseed crops.
Disadvantages of consuming ready-to-serve and ready-to-cook foods:
1. They have high calorie content because of high percentage of fat and carbo-
hydrates.
342 Food Science and Nutrition
2: Trans fats and saturated fats (hydrogenated fats) are used for better
organoleptic qualities.
Sodium content of ready mixes is high. Salt used in imported products is not
iodized.
The proportion of protective and regulatory nutrients is extremely small as
the vegetable content is low. They are deficient in most vitamins, minerals,
protein, and fibre.
Many foods contain artificial preservatives, colour, and taste enhancers, i.e.,
additives which may cause allergic reactions in some individuals.
Ready-to-use products are often very expensive as compared to fresh,
wholesome, and nutritious preparations.
Packaging, storage, and damage to container during transport may adversely
affect the quality.
Most of them do not provide a full meal and are lacking in proteins, vita-
min A, vitamin C, B-complex vitamins, vitamin E, and essential minerals
and fibre.
If precooked meals or table-ready snacks have to be consumed, check nutrition
facts on label before purchasing. Check fat and sodium content as well as adequacy
of protein before selecting the meal. Follow manufacturer’s instructions and add
Stability
Consistency
Economical
Fresh taste
Design decoration
Calorie content
Cholesterol
Curdling
New Trends in Nutrition 343
Ec ale oe
a
<a:
Total carbohydrate (g)
Fibre (g)
2
esaeee
Vitamin A ara ess
i
ene
1 REET HygrmUreay
feo otan botoo onetope
Newly launched products lay emphasis on a low or zero cholesterol content.
Role of Phytochemicals
A number of newly launched products have included phytochemicals (‘phyto’ is aFarm
Antimicrobial Effect on
properties Phe rile immune system
Phytochemicals
these ‘associated food factors’ are called phyto nutrients. They may provide many
added nutritional benefits and can help reduce our risk of developing chronic
health conditions such as heart diseases, stroke, cataract, Parkinson’s disease, or
even cancer.
They are present in abundance in parsley, broccoli, alfalfa, watercress, spinach,
carrots, acerola cherries, kelp, soya beans, turmeric, yellow corn, tomatoes, cranber-
ries, blue berries, garlic, onions, flax seeds, walnuts, etc.
Since these phytochemicals are found widely distributed in fruits and vegetables,
a generous intake of fruits and vegetables containing phytochemicals is a better
option instead of consuming phytochemicals in the form of nutrient supplements or
added in multivitamin pills.
= =
Fig. 23.3. Precooked products form a popular part of the meal in India and abroad
The consumer purchases a product based on the attractive packaging and cost,
the need felt for purchasing a product, and the special information mentioned on
the label. The health conscious consumer will focus his attention on the information
provided on the label.
Some countries have their own set of standards as far as nutritional labelling is
concerned. The US FDA has its own nutritional labelling regulations and if con-
venience food has to be exported to the US, the label should specify the nutrients
and be in accordance with the standards laid down by US FDA. Nutrition facts
and health claims are closely regulated in the United States.
Nutritional labelling is necessary for foods which are a meaningful source of
calories or nutrients. All nutrients need not be mentioned on the label, for example,
B-complex vitamin content need not be mentioned. Nutrition facts are required
for those foods which supply:
1. 2% or more of the RDA per serving, for example, vitamin A, vitamin C, iron,
or calcium
2. More than 40 kcal per serving or more than 0.4 kcal per gram
346 Food Science and Nutrition
Total fat
Saturated fat
Cholesterol
Sodium
Total carbohydrate
Fibre
Sugars
Protein
Vitamin A Vitamin C
Calcium lron
*Per cent daily values are based on a 2,000 calories diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending
on your calorie needs.
2,000 2,500
The format for the nutrition facts is fixed and any other health claim made by the
manufacturer should be mentioned on any other part of the label. Nutrition infor-
mation for any health claim is mandatory.
All nutrients are expressed in their prescribed units and as a percentage of the
RDA for a diet providing 2,000 kcal and 2,500 kcal. For example, the total daily
value for fat is 65 g on a 2,000 kcal diet or 30% kcalories from fat which is equal to
600 kcal. One standard serving of paneer kadhai contains 15 g of fat which means
135 kcal from fat or 23% of the daily value
15g
65g X 100 = 23%
Similarly, one serving of paneer kadhai provides 3 g fibre which is 12% of the
daily value
25
3g xX 100 = 12%
The daily values are the RDA for nutrients and on the label, the nutrition facts need
to be expressed as a percentage of daily values prescribed for a 2,000 and a 2,500
kcalorie diet. The US FDA has fixed the serving size for various food items and the
serving size in the packet is no longer at the discretion of the product manufacturer.
