Sunetra Roday - Food Science & Nutrition

‘@)seteyxe
HIGHER EDUCATION
SUNETRA RODAY
ood Sclence
K Nutrition
me SS oad
Sen
Maharashtra State Instbteo
“ofHotel Mannagement and
ogy
ILL ILIL
CORNWALL COLLEGE
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001
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ISBN-13: 978-0-19-56891 1-2

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12 OY
See mnan 9mLENG oy
stmt
Typeset in Baskerville
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Printed in India by Sai Printopack, New Delhi 110020
and published by Oxford University Press
YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001
In ever loving memory of
my father
late Col. A W Shrouti
on his 85th birth anniversary
vi Preface
oils, flavour, browning reactions, food processing, food evaluation, and the new
trends in foods. This part covers scientific principles and. their applications in the
preparation of food and commercial food products. The focus is on the composition,
structure, and behaviour of food in relation to pre-preparation, cooking, packaging,
and storage relevant to catering operations. New commodities and processes which
are of current relevance have been included.
The second part, comprising 12 chapters, introduces nutrition and explains
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, minerals, and energy metabolism
from the perspective of nutrition science. It also discusses balanced diets, menu
planning and mass food production, modified diets, and the new trends in nutrition.
Weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-related diseases are included. Dietary
guidelines for prevention of deficiency and problems related to excessive consumption
have been covered.
Sunetra Roday
Acknowledgements
Many people from the industry and academia have helped me in successfully
completing this project and I am grateful for their contributions. It is practically
impossible to name them all but I would specially like to mention a few.
I am grateful to Dr S K Mahajan, Joint Director, Technical Education, Maharashtra,
and Principal, Maharashtra State Institute of Hotel Management and Catering
Technology, Pune, for his inspiration and encouragement.
I would like to acknowledge the technical data provided by Dr Prashant Gadkari,
our family homeopath and friend at Pune.
I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my son Vikrant Roday and his friend
Praveen Khurjekar for providing all technical assistance and to my daughter
Dr Neha Roday for her invaluable contribution to the section on nutrition.
I would also like to thank my colleagues, support staff, and students for their
suggestions, contribution, and help.
I extend my sincere thanks to the publisher—its editorial and production staff—
and also the reviewers for their valuable time and suggestions.
I am greatly indebted to my husband and entire family for putting up with
impossible hours and schedules.
SR
Contents
Part! Food Science

1 Introduction to Food Science
Introduction
Food Science Concepts

Basic SI Units of Length, Area, Volume, and Weight
Density
Temperature
pH or Potential Hydrogen
Important Terminologies, their Definition and Relevance
Colloidal Systems in Foods
Introduction
Constituents of Food
Stability of Colloidal Systems
Carbohydrates
Introduction
Classification of Carbohydrates
Structure of Carbohydrates
Starch
Gelation
Retrogradation
Dextrinization
Types of Food Starches
Sugar
Soluble Fibres: Pectins, Gums, and Mucilages
Proteins
Introduction
Basic Structure and Properties
Native Proteins
Denatured Proteins
Functional Properties of Specific Protein Rich Foods
Milk
eeee “$C GD
Contents &
ix
Eggs 71
Meat 77
Commercial Uses of Proteins 81
6 Fats and Oils 85
Introduction 85
Structure 86
Rancidity 88
Reversion 90
Factors Leading to Rancidity and Reversion 91
Prevention of Rancidity 92
Effect of Heat on Fats and Oils OZ
Polymerization 92
Care of Fats and Oils 93
Extraction of Fats and Oils 93
Refining 94
Winterization 95
Hydrogenation of Oils 95
Shortenings 96
Popular Fats and Oils Available 98
Commercial Uses of Fats and Oils 99
7 Flavour 103
Introduction 103
Definitions 104
Use of Flavours in Food Preparation 110
8 Browning Reactions 112

Introduction 112
Types of Browning Reactions 113
Role of Browning In Food Preparation 118
Detrimental Effects of Browning 119
9 Food Processing 121
Introduction 121
Causes of Food Spoilage 122
Objectives of Food Processing 123
Methods of Food Preservation 124
Effect of Processing (Heat, Acid, and Alkali) on Food Constituents 139
x Contents
10 Evaluation of Food
Introduction
Methods of Evaluation
Proximate Analysis of Food Constituents
11 New Trends in Foods
Introduction
Soya Foods
Food Fads
Organic Foods
New Trends in Packaging
Edible Films
Part Il Nutrition
12 Introduction to Nutrition
Introduction
Relation of Food and Health
Food and its Functions
Classification of Nutrients
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Food
13 Carbohydrates
Introduction
Classification of Carbohydrates
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism
Dietary Sources
Functions
Artificial Sweeteners
Alcohol
14 Proteins
Introduction
Protein Quality
Classification of Proteins
Functions in the Human Body
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism
Methods of Improving Protein Quality
Factors Influencing Protein Requirements
Dietary Sources
Effect of Deficiency and Excess
Contents xi
15 Lipids 210
Introduction 210
Classification of Lipids 211
Fatty Acids 212
Unsaturated Fatty Acids 213
Antioxidants 215
Saturated Fatty Acids Zi
Phospholipids 216
Lipoproteins 216
Cholesterol 218
Functions of Fats 218
Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of Fats 219
Dietary Source 221
Deficiency of Fats Dae
Symptoms of Excessive Intake 222
Recommended Dietary Allowances 222
16 Water 226
Introduction 226
Functions 227
Daily Intake of Water 227.
Daily Loss of Body Water 228
Water Balance 229
17 Vitamins 232
Introduction 232
Classification 233
Fat Soluble Vitamins 234
Water Soluble Vitamins 238
Effect of Cooking on Vitamins 245
18 Minerals 248
Introduction 248
Classification 249
General Functions of Minerals 249
19 Energy Metabolism 261

Introduction 261
Forms of Energy 262
Units of Measurement 263
xii Contents eee
Tee
Energy Value of Food

Energy Needs of the Body
Total Energy Requirement
Basal Metabolic Rate
Specific Dynamic Action
Physical Activity
Energy Balance
Calculating the Energy Value Based on Proximate Principles
Dietary Sources
Estimation of Energy Requirements
Modifying Energy Content of Meals
20 Balanced Diet
Introduction
Recommended Dietary Allowances
Basic Food Groups
Guidelines for Using the Basic Food Group
21 Menu Planning and Mass Food Production
Introduction
Factors Influencing Meal Planning
Planning Balanced Meals
Steps in Planning Balanced Meals
Calculating the Nutritive Value of a Recipe
Special Nutritional Requirements
Effect of Quantity Cooking and Processing on Nutrients
22 Modified Diets
Introduction
Purpose of Diet Therapy
Classification of Modified Diets
Diets for Common Disorders
23 New Trends in Nutrition

Need for Serving Nutritional and Health-specific Meals
Nutritive Value of Fast Food and Junk Food
Nutritional Evaluation of Newly Launched Products
Significance of Nutritional Labelling
Index
PART ONE 7 FOOD SCIENCE
Introduction
Food Science
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
¢ appreciate the importance of food science to a caterer in the context of the processed food
revolution
¢ understand the relationship of food science to food EEN: fone AEP OOEy and food
processing | | oe
appreciate the role of convenience feeds in our day:-to-“day life
define the term food science and know the types of changes which take place in food
INTRODUCTION
‘he food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry, is

one of the largest and most needed industry in the world today fulfilling one
». of our three basic needs, i.e., food. Its growth rate is phenomenal, growing
by leaps and bounds to provide three square meals to our rapidly increasing popu-
lation and keeping pace with the ever-changing demands of the population.
The developments in the food industry can be traced back to surplus food
which needed to be preserved for a rainy day. Food preservation is not a new phe-
nomenon. Our forefathers understood the basic principles underlying food
preservation and practised them using natural ingredients and the forces of nature
2 Food Science and Nutrition
like sunlight and ultraviolet rays till newer and more scientific methods were
developed. :
Improvement in equipment and machinery has made it possible to increase
the capacity of food processing plants greatly. The shelf life of perishable foods
has increased dramatically with the invention of the refrigerator and the use of
dry ice.
With the advent of the wheel, surplus food was transported several hundred
miles. As early as in 1850, milk was transported by special milk trains and tank
trucks over a distance of several hundred miles with negligible loss in quality. Food
which was perishable was moved thousands of miles before it was processed,
stored, and consumed.
Over the past few decades, the food industry has witnessed a significant change.
The market has witnessed such a flood of food commodities, superior in quality and
available all year round. Ice cream filled cones and nuts in ice cream retaining their
crunch, fresh milk stored on the shelf for months, and crisp croutons in a ready to
serve cream soup are a few marvels of food science and technology. With these
advances in science and technology, the consumer has an unlimited choice of meals
to choose from all year round.
The aesthetic value of food is important. To be able to offer the consumer quali-
ty cuisine, basic knowledge of food science and its applications is necessary. Every
food handler should know the composition, structure, and behaviour of food and
the changes that take place during cooking, holding, and storage as well as what
happens to food once it is consumed, i.e., its digestion, absorption, and metabolism
in the human body.
The study of food is today accepted as a separate discipline called food
science.
Definition Food science is a systematic study of the nature of food materials and the
scientific principles underlying their modification, preservation, and spoilage.
To understand food science, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, mathematics,
and biology and their applications, i.e., biochemistry, microbiology, and food tech-
nology, are necessary to prepare, package, store, and serve wholesome, high quality
products.
All foods are chemical compounds which undergo various chemical reactions at
all stages from production to consumption. These reactions are based on the laws
of chemistry. Many processes used while preparing food involve physical changes
apart from chemical changes.
Matter exists in three states—solid, liquid, gas.
In general, as the temperature is increased, a pure substance will change from
solid to liquid and then to a gas, without change in chemical composition. However,
Introduction to Food Science 3
many organic compounds will decompose, undergoing various chemical reactions,

rather than a change of state when temperature is raised.
Many foods are complex mixtures of chemical substances. In processed foods,
additives are added to improve colour, texture, flavour, etc., and these additives are
also chemical compounds. It undergoes further chemical changes during storage,
cooking, processing as well as in the human body during digestion of food by action
of chemical substances.
Physical aspects of food such as the various food systems are of colloidal dimen-
sions. Food is subjected to various physical conditions during preparation and stor-
age which affect its quality such as temperature and pressure changes.
Food chemistry is the science that deals with the composition, structure, and
properties of food, and with chemical changes that take place in food. It forms a
major part of food science and is closely related to food microbiology. The chemi-
cal composition of food dictates which micro-organisms can grow on it and the
changes which take place in the food because of their growth. The changes may be
planned and desirable or may result because of contamination, causing disease, i.e.,
causing food poisoning and food infection or just spoiling the food renderingitunfit
for consumption. Micro-organisms have basic growth requirements, namely, food,
moisture, temperature, time, osmotic pressure, pH, and the presence or absence of
oxygen.
Food chemistry and food microbiology are intimately related to food processing
because the processes to which food needs to be subjected to improve its taste, tex-
ture, flavour, and aroma depend on its composition and ingredients. The time and
temperature for food processing depend not only on the chemical composition of
food but on its microbial load and the type of packaging to be used.
The growing public demand for meals away from home has made the problem
of serving safe wholesome food more critical and challenging. This makes it imper-
ative for food handlers to understand and implement the basic principles of the
food science to enable them to prepare and serve high quality products over
extended lunch hours.
The Need for Convenience Foods

Rapid urbanization and changes in social and cultural practices have modified the
food habits of the community. Industrial development in Indian cities has compelled
labour from villages to migrate to cities in search of employment. It is estimated that
within the next ten years, half the world’s population will be living and working in
urban areas. Increase in buying power and long hours spent away from home com-
muting to work places, make convenience foods a necessity in every home.
The ever-increasing market for convenience foods, be it tinned, canned, chilled,
frozen, or preserved, presents a whole array of complex operations in food
processing. This weaning away from the traditional fare of yesteryears provides a
tremendous and urgent challenge to the food industry: serving safe, attractive, and
nutritious food that is wholesome and bacteriologically safe and conforms with
quality standards.
The urban workforce does not have the time or inclination to follow the tradi-
tional recipes and would rather pick up packed, clean, and reasonably priced meals
rather than return home from work and do domestic chores.
Most food consumed in developed countries is in the form of convenience foods.
Convenience foods are foods that require little labour and time to prepare. A pack-
et of frozen green peas is a convenience food since it requires no shelling. A pack-
et of whole wheat flour is also a convenience food as it has already been milled. A
packet of instant idli mix is more of a convenience food, and ‘ready to eat’ or ‘heat
and eat’ foods like chicken keema matar or canned palak paneer are most conven-
ient since they need no further cooking.
Many different types of convenience foods are available in the market today. The
speed and efficiency of cooking and service increases dramatically with the use of
convenience foods, giving the caterer, homemaker, or working professional more
time to devote to other activities. The convenience food revolution is possible
because of a wide variety of chemicals which are added to food not only to preserve
it but to enhance its overall quality. These numerous chemicals, tested and permit-
ted by law to be added to food are called food additives.
Today, convenience foods are being specially packed for caterers and are avail-
able in large catering packs. Manufacturers of specialized food supplies pack food
so that it fits into standard catering equipment, e.g., catering packs that fit into vend-
ing machines. The caterer can choose between smaller packs and larger packs that
are economical.
Convenience foods need to be handled with care because one source of infection
can contaminate thousands of prepacked items. Take-away meals should not be
kept for a long time, hygiene should be practised in processing plants, and time and
temperature control should be observed during storage. Leftover contents in large
catering packs should not be stored in the open.
Convenience foods help by saving considerable time and effort. However, the
cost of convenience foods compared to home-prepared foods should be considered
before purchase. Some foods may not be costlier while others may work out to be
expensive. For people who have to rush home from work and prepare a meal, such
foods purchased on the way home or stacked in the deep freezer are not only time-
saving but also convenient.
Convenience foods vary widely in their palatability, nutrient content, and cost.
The consumer can choose from a bewildering display of snacks, soups, sauces, fruit
Introduction to Food Science 5
chunks and juices, desserts, meat, and vegetable preparations and gravies in the
ready to eat and ready to cook form. They need to be warmed up in a microwave
before they are served.
Canned foods, commercially prepared chappatis, snacks both sweet and savoury,
main course, vegetable preparations, soups, gravies, sauces, breakfast cereals, bak-
ery items, deep frozen foods, dry ready mixes, etc., are not only time saving but
convenient to cook and store.
Thus, food science covers all aspects of food, from the properties of food materials
and influences of all factors affecting food, beginning from growing the food to har-
vesting or slaughter, i.e., all stages from the farm to the table, from raw food till it is
consumed like processing, nutritive value, shelf life, novel sources of food, fabricated
food and food analogs, conservation and re-use of resources to make more food.
A study of food science and nutrition will be of benefit to all food professionals.
SUMMARY
The food industry is a fast-growing industry that applies the principles of food sci-
ence and technology to offer the consumer a wide array of fresh and processed
foods to meet their nutritional needs, wants, and budget. These foods are available
under different brand names, all year round in delectable flavours and assorted
preparations.
The aesthetic value of food is an important criterion in its acceptability. Every
food handler should be aware of the composition, structure, and behaviour of food
and what happens to it during processing and after consumption. The systematic
study of food is called food science. All foods are chemical compounds and under-
go physical as well as chemical changes. The various food systems are of colloidal
dimensions and various physical conditions such as temperature and pressure affect
its quality.
Food science is intimately related to food chemistry, food microbiology, and food
processing. To understand this, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry, mathemat-
ics, and biology are necessary.
The growing demand for meals away from home has made the problem of serving
safe and wholesome food critical and challenging. With rapid urbanization and
changes in food habits and lifestyles, and increase in the number of couples who have
little time has caused a shift in focus from farm-grown fresh foods to partially or total-
ly processed convenience foods. These foods require little labour and time to prepare
and are useful to both caterers and homemakers. The shelf life and acceptability of
these foods are enhanced by the use of permitted additives. The consumer can choose
from a wide range of ‘ready-to-cook’ and ‘ready-to-eat’ foods.
SES MM LE UE UTR LULL LS a eae yeaa rd ee eee hg Sula fe AAU LSE AEE SU MTSE TEM EET OLE ESET,
KEY TERMS
Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide having temperature Food technology Application of the principles of
of -79°C and used to refrigerate foodstuffs being food science to the preservation, processing, pack-
transported. aging, storage, and transportation of food materials.
Convenience foods Processed foods in which much Food science A study of the physical and chemical
pre-preparation/preparation has already been done constituents of food and the scientific principles
by the manufacturer, e.g., frozen green peas, break- underlying their modification, preservation, and
fast cereals, and canned foods. spoilage.
Additives All material added to food to improve its shelf Food microbiology A study of bacteria, yeasts, and
life, colour, flavour, texture, taste, and quality, such as moulds, and their harmful and useful effects on food
flavouring agents, antioxidants, preservatives, etc. and its consumption.
SD SPER LELAND IME LTE TENGE UTA UES SUN ABATE OE LTE LIE ETM SETA LEGS OLE ESS TIGL BELEN ET TELL HE ESET SEM LET NEON EES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What changes have the food industry witnessed in the last century?
2. Why is knowledge of the principles of food science necessary for a catering
professional?
3. What do you understand by the term ‘convenience foods’? What foods
does it include? Give suitable examples from your daily life.
4. Do you think convenience foods are necessary? Justify your answer giving
suitable examples.
Food Science
Concepts
~ Learning Objectives
_ After reading this chapter, you should able oe
’ appreciate the importance of es thebasic concepts iin
physics, chemistry,
and biology
interpret the weights and measures in recipes ae
weigh and measure ingredients accurately = : 7
. understand and define the relevant terms, that a, anpiseadant role in fad ston
© understand the applications of these concepts in the food industry —
apply this knowledge in real lifesituations |
Weights and measures are set standards which are used to find the size of sub-
stances. To obtain a high quality product and carry out a profitable business, accu-
rate weighing and measuring of all ingredients is essential.
BASIC SI UNITS OF LENGTH, AREA, VOLUME, AND WEIGHT
‘he SI or International System of measurement is used universally for meas-

urement of matter. In this system, prefixes such as ‘deci’, ‘centi’, and ‘milli’,
and units such as ‘litre’, ‘gram’, ‘metre’, and derived units such as ‘joule’ and
‘pascal’ are used.
Prefixes represent numbers or numerical quantities symbolized by letters.

mega = M = 1,000,000 = one million
kilo = k = 1,000 = one thousand
deci = d = 1/10 = one tenth
centi = c = 1/100 = one hundredth
milli = m = 1/1,000 = one thousandth
micro = L = 1/1,000,000 = one millionth
Measurement of Length
The unit for measuring length is the metre (m).
Length is measured using a measuring tape or ruler.
One thousand metres (1,000 m) = one kilometre (km).
A metre is divided into hundred parts. Each part is called a centimetre (cm) or
one metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm).
Each centimetre is made up of ten smaller parts called millimetre (mm) one cen-
timetre = 10 millimetres (mm).
The simplest instrument for measuring length is a scale or ruler measuring one
metre, or a measuring tape.
Measurement of Volume
Volume and capacity is measured in litres. A litre is made up of 10 decilitres
(dl). Each decilitre is made up of 10 centilitres (cl). A centilitre is made up of
10 millilitres (ml), which means that a litre is made up of one thousand millilitres
(1,000 ml).
Most measuring cups and jugs are marked in millilitres and litres. The capacity
of cups and spoons is listed below.
1 tablespoon = 15 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
1 breakfast cup = 240 ml
1 coffee cup = 100-120 ml
1 teacup = 150-180 ml
1 water glass = 280-300 ml
Food Science Concepts 9
Measuring pan
Adjustment
knob
Pointer
Fig. 2.1 Single pan weighing scale
The volume of solids that is not greatly affected by water can be measured by the
water displacement method. Solids are immersed in the displacement can and the
volume of water displaced, equal to the volume of the solid, is noted.
The seed method is used to measure the volume of cake and bread. A large tin
box is filled to the brim with seeds and the volume of seeds required to fill the box
is measured in a measuring cylinder. The cake of which the volume is to be meas-
ured is placed in the empty tin and covered with seeds. The volume of seeds
remaining after covering the cake is equal to the volume of the cake.
Measurement of Weight or Mass