Various health claims such as fat-free, cholesterol-free, and sugar-free are made
by product manufacturers. In order to use these terms, values have been set for the
content of nutrient present and accordingly terms such as free, light, low, and high
are used to describe these products.
Any declaration on the label which is not according to law will be deemed to be
misbranded.
If a product is commonly combined with other ingredients, e.g., a biryani masala
mix and the directions for preparation and addition of other ingredients is men-
tioned then the nutritional facts may be mentioned on the basis of the product
alone. For example, it can be on the basis of nutrient value of masala mix alone, or
on the basis of the final product, i.e., ready biryani with all added ingredients men-
tioned in the recipe. The additional ingredients and method of cooking on a burner
or in a microwave oven should be clearly specified in the recipe.
Some declarations are voluntary such as the declaration of potassium, soluble fibre,
insoluble fibre, stearic acid, sugar, alcohol, other carbohydrates, and B-complex vitamins.
Nutrition facts for nutrients present in small quantities can be mentioned as follows:
1. Nota significant source — less than 2% RDA for calcium, iron, vitamins A and C
Fibre, carbohydrate sugar, protein
SUMMARY
Food provided by residential institutions is probably the only source of nutrition for
the residents, and needs to meet the RDAs for the residents. If a single meal is
served it should provide one-third the RDA, which means food should be selected,
stored, prepared, and served keeping nutrient retention in mind, and. cooking prac-
tices which enhance the nutritive value should be followed. All this is necessary
because eating out has become a way of life and more of a compulsion than a
choice. The caterer or food manufacturer should know that many nutrients can be
lost through faulty cooking practices and it is the moral responsibility of the cater-
er to ensure that food served is wholesome and safe.
The consumer is gaining awareness about nutrition and health and is making wise
choices as far as food is concerned, to keep lifestyle-related diseases away. Fast foods
which are highly processed are very convenient for a meal but the heaith benefits of
many such items is limited as they lack essential nutrients and food groups such as
vitamins, minerals, and fibre. Most fast foods are rich in fats and refined carbohydrates.
Nutritional evaluation is the need of the hour and many factors should be con-
sidered before selecting food products. A wide range of processed foods is available,
but reading the nutritive value mentioned on the label should become a matter of
habit before making a choice.
Bie TE SIMUL
REEL LEITH SEE LSU LT NET EL ELLIE LN AEE SH EER UMREET LEE LETTE FECTS
c<EY TERMS
cerola cherry One of the richest source of vitamin C. Junk food These are processed foods that are low in
ast food These are processed foods available in mar- ‘healthy nutrient content.
ket that require little or no preparation before con- Phytochemicals A large group of chemicals present
sumption. in plants which are biologically active and affect
New Trends in Nutrition 349
hormonal and enzymatic processes in the body other Trans-fatty acids Geometrical isomers of unsaturat-
than the six nutrients. ed fatty acids that assume a saturated fatty acid like
Precooked product A convenience food which is configuration giving the fat a higher melting point
already cooked and only needs to be heated before and making the baked product crisper.
it is served.
SELL ETE SSS SSS SEES UR PSST MES IITTIRUPATI eEET
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Why is it necessary to mention nutrient facts on the label?
Q2 Which are the nutrients that must be disclosed on a food label?
QO3 Discuss the nutritive value of fast foods and foods served in restaurants.
O4 What influence does cooking have on the nutritive value of food?
Q5 Discuss the concept of fast foods and the factors influencing the growth of
this section of the industry.
Q6 List the various categories of convenience foods giving a suitable example
for each category.
Q7 Why is a knowledge of nutrition and food processing essential for people
who prepare or manufacture food?