Weight is the pull experienced on the body by the earth’s force of gravity. Mass is
the amount of matter contained in a known volume of substance. Mass always
remains constant but weight may change in different parts of the world because the
force of gravity varies from place to place.
Weight is measured on a weighing scale. The kilogram is the unit for measuring
weight and is made up of one thousand smaller parts called grams.
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g)
Each gram is further divided into one thousand smaller parts called milligrams (mg).
1 g= 1,000 mg
Each milligram is further divided into 1,000 micrograms (j\g).
1 mg = 1,000 ug
From the above we conclude that
1 kg = 1,000,000 mg and a measure of 1 ppm means | mg in | kg of a substance.
DENSITY
Density is the relationship between the weight and volume of a substance expressed as
weight in kg
Density =
volume in m?
It is expressed in kilograms per cubic metre and is used to compare the heavi-
ness or lightness of different foods.
A fruit cake has a greater density as compared to a sponge cake. The density of
liquids is measured in g/cm3. Water has a density of 1 g/cm’.
Relative Density
Relative density (R.D.) is the ratio of the mass of a known volume of a substance to
the mass of the same volume of water. It tells us the number of times the volume of
a substance is heavier or lighter than an equal volume of water. If the R.D. of a vol-
ume of lead is 11, it means that it is eleven times as heavy as an equal volume of
water.
mass or weight of a substance
Relative density =
weight of equal volume of water
A hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids. It is
made up of a weighted bulb with a graduated stem calibrated to measure the rela-
tive density of the liquid directly. The liquid to be tested should be at room tem-
perature and the hydrometer is allowed to float in the liquid. The depth to which it
sinks is read on the graduated stem. Hydrometers are specifically calibrated to
measure the R.D. of different liquids used in the catering industry.
Saccharometers are used to determine the concentration of sugar solutions,
denoted in degrees Brix. A 75% sugar solution is called 75 degrees Brix.
Salinometers are used to determine the R.D. of brine or sodium chloride solu-
tions used for canning vegetables or pickling ham.
Lactometers are used for checking the purity of milk. Addition of water or
removal of cream affects the R.D. and is depicted on the graduated scale on the
stem. The scale is marked 1.00 to 1.04. ‘W’ denotes R.D. of water, ‘M’ denotes pure
milk, and ‘S’ denotes skim milk.
Alcoholometers are used to test the R.D. of alcoholic beverages. It is used to
check the number of degrees proof or ethanol content of wines, beers, and spirits,
and whether it has been diluted.
Refractometers are used to measure the sugar or total solids in solution (TSS)
while preparing jam, syrups, etc. They measure the refractive index of light reflected
through the solution.
Refractometer reading 28° Brix

Fig. 2.2 A refractometer
Besides checking the purity of milk, ethanol content of alcoholic beverages,

strength of salt solution, and concentration or stage of ‘doneness’ for sugar syrups
and preserves like jam, sauce, and candied fruit, the other applications of R.D. are
e testing eggs for freshness when eggs are dipped in a 10% salt solution, fresh
eggs sink and stale eggs float because of a large air space caused by staling;
e determining the lightness of cakes; and
e choosing potatoes for boiling and frying. Potatoes that have a low R.D.
should be boiled, while those that have a high R.D. should be baked or fried.
TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy needed to carry out work. Energy is the capacity for doing
work. Energy is present in two forms: (1) potential energy or stored energy, such as
the energy stored in a bar of chocolate; and (2) kinetic energy or active energy in
motion, such as when a person is walking.
Energy is present in many forms. Heat is one form of energy. Solar energy, elec-
trical energy, and chemical energy are some of the others.
Heat energy is measured in units called joules and the energy present in food is
measured in kilocalories. One kilocalorie is made up of 1,000 calories.
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.2 kilojoules (kj)
1 calorie = 4.2 joules
Temperature refers to the relative hotness or coldness of a substance compared
with melting ice at 0°C and boiling water at 100°C. Thermometers are used to
measure temperature.
Temperature is measured either in the Celsius or centigrade scale (°C) or in the

Farenheit scale (°F). Each scale has two fixed points: .
1. Melting point of ice (0°C or 32°F)
2. Boiling point of water (100°C or 212°F).
The Celsius scale is divided into 100 degrees and the Farenheit scale into 180
degrees. The Celsius scale is the international scale.
Conversion of Farenheit scale to Celsius scale
To convert temperature in °F into °C the following formula is used
Cr. 39. x 5=9C

9
To convert 212°F into °C
(212°F - 32) x 5.
20 9
= 80x35,
g
70 KS
= 100°C
So 2f2fF= 100©
A probe thermometer A candy thermometer

(meat thermometer) (sugar thermometer)
stainless steel body glass thermometer
glass dial fitted on brass 40°C to 180°C
Fig. 2.3 Thermometers
Types of Thermometers
Most thermometers are mercury in glass thermometers with different temperature
ranges depending on their purpose. Some common thermometers are:
1. Sugar or confectionery thermometers (40°C to 180°C)
2. Dough testing thermometers (19°C to 43°C)
O29 Meat thermometers with a special spike which can be pierced into meat and
a round dial to record temperature
4. Refrigeration thermometers filled with red coloured ethanol (-30°C
to —IDGC).
pH OR POTENTIAL HYDROGEN
When an acid is diluted with water it dissociates into hydrogen ions and acid radical ions.
HCl = Ht ~ Cr
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen ion Chloride ion
(acid radical)
The term pH (hydrogen ion concentration) is used to express the degree of acidity
or alkalinity of a food. It is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the hydro-
gen ion concentration, i.e., higher the hydrogen ion concentration, lower will be the
pH and vice versa. Some foods like fruits contain organic acids and have an acid reac-
tion while others such as milk are neutral. Bakery products leavened with baking pow-
der, have an alkaline reaction. Pure water is pH 7 or neutral.
The pH scale of pH 0 to pH 14, ie., from extremely strong acids to extremely
strong alkali is used to describe the acidity or alkalinity of food.
A reading between pH 1 to pH 6.5 indicates acidic food while pH 7.5 to pH 14
indicates alkaline food. The pH of a solution can be measured electrically using the
pH meter or it may be measured colorimetrically using pH papers which change
colours according to the pH.
Buffers
They are defined as solutions that can resist a change of pH on addition of acids or
alkalis but within limits. These solutions are made up of a weak acid and one of its
salts or a weak base and one of its salts.
Acid Neutral Alkali
0 1 ie Set Oe ees BOw TO! TTD. Ag ee

Extremely Weak Weak Extremely
strong acid acid alkali strong alkali
Fig. 2.4 The pH scale
14
ee Food Science
ee and Nutrition
ee —E—
Table 2.1 pH values of some common foods
Strongly acidic Vinegar

Lime juice
Pickles
Apples
Orange juice
Fruit cake
Tomato
Banana
Bread
Mildly acidic Spinach
Potatoes
Peas
Butter chicken
Salmon
Milk
Mildly , Egg white

Alkaline , Soda bread
When hydrogen ions (H*) or hydroxide ions (OH’) are added, they can be
absorbed by these systems without altering the pH of the resulting solution.
Common buffers are:
1. Acetic acid and sodium acetate mixture
2. Citric acid and sodium citrate mixture.
Buffering action is very important in the human body and in food. The salts of
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium function as buffers and maintain the
pH of milk at a constant level of 6.5.
Applications of pH:
1. Preparation of jam—The pectin in jam and marmalade does not form a gel
until the pH is lowered to 3.5. If fruit used for making these preserves does
not contain sufficient acid, small amounts of citric acid should be added.
2. Retaining bright green colour in green vegetables—Green vegetables tend to
get discoloured when cooked. Green colour can be retained by adding a
pinch of sodium bicarbonate to the cooking liquor but B complex vitamins
and vitamin C gets destroyed in an alkaline medium.
co Food digestion—pH of thegastrointestinal juices affects our digestive process.
The pH of gastric juice is strongly acidic, between 1 and 2, and aids in diges-
tion of food in the stomach while a mildly alkaline pH, between pH 7 and 8
is needed, to complete digestion in the intestine.
4. Texture of cakes—A significant change in texture is observed with a change in

pH while baking cakes. Low pH gives a fine texture and high pH gives a
coarse texture to the cake crumb.
5. pH of dough—In bread making, compressed yeast is used for fermentation.
During fermentation, yeasts convert simple sugars to ethyl alcohol and car-
bon dioxide.
(a) Ethyl alcohol takes up oxygen and forms acetic acid
(b) Carbon dioxide dissolves partially in water to form carbonic acid
(c) Chemical yeast food, i.e., ammonium sulfate and ammonium chloride if
used, produce sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid respectively.
All these acids lower the pH of the dough from pH 6.0 to pH 4.5. This change in
pH makes the dough less sticky and more elastic.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES, THEIR DEFINITION AND RELEVANCE

Boiling Point
Boiling is the use of heat to change a substance from a liquid to a gas. The change
takes place throughout the body of the liquid at a definite temperature.
Like the melting point, the boiling point of a pure substance is always constant.
It changes if impurities or dissolved substances are present or by changes in atmos-
pheric pressure. Pure water boils at 100°C.
Applications of boiling point:
1. Boiling vegetables in salted water increases the boiling point above 100°C.
2. In sugar cookery, the boiling points of sugar solutions is noted at various
stages so that fondant, fudge, toffee, and caramel can be prepared.
Boiling under pressure When atmospheric pressure is lowered, water boils at a lower
temperature of 70°C. At hill stations, the atmospheric pressure is low so temperature is
also lower and food takes longer time to cook. When pressure is increased, e.g., below
sea levelvor boiling in a pressure cooker, water boils at higher temperatures and food
cooks faster.
Applications of boiling under pressure:
1. Food is cooked in pressure cookers to reduce cooking time to one-fourth
of ordinary cooking time as water boils at a higher temperature under
pressure.
2. Autoclaves are used for sterilization by moist heat under pressure at
121°C and 15 lb pressure for 20 minutes.
Evaporation
Evaporation is a change of state from liquid to gas which takes place continuously
from the surface of a liquid.
Operating valve
Handle ‘
Temp 121°C
Pressure gauge
(15 lb pressure)
Clamps
Gasket
Perforated
stand
Electric coil
Fig. 2.5 An autoclave
Volatile liquids vaporize easily e.g., petrol and acetone.