Index
A B
Absorption 178 Bacterial synthesis 237
Acid modified starch 54 Balanced diet 280, 318
Acrolein 17, 88 definition 283
Activity level 268, 290 steps in planning 297
Additives 4, 6 Basal Metabolic Rate 266
Adenosine Triphosphate 184, 263 factors affecting 267
Adhesion 20 test 267
Adolescence Basic food groups 283, 295
favourite foods 310 foods included 288
nutritional needs 309 guidelines 288
Agar 59, 193 Beri-beri 239
Aging 311 Bile 224
Alcohol 191 Biological value 198
beverages 192 Biotin 242
Alcoholometers 10 Bitot spots 235
Algin 59 Blanching 130
Amino acids 196 Bland diet 321
classification 197 Body Building Food Group 284
definition 208 Body Mass Index 270
essential 196 Boiling point 15
formula 196 Bomb Calorimeter 265
nonessential 197, 208 Bone and Vitamin.A 235
synthetic 203 Bow legs 310
Amla 244
Bran 193
Amylopectin 46
Browning Reactions 112
Amylose 45
classification 113
Anabolism 180
detrimental effects 119
Anaemia
prevention of 114
B-complex 239
role of 118
definition 246
Buffers13
hypochromic 246
Bulimia 311
megaloblastic 241, 246
pernicious 242, 246 C
Angular Stomatitis 240
Anorexia nervosa 311 Cake 76
Antagonist 237, 246 Calciferol 236
Antioxidants 215, 237, 246 Calcium 236, 250, 254
Arachidonic acid 224 absorption 250
Artificial sweeteners 56, 191 deficiency 251
Aseptic Packaging 164 functions 250
Ascorbic acid 243 sources 250
Ascorbic acid Browning 118 Calorimeters 278
Atherosclerosis 224, 327 Calorimetry 263
Autoclave 15 Canning 130
Auto-oxidation 89 Caramelization 56, 117
Avidin 242 Carbohydrates 39, 181
Index 351
sources 257 V
Soft diet 320
Vacuum
Sol 27
cooking 128
Solid foam 27
packing 130
Solution 25
Variety 294 ¢
Solvent extraction of fat 94
Viscosity tests for 155
Soufflés 76
Vision and vitamin A 234
Soya foods 161
Vitamin A 234
Specific Dynamic Action 268, 278
deficiency
Sprouting 243
functions
Stabilizers 34
hypervitaminosis
Starch 43, 45, 183
requirement
Starch granules 47
sources
effect of cooking 49
Vitamin B-complex 238
types 52, 54
B, 239
Starch phosphates 55
By 240
Sterilization 15
Bg 242
‘Sucrose 43, 183
By 241
Sugar cookery 55
classification 238
Sugar and Jaggery 287
deficiency 238
Sulphur 257
Vitamin C 243
Sun drying 132
Vitamin D 236
Supplementary foods 307
Vitamin E 236
Surface tension 18
Vitamin K 237
Suspension 25
Vitamins 232
Sweeteners 106
classification 233
Syneresis 53
definition 233
T effect of cooking on 244
fat soluble 234
Taste 103 water soluble 238
Temperature Volume tests for 152
conversions 12 Volumeter 151
for frying 17 Voluntary activities 266
Texture tests for 54 Vulnerable age group 246
Textured Vegetable Proteins (TVP) 82
Thermometers 11 WwW
types of 13 Water
Thiamine 239 balance 229
Thiamine Pyrophosphate 239 deficiency 229
Tissue 179 functions 227
Tocopherol 236 loss 228
Trace elements 249 RDA 230
Trans fatty acids 342 retention 230
Triticale 290 sources 227
Tryptophan 240 Waxy starches 48
Weaning
U definition 317
Ultraviolet irradiation 136 Weights and measures
Undernutrition 170 conversion 21
Underweight 179, 71, 276 Winterization 95
Unmodified starches 54
Z
UV rays 236
Zinc 257
7 a
FE a ae Ta RN TE Ona ee
Key Features
m Provides ample examples, review questions, analytical thinking exercises, and
reference charts and tables
m= Emphasizes the importance of both organoleptic quality and health benefits of food
@ Clarifies food facts and exaggerated health claims made by manufacturers
= |t will also be an invaluable reference tool for professionals in planning healthy
meals, by virtue of its reference charts and tables.
Sunetra Roday is a senior member of the faculty at the Maharashtra State Institute of
Hotel Management and Catering Technology (MSIHMCT), Pune. She has been teaching
food science and nutrition for over 26 years.
A post-graduate in foods and nutrition from Lady Irwin College, New Delhi, she has
also a master's degree in tourism management. She has published books on hygiene
and sanitation, cookery, and food preservation. She is actively involved in consultancy
projects, curriculum development, and nutrition counselling.
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
ae
www.oup.com