Non-volatile liquids like oils evaporate very gradually. Evaporation is faster when
there is breeze and low humidity in the air as well as a large surface area and high
temperature.
Applications of evaporation:
1. Bread and cake if left uncovered, hardens and becomes stale because of loss
of moisture. This can be prevented by storing food in covered tins.
2. Cooking in shallow uncovered pans will cause greater evaporation and is
used for preparing mawa from milk.
3. Milk powder is prepared by dehydration or spray drying in which water from
milk is removed by circulating hot air.
Melting Point
Melting or fusion is the change of state from a solid to a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid melts and turns into a liquid is called its melt-
ing point. The melting point of fats depends on the percentage of saturated long
chain fatty acids present in it.
The melting point for any chemical is fixed and is used to measure the purity of
a substance. It is lowered by adding other substances.
Melting point of fats:
Vanaspati 37-39°C
Butter 36©
Lard 44°C
Tallow 48°C
Coconut oil 26°C
Applications of melting point:

1. Ice has a melting point of 0°C. If adequate sodium chloride is added to ice,
the melting point falls to -18°C. This lowering of melting point is made use
of in the setting of ice cream.
2. Fat is removed from adipose tissue of animals by a process called rendering
which is based on the melting point. Boiling water or dry heat is used to
liberate the oil from the fat cells.
Corn oil temperatures:
l. Frying 180-195°C
2. Smoke point Den©
3. Flash point Be @
4. Fire point 363°C
Smoke point When fats and oils are heated strongly above frying temperature,
they decompose and a stage is reached at which visible thin bluish smoke is given
off. This temperature is called the smoke point.
The temperature varies with different fats and ranges between 160 and 260°C.
The bluish vapour is because of formation of acrolein from overheated glycerol.
Acrolein has an acrid odour and is irritating to the eyes.
The smoking point is lowered by the following factors:
1. Presence of large quantities of free fatty acids
2. Exposure of large surface area while heating
3. Presence of suspended food particles.
CH,O. CO.R CH, OH

CHO. CO.R ———————-» 3 RCOOH 1+ CH OH
high temperature CH, OH
CH,O. CO.R
Fat or oil Free fatty acids Glycerol
heat to
smoke point
and above
2H,O CHy).CH.CHO
+
Water Acrolein
Fig. 2.6 Effect of high temperature on fat
18
Ra
Food Science and Nutrition
a Sci i ke ee ee ee ee ee
Flash point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats
and oils can be ignited, but will not support combustion. The flash point varies with
different fats and ranges between 290 and 330°C.
Fire point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats and
oils support combustion. It ranges between 340 and 360°C for different fats. The oil
or fat may catch fire and burn.
The smoke point, flash point, and fire point are lowered by the presence of free
fatty acids.
Table 2.2 Smoke point of some common fats
Corn oil
Cotton seed
Soya bean
Ground nut
Butter
Lard
Beef dripping
Normal frying temperature for most oils is 180-195°C. The smoke point is
25-40°C above normal frying temperature. The application of smoke point is in
frying foods. Fats and oils used for deep fat frying should have a high smoke point.
Moist foods should be coated well before frying as moisture present in food tends
to hydrolyse the fat and increase the free fatty acids present.
Surface Tension
Surface tension is a force experienced on the surface of a liquid. It is caused by
cohesion, i.e., a force that causes the molecules of a substance to be attracted to one
another.
The molecules of a liquid that are below the surface are pulled by cohesive forces
from all directions. But the molecules at the surface behave differently because they
are only pulled downwards or sideways. This downward or sideways attraction
causes a constant pull on the surface molecules which makes the liquid behave as if
it is covered by a thin elastic film. For example, the surface of water can support
needles if they are placed carefully.
Because of surface tension, drops of liquid take a spherical shape, which has the
smallest possible surface area, e.g., dew drops.
Surface tension causes liquids to rise in a thin tube (capillary tube) when the tube
is dipped in liquid. This property of liquids is important in many food systems and
in the action of detergents.
Surface tension is also defined as the force of attraction which exists between liq-
uid and solid surfaces.
Applications of surface tension:
1. Addition of detergent to liquids reduces the surface tension of water and the
surface attraction between the fibre and greasy stain, and allows the soil to be
removed from the fabric.
2. Release agents help prevent the paper lining the tin from sticking to the cake.
They contain silicone compounds.
3. Silicones have a property of lowering the surface tension and is added to
wood polishes to allow the polish to spread easily.
4. Non-stick cookware is coated with polytetrafluoroethane plastic or silicone to
prevent attraction between the food and pan.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water from a weak solution to a stronger solution through
a semipermeable membrane.
When raisins are soaked in a cup of water for sometime, the raisins swell because
water from the cup enters the raisins. Similarly, if raisins are placed in a concen-
trated sugar solution, they shrivel up after sometime because water from the raisins
passes into the sugar solution because of osmosis.
Plant and animal cell membranes act as semipermeable membranes and selec-
tively permit water and electrolytes to enter or leave the cell.
Applications of osmosis:
1. Osmosis plays an important role in food processing and preservation to retain
the original shape and size of canned fruits in syrup and of vegetables in pickles.
2. The freshness of fruits and vegetables depends on the osmotic pressure in the
cells. Salads lose their crisp crunchy texture and become limp if salt and
sugar is sprinkled much in advance. Lettuce leaves can be revived by
immersing then in chilled water.
Humidity
Humidity refers to the presence of water vapour in the air. Water vapour is pro-
duced by respiration of plants and animals, evaporation from food during cooking
and from water bodies, from rain during the monsoons, etc.
In catering establishments, moisture in the air is quite high because of large vol-
umes of steam from boilers, from cooking food, from dishwashers and laundry
processes, and respiration and perspiration of people in a confined area.
A humid atmosphere causes discomfort, headache, and tiredness.

The humidity of the air is measured with the help of a hygrometer. This instru-
ment depicts the percentage of water vapour in the air. It is a ratio between the
amount of water vapour which air could hold and what it actually holds at the same
temperature. Humidity of 60-70% is considered normal and does not cause dis-
comfort or undue spoilage of food.
Applications of humidity:
1. Spoilage organisms multiply and spores germinate at high moisture levels in
the atmosphere.
2. Humidity needs to be controlled in air-conditioned rooms along with venti-
lation and heating which is done by humidifier water sprays which maintain
60-70% humidity.
3. Processed foods are prevented from drying up by adding substances with
hygroscopic properties called humectants. Glycerine and sorbitol are used as
humectants in jam.
Food Rheology
It is the science of measuring forces which are needed to deform food materials or to
study the flow properties of liquid foods. It deals with the viscous behaviour of a system.
Solid food can be chopped up, ground, minced, sliced, torn apart, or broken
while it is being prepared or eaten. The texture is determined when we chew food
and it is described as crisp, tough, chewy, creamy, sticky, spongy, etc.
Liquid foods are fluid or viscous. Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a liquid
to flow. It is measured by an instrument called a viscometer. This property of a liquid
is seen in batters, sauces, syrups, etc.
Compression It is the pressure needed to squash foam or spongy foods to find out
their freshness or tenderness. The compressimeter or tenderometer is used to meas-
ure the lightness of a product.
Adhesion Adhesive gum-like properties give stickiness to food which sticks to the
teeth when chewed, like toffee. Breaking strength of dry foods, such as spaghetti,
biscuits, and potato wafers, are measured by applying a load till the product breaks.
Shearing It is the force needed to cut or slice through meat, vegetables, fruits, etc.,
and indicates the toughness of a food. Penetrometers measure the force needed to
penetrate a food, such as jelly, cooking fat, canned and fresh fruits, and vegetables.
Rigidity It is the property of those substances which do not flow, e.g., baked cus-
tard and cake. Rigid substances show either elastic property or plastic property.
Elastic substances These substances do not flow, but flow when force is applied.
However, when the force is removed it regains its original shape, e.g., sponge cake.
Table 2.3. Conversion of imperial units to metric equivalents
Length 1 inch (in) 2.5 centimetres (cm)

1 foot (ft ) 30.5 centimetres (cm)
39.4 inches (in) 100 centimetres (cm)or 1 metre
1 mile 1.6 kilometres
Volume 1 pint 568 millilitres (ml)

1 gallon 4.5 litres (I)
1.8 pints 1 litre (|)
Weight 1 ounce (0z.) 28.4 grams (g)

1 pound (Ib) 454 grams (g)
2.2 pounds (!b) 1 kilogram (kg)
Energy 1 kilocalorie (kcal) 4.2 kilojoules (kJ)

1 calorie (cal) 4.2 joules (J)
Temperature 32°Fahrenheit (F) 0°Celsius (C)

212°Fahrenheit (F) 100°Celsius (C)
Area 1 square inch (sq. in) 6.45 square centimetres (sq. cm)
1 square foot (sq. ft) 929 sq. cm
1 square mile 2.59 sq. km
Elasticity It is the property which permits a substance to change its shape when a
force is applied to it and to come back to its original shape once the force is
removed, provided the force applied is within elastic limits.
Applications of elasticity:
1. The stretching power of the dough can be tested before baking. The extensi-
bility of flour is due to gluten formed in flour. Over-kneading of dough results
in decreased elasticity.
2. Dough improvers are chemicals added to improve or strengthen the elasticity
of bread dough.
3. Addition of malt flour gives a softer-textured dough because of enzymes pres-
ent in malt.
Plastic substances These substances resist flow to a certain point, but beyond that
point they flow, i.e., they become plastic in nature.
Plasticity is an important property of margarine. A plastic fat is one which can be
creamed as well as forms a thin sheet or layer in dough when the dough is rolled
out, e.g., flaky pastry.
‘Satine MASE OUP SR GLP EU LE A Se PBA BG eS elPR rae ae eta psa eee iP a IMP meee HP LARTER LT POTS EEL ERR
SUMMARY
A knowledge of basic physical, chemical, and biological sciences are needed by all
students studying catering. Today, the SI or International System of measurement is
used universally for measuring matter. The unit for measuring length is the metre
and for volume it is the litre. Weight is measured in kilograms and may change from
place to place because of the force of gravity or pull of the earth. Density is the rela-
tionship between weight and volume of a substance while relative density is the
mass of a known volume of a substance divided by the mass of the same volume of
water. The hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids
and are specifically calibrated to measure the relative density of different sub-
stances. The lactometer is used to test the purity of milk, the saccharometer is used
to measure the concentration of sugar soiutions, alcoholometers are used to check
the degrees proof, and salinometers to check the relative density of brine.
Energy is present in many forms, such as heat, solar, electrical, and chemical.
Heat is measured in joules. Temperature is measured in degrees Farenheit and
degrees Celsius, the potential hydrogen (pH) is used to express the degree of acidi-
ty or alkalinity of a food. A pH between | and 6.5 is acidic and above 7.5 it is called
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH of 7, which is neutral.
Buffers help in maintaining the pH of foods at a constant level.
-Many other terminologies are relevant and need to be known and their applica-
tions understood by the caterer.
5 REET RL ILE TRE LL ELEM TUR OT LEELA LM ERI ET TLS DEERE ELT IM LET TERE LL REL EANRE LET DEOL BES TELE LTT LIES UEETT ESR LEAT TRIS RTEESTES SINISE SME ES UE EERIE SLL URES,
KEY TERMS
Acrolein A substance formed when glycerol from fat Rendering The process of removal of fat from the fat
is heated at high temperatures which is irritating to cells of adipose tissue of animals by dry heat method.
the eyes and respiratory tract. Silicone Organic compounds of silicon used on non-
Hygroscopic Readily absorbing water, such sub- sticking wrapping paper.
stances are used as drying agents, e.g., silica gel and
calcium chloride. /
Relative humidity Method of measuring the mois-
ture present in air relative to saturation at the same
temperature.
BAUS. SR Se! OS Ae eS We Te ee nee wer ANNI pee i, PALF AR UA S UE
REVIEW EXERCISES
Ql! Define the following terms:

i Viscosity
ii Osmosis
pH
Smoke point
Relative density
Give scientific reasons for:
Why food takes longer time to get cooked at high altitudes.

Fat used for deep fat frying should have a high smoke point.
The weight of a substance changes when weighed in different parts of the
world.
Fresh eggs sink and stale eggs float on water.
Small amounts of citric acid are added while making jelly preserve.
List the main factors which affect the rate of evaporation.
What is meant by surface tension? Give two examples to explain this term.
How would you determine the density of a bread roll?
Convert the following measurements:
2200 kCal into kJ

37°C into°F
90°F into°C
iv 5 ft 6 inches into cm
Vv 8 ozs into ml
al
‘Colloidal Systems
in Foods
INTRODUCTION :
ood served in catering establishments can be divided into two broad

gories namely intact edible tissues and food dispersions. Sliced pineag
diced vegetables, and fish fillets are examples of intact tissues. However, 1
food preparations have been subjected to different processes before they are bro
to the table. Large masses of food may be subdivided into smaller particle:
processes like mincing, grinding, pulping, and homogenizing, and ingredients |
be mixed in different ways like beating, cutting and folding, blending, whipy
keerColloidal
OEMS Systems IMT
in TOOTS
Foods HD
25
stirring, emulsifying, etc., converting the intact tissue into complex dispersions.
The kind of process food is subjected to will have a bearing on the final quality of
the product.
A well baked cake, where ingredients have been mixed correctly and a heavy
collapsed cake may have the same chemical composition and nutritive value, but
the latter will have no market because its physical qualities, i.e., its volume, texture,
and appearance do not meet acceptable standards. These standards are of utmost
importance to both the caterer and the consumer, and an understanding of the prin-
ciples underling food dispersions is necessary for caterers to prepare high quality
products.
CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD
Apart from water, food is mainly composed of three main groups of constituents
namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and their derivatives. Along with these consti-
tuents, minerals, vitamins, organic acids, pigments, enzymes, flavouring substances,
and other organic constituents are present in varying amounts in different foods.
These constituents give food their structure, texture, colour, flavour, and nutritive
value. To the caterer and consumer, the physical appearance is as significant as its
chemical composition.
Foods are mixtures or dispersions of two or more types of substances. These sub-
stances are present as particles of various sizes. Depending on the particle size or size
of the molecule in the mixture, these substances may be classified as a true solution,
a colloidal dispersion, or a coarse suspension.
‘rue Solution
It is composed of two parts: the solute which is the dissolved substance and the sol-
vent which is the substance in which the solute is dissolved. In a true solution, ions
or molecules smaller than one millimicron are dissolved in a liquid. They contain
varying amounts of ions or molecules of dissolved substances depending on the tem-
perature of the solvent and on the solute. Solutions may be unsaturated, saturated,
or supersaturated. They have the smallest particle size of the three types of disper-
sions. A solution is homogenous, i.e., alike in all parts, e.g., sugar syrup and brine.
juspension
Suspensions are dispersions of coarse particles in a liquid. The particles are large
and require continuous agitation to keep them dispersed. When agitation ceases,
these coarse suspended particles settle down because of force of gravity. When the
mixture is stirred, the suspension is formed again. In a suspension the particle size
is larger than one micrometre or micron, e.g., starch and cold water paste. Many
dispersions in food contain substances which are larger than one micron in size.
Colloidal Systems
Between the particle sizes of the solutions and those of suspensions, lies the area
of colloidal systems. The particles are large enough to impart to the system some
properties different from those found in true solutions, but small enough so that
they do not separate out on standing. Colloidal systems deal with dispersions of
definite size, since it is the size of the particles in the colloidal range that impart the
specific and characteristic properties to the system.
Colloidal dispersions are characterized by particles ranging between one mil-
limicron (0.001 um) and 100 millimicrons (0.1 tm) with maximum size of up to one
micrometre (tm) in diameter.
One micrometre (micron) (um) = 1073 mm or 1/1,000 mm
10-4 cm or
10-6 m
One millimicron (mu) = 1073 um or 1/1,000 um
There is no distinct line of demarcation. Particles approaching the limits of the
size of one zone may show properties of two zones. For example, sugar exhibit:
both crystalloid and colloidal properties in food systems. The properties exhibit-
ed by colloidal particles around 1 my in size are different from those of particles
around 0.1 um in size, e.g., crystalline candies have an organized crystalline
structure while amorphous candies such as fondant lack an organized crystalline
structure.
The gluten particles of hydrated flour proteins have colloidal dimensions but
gluten particles of cake and pastry flours are more dispersed or of smaller size than
those of bread flours. This is one reason for the different results obtained in cake:
when bread flour is used instead of cake flour.
All colloidal dispersions or colloidal systems have two phases: a continuous phase
and a discontinuous or dispersed phase. The continuous phase extends throughou
Table 3.1 Size of dispersed particle

Ty ee USSR
True solution Up to one millimicron
Colloidal dispersion | One millimicron up

to one micrometre
Coarse suspension More than one

micrometre
Colloidal Systems in Foods 27
the system and surrounds the dispersed phase completely. Proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats exist in foods as particles of colloidal dimensions. The system is a colloidal
system as long as the particle size of the dispersed phase is within colloidal dimen-
sions. Colloidal systems may be a combination of solid, liquid, or gas as the conti-
nuous or dispersed phase.
In food, the following colloidal systems are of importance.
1. Sol — Colloidal dispersion of a solid dispersed in a liquid.
2. Gel — Colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a solid.
3. Emulsion — Colloidal dispersion of a liquid dispersed in a liquid.
4. Foam — Colloidal dispersion of a gas dispersed in a liquid.
5. Solid foam or suspensoid — Colloidal dispersion of a gas dispersed in a solid.
Dispersions may be simple or complex. In a simple dispersion a colloid may con-
sist of a solid dispersed in a liquid, e.g., when gelatin is dissolved in warm water,
a simple dispersion called a sol is formed. Mayonnaise is an example of a complex
dispersion since it is an emulsion, a sol, and foam combined in one. Milk is another
example of a complex dispersion, i.e., more than one phase is dispersed in a liquid.
Milk is a solution of lactose in water, an emulsion of fat in water, and a sol as milk
protein is dispersed in water.
Colloidal particles have different characteristics. Some are attracted to water and
are called hydrophilic or water loving. They get hydrated easily. Others repel water
and are called hydrophobic or water hating. These different characteristics are seen
because of the difference in chemical composition of the compounds. In certain
substances, a part of their structure is hydrophobic while other parts are
hydrophilic. Those parts or functional groups that are attracted to water are called
polar groups. Examples of polar groups are the organic acid group or COOH group
in proteins, the aldehyde or CHO group in carbohydrates, etc. Non polar groups are
hydrophobic, e.g., carbon chains -C-C-C-C- and cyclic structures, C which are
seen in organic compounds.
Organic substances which have both polar and nonpolar groups are useful as
emulsifying agents in food emulsions as part of their molecule is attracted towards
the dispersed phase and part towards the continuous phase.
STABILITY OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS

The stability of a colloidal system depends on two factors.
1. The charge on the colloidal particle
2. A layer of water that is tightly bound to the molecule
Charge on the colloidal particle As the surface charge on the colloidal particle is
similar, like charges repel and the particles do not get attracted or join together. This
Skim milk
Soups
Gravy
Pouring custard
Gel iqui Caramel custard

Curd
Jam
Jelly
Emulsion iqui Butter

Mayonnaise
Salad dressing
Whole milk
Whipped egg white

Whipped cream
Solid foam/ Baked meringue

suspensoid Cake
Fluffy omlette
Set whipped gelatin
Aerosol i Smoke for

flavouring
helps in keeping the system stable. When the charge is neutralized, the colloidal
particles flocculate and separate out.
Layer on water Water is present in food in two distinct physical states: free water
and bound water. Part of the water present in food is free water which can act as a
solvent and has flow properties. The rest of the water is bound water which is close-
ly combined with starch or protein by hydrogen bonding and influences the physi-
cal properties of food. Many colloidal systems are hydrophilic and attract a layer of
water around them. The layer of water acts as an insulation and keep the colloidal
system stable.
Types of Colloidal Systems in Food

Sol In this system, solids of colloidal dimensions are dispersed throughout a
liquid. Solids form the dispersed phase and liquids the continuous phase. The
viscosity of sols may range from liquid, e.g., skim milk to extremely viscous, e.g.,
tomato ketchup which barely flows. The viscosity of the sol will depend on the con-
centration of solid and the temperature of the sol. The higher the concentration of
solid in a sol, the more viscous the sol. The viscosity of a sol can be adjusted by
adding more liquid.
Irrespective of the viscosity, in a sol the solid is always distributed throughout
the sol and does not settle at the bottom. Protein in milk remains dispersed because
of the like electrical charges on the surface of the protein molecule, which repel
each other. When the charge on the dispersed protein molecules is neutralized by
addition of acid, protein flocculates and separates out as is seen while preparing
paneer.
Pectin remains dispersed because of its hydrophilic nature. It attracts a layer of
water that is tightly bound to the pectin molecule by hydrogen bonding. All sols
have flow properties. They flow more readily at higher temperatures than at a lower
one. Sometimes a sol may change into a gel when the system is viscous and there
is a drop in energy level, e.g., during cooling. The solids start associating with one
another and form a three dimensional meshwork in which the liquid is trapped.
Milk, cream soups, pouring custard, béchamel sauce, and gravy are commonly used
sols in the kitchen.
Gel A gel is a colloidal system in which liquid forms the dispersed phase and
solid forms the continuous phase. It is also called a reverse sol. A gel does not flow.
Some of the liquid is adsorbed on the surface of the solid molecules and is called
bound water. Because of this bound liquid, the gel has structure. The remaining liq-
uid is trapped in the solid three-dimensional meshwork of the gel. As compared to
a sol, the concentration of solid is higher in a gel.
A food gel consists of a continuous phase of interconnected particles or macro-
molecules in which liquid is dispersed. The rigidity, elasticity, and brittleness of the
gel depends on the type and concentration of the solid or gelling agent, the pH,
salt content, and temperature, e.g., pectin does not form a gel unless the pH is
acidic. -
The gelling agent may be a polysaccharide like cornflour in blancmange, a pro-
tein like albumin in caramel custard or complex colloidal particles like calcium
caseinate in curds. Gums, pectins, and gelatin can form gels even at low concentra-
tions. }
When a gel is stored for sometime or becomes stale, there is a reduction in gel vol-
ume. The liquid which was entrapped in the three-dimensional meshwork of the gel
is expelled from the interstitial spaces and the gel shrinks. This condition is called
syneresis or weeping gel. Syneresis is seen in baked custards, moulded desserts, and
curds. Free liquid may also be released if the gel structure is cut, e.g., in curds, whey
separates out when the set gel is cut or disturbed.
Continuous
phase
Free
liquid Trapped
Gelatin liquid
molecules
Fig. 3.1 In a gelatin sol, gelatin forms the dispersed
phase. On cooling, gelatin forms the continuous phase
Sols and gels are reverse colloidal systems and many can be changed from one
type to another. Many gels are first sols which on cooling form gels provided the
concentration of solids is adequate.
Dissolved Heated
gelatin jelly a Jelly
crystals
SOL Cooled GEL
When a sol is converted into a gel, the energy levels fall. This is seen during
the cooling process. The solids in the dispersed phase move with difficulty
through the continuous phase and ultimately associate with one another by form-
ing secondary bonds. When the dispersion is cold enough, permanent bonds
form, which can hold the liquid in the solid meshwork. A gel is formed which
differs from a sol because it is apparently solid and is capable of holding its shape
when served.
Emulsion An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of tiny droplets of one liquid
suspended in another. In this colloidal system, liquids form the dispersed as well
as the continuous phase. One liquid is dispersed as dropletsin another liquid.
For an emulsion to form, agitation or shaking the two liquids is. necessary till they
are well mixed. Emulsions form, only when the two liquids are immiscible in
each other, e.g., oil and water. The liquid with the higher surface tension forms
small droplets or the dispersed phase. When an emulsion is formed the dispersed
liquid has a much larger surface area as compared to the two liquids as separate
layers.
Food emulsions are of two types:
(a) Oil in water emulsion or O/W emulsion in which the droplets of oil are dis-
persed in water, for example, mayonnaise and milk.
(b) Water in oil emulsion or W/O emulsion in which droplets of water are dis-
persed in oil, for example, margarine and butter.
Oil
Water
Fig. 3.2 Surface area of oil as a layer and as an emulsion

(note the increase in surface area)
Emulsions may also be classified on the basis of stability as follows:
E: Temporary emulsions, e.g., French dressing

= Semipermanent emulsions, e.g., milk
3. Permanent emulsions, e.g., mayonnaise, homogenized milk
An emulsion is more viscous than the liquids that form the emulsion. Vinegar
and oil when seen individually are very fluid, but when they are agitated together to
make the emulsion mayonnaise the mixture becomes viscous.
In a temporary emulsion, the droplets that form the dispersed phase tend to coa-
lesce as they bump into one another and form larger droplets till the emulsion
breaks or separates into oil and water.
In food emulsions, the water phase may also contain water soluble constituents
of milk, fruit juice, cooked starch paste, whole egg, vinegar, or lime juice as well
as salts and other water soluble compounds. The oil phase may contain a blend of
different fats and oils and fat soluble compounds.
Theory of Emulsification
1. During the process of emulsification, the main step is to break down the bulk
liquid into small droplets and then stabilize the emulsion.
2 In a stable emulsion the droplets remain dispersed. But due to interfacial ten-
sion, there is a tendency for droplets to coalesce and separate out. The inter-
facial tension is lowered by the addition of emulsifiers. Emulsifiers or emul-
sifying agents are surface active agents which lower the interfacial tension,
i.e., the tension at the interface of two immiscible liquids.
The dispersed droplets which are of colloidal dimensions tend to form spher-
ical structures in the continuous phase.
To prepare a stable emulsion, it is necessary to reduce the size of the droplets,
prevent their coalescing, and increase their surface area.
Mechanical aids such as beaters, stirrers, homogenizers, and colloid mills
help to reduce the size of the dispersed droplets, thereby increasing surface
area. Energy is required to work against the interfacial tension and allow the
continuous phase to stretch out and cover the dispersed droplets.
6. Emulsifiers are used to reduce interfacial tension, They get adsorbed at the
interface. .
7, Inan O/W emulsion, e.g., mayonnaise, the nonpolar group of the emulsifier
is oriented towards the oil droplet (salad oil) and is adsorbed in the outermost
layer of the droplet.
8. The polar group of the emulsifier is oriented towards the continuous phase of
water (vinegar, lime juice, water from egg) surrounding the oil droplet.
9. The molecules of emulsifier surround the droplet completely forming a
monomolecular layer of emulsifier (lecithin) around the droplet.
10. The oil droplet is thus protected by a film consisting of 3 layers namely
(a) the outermost layer of oil molecules

(b) a layer of emulsifier
(c) the innermost layer of water
This protective film/layer prevents two oil droplets from coalescing when they collide.
11. Emulsions are further stabilized by the electric charge.
12. The ingredients used should not be chilled. Warm ingredients emulsify sooner
as they are more fluid and spread or split into droplets faster.
13. The consistency of an emulsion ranges from liquid to a plastic solid.
The stability of an emulsion depends on the following factors:
The presence and type of emulsifying agent present

The amount or concentration of the emulsifying agent
The size of the droplets in dispersed phase
The ratio of oil and water used
hg The
gel viscosity of the continuous phase
The presence and type of emulsifying agent present The most
important factor which determines the stability of an emulsion is the presence of
an emulsifying agent. The emulsifying agent may be present naturally in one of
the ingredients, e.g., lecithin is a natural emulsifying agent present in egg yolk or
the emulsifying agent may be added to the emulsion.
An emulsifying agent is a compound containing both polar and nonpolar
groups and is thus attracted to both phases of the emulsion at the interface.
The polar groups are oriented towards the water phase and the nonpolar
groups pull the molecule of the emulsifying agent towards oil. The emulsifi-
er forms a layer at the interface which coats the surfaces of the dispersed
droplet completely.
The droplets do not touch each other and coalesce because of the protective
layer of the emulsifying agent. The emulsion formed becomes stable and does
Temporary Emulsifying Stable

emulsion agent emulsion
Fig. 3.3 Diagrammatic representation of orientation of

emulsifying agent in an O/W emulsion
ce of the emul-
not separate out into two separate layers because of the presen
sifying agent.
fying agent used,
The type of emulsion formed will also depend on the emulsi
agent is stronger.
and whether the polar or nonpolar group on the emulsifying
is more strongly
If the nonpolar group is stronger, the emulsifying agent
and water will form
attracted to oil. The surface tension of oil is reduced
d will be a W/O type of
droplets or the dispersed phase. The emulsion forme
emulsion.
g agent The amount
The amount or concentration of the emulsifyin
ent to coat the dispersed
of emulsifier present in the emulsion should be suffici
at the interface which is
droplets completely. The emulsifier forms a layer
touch each other and coalesce
monomolecular in thickness. The droplets do not
agent around each droplet.
because of the protective layer of emulsifying
any beneficial effects. If the
Addition of extra emulsifying agent does not have
coated or protected and stabili-
emulsifier is insufficient, all droplets will not be
ty of the’emulsion is affected.
Mechanical aids such as
The size of the droplets in dispersed phase
help to reduce the size of the droplets
beaters, homogenizers, and colloid mills
The smaller the size of the dispersed
dispersed, i.e., increase their surface area. ener-
droplet represents a lower
droplets, the more stable the emulsion. A large
stability. Homogenized milk is a sta-
gy state than two small droplets and has less
are reduced.
ble emulsion as the size of the fat droplets used or the
ratio of oil and water
The ratio of oil and water used The
phase is important. The continuous
ratio of dispersed phase to the continuous
sed droplets completely. For this
phase should stretch out and cover the disper
emulsion is necessary.
proper mixing, shaking, or beating of the
The viscosity of the continuous phase The viscosity of the continuous

phase. A viscous continuous phase will prevent the droplets of the dispersed
phase from moving freely, bumping into one another, and coalescing.
Substances that increase the viscosity of a colloidal system are called stabilizers.
They do not orient themselves at the interface as an emulsifier, but reduce the speed
with which the dispersed droplets move. As viscosity increases the collision
between droplets decreases and the droplets remain dispersed for a fairly long time.
Examples of stabilizer are starch, sugar, gelatin, gums, finely powered spices, car-
boxy methyl cellulose, sodium alginate, pectin, etc. The addition of stabilizer alone
is not enough to prevent the breakage of an emulsion.
Temporary emulsions have very little emulsifying agent or stabilizer present
and are fluid systems. The dispersed droplets move and bump into one another and
coalesce. This emulsion separates out on standing in a short while.
Formation of stable emulsions is of utmost importance in the food industry.
A broken emulsion loses its viscosity, cannot be spread, and gives the product an
unappetizing curdled appearance. Broken emulsions affect the texture and consistency
of the final product.
Sometimes stable or permanent emulsions may break due to high changes
in temperature like heating and freezing, e.g., Hollandaise sauce curdles at high
temperatures and mayonnaise may break if frozen due to ice crystal formation.
Egg yolk contains a phospholipid lecithin which is a good emulsifying agent and
forms O/W emulsions. Lecithin contains fatty acids as the hydrophobic group, and
phosphate and choline as the hydrophilic group. Caseinogen a protein found in milk
acts as a natural emulsifying agent. Glycerly monostearate (GMS) is added as an emul-
sifier in ice creams. Mayonnaise is a stable emulsion because of lecithin in the egg yolk.
The most widely used natural emulsifiers are lecithins present in egg yolk and
extracted from soya beans which is more economical.
Synthetic food emulsifiers most commonly used are mono- and diglycerides.
A common example is glyceryl monostearate or GMS. Mono and diglycerides have
one or two fatty acids attached to glycerol. The free groups of glycerol are
hydrophilic while fatty acids are hydrophobic giving good emulsifying properties.
Some of the other emulsifying agents are stearyl tartarate, lactic acid monoglyce-
ride, polyoxyethylene monostearate, etc.
Some Common Food Emulsions
1. Milk and cream - O/W emulsion stabilized by phospholipids and protein

caseinogen
2. Butter and Margarine - W/O emulsion containing approximately 80% fat.
Butter is stabilized by caseinogen and margarine is stabilized by GMS
3. Egg yolk - O/W emulsion. It is a good emulsifier as it contains lecithin

ime Hollandaise sauce - O/W emulsion stabilized by egg yolk
5. Salad dressings
(a) Mayonnaise - O/W emulsion stabilized by egg yolk. Not less than
65% oil by weight. Synthetic emulsifiers may be added like mono- and
diglycerides of fatty acids, e.g., GMS.
(b) French dressing - O/W emulsion may be temporary or permanent emulsion
6. Gravies, sauces, cream soups - O/W emulsions contain high percentage of
water stabilized with refined flour
7. Choux pastry - O/W emulsion stabilized by egg
ee Batters - O/W emulsion stabilized by flour and egg
9. Icecream — O/W emulsion stabilized by caseinogen, GMS, alginates, gums/
gelatin.
Foams _A foam is a dispersion of gas bubbles in a liquid or semisolid phase. In

this colloidal dispersion, gas forms the dispersed phase and liquid is the continuous
phase. Foams are of two types:
1. Gas in liquid
2. Gas in solid
In food systems, the continuous phase is usually a liquid with added solids or
changed to a solid by heating, e.g., beaten egg white and sugar foam is a gas in liquid
dispersion. When it is baked it becomes a gas in solid dispersion, e.g., meringue.
The liquid or semisolid walls are elastic in stable foams and separate the gas bubbles
from each other. The gas bubbles range in size from 1 um to several centimetres.
To form a foam, energy is required to overcome the surface tension of the liquid
and stretch it into thin films, which surround bubbles of gas. Liquids which form
foams easily have a low vapour pressure and low surface tension.
The presence of solid matter increases the stability of a foam. When egg white,
cream, or gelatin is whipped into a foam, the protein which collects at the air—water
interface gets denatured or coagulated by the energy used for whipping and helps
in making the foam stable.
Whipped cream forms a stable foam because of the following reasons:
1. Proteins get denatured and become firmer
2. Butter fat and other milk solids present in cream increase the viscosity giving
the foam a fine texture
3. Cream which has been aged is more concentrated and gives a better foam.
In homogenized cream, the fat is split into very fine particles, reducing its whipping
properties. For a stable light textured foam of good volume, adequate mechanical
agitation is necessary. At the same time care should be taken to avoid over beating
or converting cream into butter.
+ Foams used in cookery include egg white, egg yolk, gelatin, and cream. They
contribute towards lighiness, volume, and texture of the product.
The caterer should understand that most of the food materials which are
used or prepared in the kitchen are a combination of various colloidal systems.
Since the colloidal state depends on particle size, it is important to understand
the methods and ingredients used in food preparation that influence degree of
dispersion.
lL, Mechanical stress to which food has been subjected to before and during pro-
duction like grinding, beating, homogenizing, etc., affects dispersion. Grinding
of cereals, stirring of custard to prevent clumping and beating of curdled cus-
tards reduces the size of the particles and increases dispersion.
Homogenization of milk is a mechanical means of increasing the dispersion
of fat globules.
Increasing the temperature may bring about greater or lesser dispersion.
When milk is heated, dispersion of fat globules in milk increases. When pro-
teins are heated, coagulation takes place, which decreases the degree of dis-
persion.
The addition of acid to milk causes casein to clot and decreases the dispersion.
Alkalies bring about greater dispersion of cellulose and pectin in fruits and
vegetables during cooking, making them mushy.
Amount of water present or the concentration of solids in a sol or aE If water
is present in excess, it will increase dispersion and prevent setting.
Enzymes may cause increased or decreased dispersion of foods.
The proteinase enzyme in flour increases the dispersion of gluten. Clotting
of milk on addition of rennin is an example of decreased dispersion of
protein.
Milk, butter, margarine, cream, curd, doughs and batters, soufflés and desserts,
soups, sauces and gravies, etc., are all examples of colloidal systems. Many of these
are multiphase food systems which have two or more discontinuous phases dispersed
in a continuous phase.
EUS a MS
SR ESS
SUMMARY
Food products are generally multiphase systems in which solids, liquids, and gas are
finely distributed during manufacture to give the finished product the desired struc-
ture and quality. The physical qualities in terms of volume, texture, appearance, and
stability are as important as the chemical constituents present in food. The basic
principles underlying food dispersions must be understood by the caterer to pre-

pare high quality products.
Each type of processing or method of mixing and the ingredients used affect the
quality of the finished product. Apart from intact tissues of food, the caterer has to deal
with solutions, suspensions, and colloidal dispersions such as sols, gels, emulsions,
and foams which are of colloidal dimensions. These systems impart special charac-
teristics, to food.
Colloidal systems are stabilized by the charge on the surface of the colloidal par-
ticles which being alike, keeps the molecules apart. Hydrophilic colloids are stabi-
lized by a layer of water which is adsorbed on the surface of the colloidal particles,
preventing attraction between colloids.
Sols, gels, emulsions, and foams are common food systems which the caterer
has to prepare. Very often, more than a single system is encountered in foods. Many
factors affect the degree of dispersion in these systems such as mechanical agitation,
heat, water, enzymes, and pH.
SSS STS
KEY TERMS
Bound water Water that is bound to other sub- Permanent emulsion An emulsion containing ade-
stances
and can no longer flow or act as solvent. quate emulsifying agent so that it remains intact during
Colloidal dispersion A two phase system which has normal handling.
particles of 0.001 um and 1 um dispersed in the con- pH The measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a
tinuous phase. substance.
Emulsifying agent A compound which stabilizes Rennin An enzyme from the calves stomach that
an emulsion by orienting itself at the interface of forms a curd when added to milk.
the two phases of an emulsion. An emulsifying Stabilizer A substance which prevents an emulsion
agent contains both polar and nonpolar groups in from breaking by increasing the viscosity of the
its molecule. continuous phase and preventing coalescing of
Gums Complex carbohydrate of plant origin made up droplets in dispersed phase.
of galactose and other sugars or sugar derivatives. Supersaturated solution True solution containing
Homogenization A mechanical process in which milk more solute than can be normally dissolved at that
is forced through tiny apertures under pressure so temperature.
that fat globules are reduced in size and do not sep- Surface tension Attraction between molecules at the
arate out as cream. surface of a liquid.
immiscible That which cannot be mixed together. Syneresis Oozing of liquid from a gel when cut or
Interfacial tension The difference between the allowed to stand.
attractive forces acting on the molecules within the Temporary emulsion A fluid emulsion which has very
two liquids. little emulsifying agent and separates out into two
Phospholipid present in egg yolk which is an distinct layers when agitation ceases.
Lecithin
effective emulsifying agent and commercially Vapour pressure Pressure exerted as molecules of a
obtained from soya bean liquid attempt to escape and vapourize.
SL eS
REVIEW GUESTIONS
ie How does an emulsifying agent stabilize an emulsion? Explain briefly.
oe What is the main difference between a solution, colloidal dispersion, and a
suspension?
Explain the following terms
1. Reverse Sol 2. Osmosis 3. Stabilizer 4. Suspensoid 5. Aerosol
What is a foam? Which food constituent helps in strengthening and stabili-
zing a foam? Explain giving suitable examples.
Explain the four main colloidal systems prominent in food, stating the phases
and giving relevant examples for each.
Classify food emulsions and name the natural emulsifying agent present in
mayonnaise.
Fill in the blanks with a suitable answer.
(a) Foams contribute to the and texture of many food products.
(b) The formation and stability of a foam depend on the
and of the liquid being whipped.
Carbohydrates
Learning Objectives
After reading this Sis you should be able to:
describe the chemical nature of carbohydrates
classify carbohydrates and know their sources a
understand the structure and functions of different carb hydrate in processed foods
_ know the changes that take place when heat isapplied to starch r xtures-
distinguish between sugars and non-nutritive sweeteners |
e understand factors which affect the texture and consistency of starch- based eau
° ceed a= ee - carbohydrates |in theisc ne
INTRODUCTION
ood is composed of three main constituents, namely, carbohydrates, proteins,

and fats and their derivatives. In addition to these constituents, inorganic
mineral elements and diverse organic compounds, such as vitamins, pig-
ments, flavouring compounds, enzymes, and acids are also present. The percentage
of water is large in certain foods. The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavour,
and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangements of these
constituents.
A knowledge of these constituents, their properties, and reactions with other con-
stituents is necessary for a person who processes, serves, and stores food.
. oe
Radiant
: energy
ae ce ) (| () Green leaves
10xide \q LF
Oxygen =
+
Glucose y \)()
(Ss
strode. NN Sep ie)

Sth or OE NES
The glucose formed is converted into starch and stored as food in the following parts of the plant
Root
(Carrot)
6 OSG
Bulb
(Onion)
Tuber
(Sweet potato)
Stem
(Sugarcane)
Leaf
(Spinach)
Flower
(Cauliflower)
& OR Bud
(Brussels sprouts)
Fruit
(Apple)
Seed
(Peas)
Fig. 4.1 Photosynthesis
Carbohydrates are present in various forms in the food we cook, and processed
food which we purchase and form the bulk of our diet. They are available in the
market in the natural form, processed form, or modified form as an additive in
many different products.
Before we study the types of carbohydrates it is necessary to understand their
basic structure.
Definition Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones,
or substances that yield such compounds on hydrclysis. Carbohydrates are organic
Carbohydrates 41
compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are called carbohydrates
because hydrogen and oxygen are present in the same proportion as found in
water, i.e., 2:1.
Ce6H 1206 CyH 2011 (C6H0O5)n

Glucose Table sugar Starch
The chlorophyll present in plants can harness the light energy from the sun and
convert it to chemical energy. This is accomplished by a complex process known as
photosynthesis in which green plants use light energy from the sun, water from the
soil, and carbon dioxide from the air to manufacture carbohydrates.
6CO, ak 6H,O a6 Energy earns CgH 206 + 60>

(from sunlight) Glucose
(chemical energy)
nCegH 120¢ tiers wate cisaien os(CgH 905), + nH2O

Glucose Starch
Glucose cannot be stored on a large scale. So it is converted to starch with the

removal of water and stored in various parts of the plant. In cereal grains and
potatoes, carbohydrate is stored as starch. In bananas, mango, and sugar beets it
is stored as sugar. Tender green peas and maize contain carbohydrate in the form
of sugar, which is converted to starch as the seeds mature. However, the reverse
is seen in fruits. Immature fruits contain starch, which changes to sugar as the fruit
ripens. Irrespective of the form in which it is stored, carbohydrates represent the
reserve energy for the plant. The various parts of the plant where carbohydrate is
stored form the main source of carbohydrate in diet.
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

(made up of (made up of (3-10 monosaccharides) (contain 10 or more
2-6 carbon units) 2 monosaccharides) monosaccharide units)
Glucose Sucrose Raffinose Dextrin
Fructose (glucose + fructose) Stachyose Starch
Galactose Maltose Cellulose
(glucose + glucose) Hemicellulose
Lactose Pectin
(glucose + galactose) Gums
Cellobiose Mucilages
(glucose + glucose)
Fig. 4.2 Simple classification of carbohydrates
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of the number of sugar units or saccharide
units, which are present in their structures. Only natural carbohydrates of signifi-
cance have been elaborated.
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest forms of carbohydrates found in nature. Three monosac-
charides are of importance in human nutrition. They are glucose, fructose, and
galactose. These simple sugars are made up of a six-carbon chain or ring to which
hydrogen and hydroxyl (OH) groups are attached. All hexoses contain the same
number and kinds of atoms and have the formula CgH).O¢. They differ from one
another because of the arrangement of different atoms around the carbon chain.
Because of the difference in structure they have different properties and vary in
their degree of sweetness. These are the chemical building blocks or units from
which all other carbohydrates are built.
Glucose It is the most important of all the monosaccharides as it is the primary car-
bohydrate used by the body. Glucose is the sugar, which is absorbed into the blood
stream after carbohydrates are digested in the body. It is also known as dextrose.
Glucose is available in powder and liquid form.
Fructose It is the sweetest of all sugars and is also known as fruit sugar because it
is found in fruits and honey. In human body it is converted to glucose and oxidized
as a source of energy. It is also called levulose.
Galactose It is found in combination with glucose in the disaccharide lactose in
milk. This sugar is converted to glucose in human body.
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides i Polysaccharides

1. Biose (C,H,40>)
Glycolic aldehyde
2. Triose (C3H,03) :
Glyceraldehyde Reducing sugar Trisaccharides Tetrasaccharide | Homopolysaccharides
3. Tetrose (CyHgO,) _Maltose Raffinose Stachyose Starch
Erythrose Lactose (present in seeds, Glycogen
4. Pentose (C;H,9Q5) roots, and under- Dextrin
Ribose : Non-reducing sugar ground stems) Cellulose Heteropolysaccharides
ste ose Sucrose Agee Hemicellulose
Xylose Pectin Mucil
5. Hexose
Gl
(CsH20¢) eho Se
Gums
ucose
Fructose
Galactose
Fig. 4.3 Classification of carbohydrates based on saccharide or sugar units
Carbohydrates 43
Disaccharides
These are double sugars composed of two monasccharides linked together with the
removal of a molecule of water. The disaccharides which are of importance in the
diet are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Their general formula is C},H2204;.
Sucrose Sucrose is the name given to the sugar which we use daily. It is prepared
from sugar cane and sugar beet. It is the most common of all the disaccharides. It is
present in some fruits and vegetables, and forms a substantial part of the diet of chil-
dren and adults because of the increase in consumption of junk foods, processed foods,
and fast foods. Sucrose is made up of one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose.
Lactose It is the sugar present in milk. It is made up of one unit of glucose and
one unit of galactose. It is the least sweet of all the sugars and is easily fermented to
lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria while preparing curds and cheese. Lactic acid,
which is formed from lactose, helps in setting curds and curdling milk.
Maltose It is formed when whole grains are sprouted and in the commercial
preparation of malt from starch. In the body, maltose is formed during digestion of
starch. It is composed of two units of glucose.
Oligosaccharides
They are composed of three to ten monosaccharide units linked to each other by
the removal of a molecule of water. They are not as common in food as the
mono-, di-, and polysaccharides, but are formed during breakdown of starch into
simpler sugars, e.g., raffinose and stachyose.
|Polysaccharides
; These are complex carbohydrates made up of 100-2,000 glucose units linked to
| each other in a chain or branched form. The number of glucose units, their arrange-
ment, and linkage to one another influence the properties of the polysaccharides.
|
|
Starches They form approximately half the dietary carbohydrates which are con-
sumed. They are present in abundance in cereals, pulses, tapioca, sago, roots, and tubers.
Glycogen This is also called animal starch as it is the form in which the animal
body stores carbohydrates as a reserve source of energy. One third of the glycogen
is stored in the liver and two-thirds is stored in the muscles. Approximately 340 g
of glycogen is stored in the body. This store is sufficient to meet the energy needs
for less than a day. However, animal liver or muscle is not a source of glycogen in
the diet as it is immediately converted to lactic acid when the animal is slaughtered.
Dextrin This is formed in the first stage of starch breakdown either by enzymes
during digestion, or by the action of dry heat on starch during toasting bread or
browning flour. The very long chains of starch are split into shorter chains called
dextrins. Dextrin is sweeter and more soluble than starch. This is the reason why
bread or chappati tastes sweeter when it is chewed for a longer time.
Dietary fibres They are made up of many glucose units. The structure of cellulose
differs from starch because the glucose units in cellulose form a different linkage as
compared to starch.
STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES
The structure of carbohydrates can be represented in two ways:
1. Acyclic or ring structure
2. A three-dimensional structure.
Cyclic or Ring Structure

CH,OH
f~—0
H H H HOH,C is OH
+
HONOH H /on H\H HOcu,0H

H OH OH H
A six-membered A five-membered
ring of glucose ring of fructose
|12,0
HoH,C /“°\_ on
Ho HO/cH,0H
OH
Sucrose
Fig. 4.4 Formation of disaccharide sucrose with

elimination of a molecule of water
Reducing Sugars
They are sugars that possess free aldehyde or ketone groups. All monosaccharides
are reducing sugars.
oe 2
Ny ss
Aldehyde Ketone
group group
Fig. 4.5 Aldehyde and ketone groups

Carbohydrates 45
‘uk
apo H—C—oH
H—C—OH C=06)
HO—C—H HO-—C—H
icon H—C_OH
H—C_On H—C_OH
H—C-OH H—C—OH
i i
D-Glucose, an aldehyde sugar D-Fructose, a ketone sugar
Fig. 4.6 Three-dimensional structures of sugars
HNon-Reducing Sugar
When monosaccharides are linked together through their aldehyde or ketone group
and these groups are not free, the sugar is called a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose is a
non-reducing sugar and maltose is a reducing sugar.
Reducing sugars react with other constituents in food like amino acids and bring
about changes in colour, flavour, and nutritive value, e.g., Maillard browning (refer
to Chapter 8).
Polysaccharides
Dextrins These are the smallest and simplest of all the polysaccharides. The size
of the dextrin molecule varies widely, but it is much smaller than that of starch.
They are composed of glucose units linked by 1,4-a-glucosidic linkages. They are
formed by dry heating or acid hydrolysis of starch. Dextrins are slightly soluble,
have a mild sweet taste and limited thickening ability.
Some important polysaccharides in food are made up of only glucose units linked
together by o or B glucosidic linkages.
Starch is found in most parts of a plant as a reserve store of carbohydrate. It is usu-

ally present in the seed and root in large amounts. Cereals contain approximately
70%, pulses 60%, and potatoes 22% starch. Starch consists of long chains of glucose
units present in two forms—amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose is a large molecule made up of 200 or more glucose units linked by 1,4-o-
glucosidic linkages. They are present as linear chains, which can bond to each other by
hydrogen bonds and form a gel. Amylose does not have a sweet taste, is slightly soluble,
has good thickening ability, and represents 20-30% of the total starch in most grains. The
glucose units in amylose are linked to each other by elimination of a molecule of water
at each linkage. Starches from various sources differ in their amylose content.
1,4 linkage
1,4 linkage
© — Glucose units
Amylose Amylopectin
Fig. 4.7 Structure of amylose and amylopectin
Amylopectin, like amylose, is made up of glucose units only. Two types of linkages
are seen in amylopectin — 1,4-c-glucosidic linkages as in amylose and occassional
1,6-o-glucosidic linkages, resulting in a very large branched polysaccharide. The 1,4
linkages form a straight chain of 15-30 glucose units after which a 1,6 linkage occurs
resulting in cross-linking and a complex branched structure. The molecules of amy-
lopectin is very large, and because of its branched structure is sparingly soluble, not
sweet, and is the predominant form in the starch granule with low gelling ability.
The relative proportion of amylose and amylopectin in starches are of consider-
able importance because both forms have different behaviour in cooked starch
products. et
As glucose produced during photosynthesis is bulky, it-is condensed to form
starch, which is more concentrated. This starch is deposited in an orderly manner
in the form of granules.
The starch granules are made in the leucoplasts within the cytoplasm of the cell.
Each granule is made up of concentric layers of amylopectin molecules interspersed
with amylose molecules. Amylose and amylopectin molecules are deposited as
tightly coiled polymer chains in the starch granule in an organized manner.
Starch granules are densely packed with amylose and amylopectin. Each type of
starch has a characteristic shape by which it can be microscopically identified. The
size varies from a few microns to 100 microns.
Tapioca, the root starch from cassava, has small rcund or oval granules.
STARCH DESCRIPTION
Potato Large granules shaped like
mussel shells
Sago Large elliptical granules
Wheat Mixture of large disk shaped +

small granules
Corn Polygonal cells
Tapioca Small round or

oval granules
Oats Small oval granules
Rice Very small polygonal granules
Fig. 4.8 Characteristic shape and size of starch granules
Sago starch granules are elliptical in shape and larger than potato starch granules.
Potato starch granules are large and shaped like mussel shells.
Corn starch granules are polygonal in shape.
Wheat starch has two types of granules: small spherical granules and large disk-
shaped granules.
Rice starch granules are polygonal in shape but very small in size.
Cereal starches, such as that of corn, rice, wheat, oat, sago, tapioca, etc. are used
as thickening and gelling agents. Genetic research and plant breeding have enabled
48 Food Science and Nutritionaee 8S eee
Starch
Non-waxy starches Waxy starches High amylose starches

(contain 20-30% (contain no (contain more than 50%
amylose, rest amylose only amylose, rest amylopectin)
amylopectin) amylopectin) e.g., corn starch and
e.g., potato starch €.g., Waxy corn starch amylomaize
Fig. 4.9 Classification of starches
us to develop starches containing 100% amylopectin. These starches are called

waxystarch and they do not form a gel. Starch with high amylose has also been
developed. Such starches form hydrogen bonds very easily because of amylose and
are used to make thin edible films to wrap candies.
THE STARCH GRANULE

Starch is stored as granules within leucoplasts in plant cells.
Each type of starch has different shapes and sizes of granules.
Amylose and amylopectin are closely packed in an orderly manner in the granule in two
regions.
The amorphous region contains mostly amylopectin arranged randomly.
In the crystalline region both amylose and amylopectin are arranged in a definite
manner.
Crystalline and amorphous areas alternate with each other.
Table 4.1 Difference between amylose and amylopectin
1. It is a linear polymer, which contains 1. It is a branched polymer of glucose units

glucose units in a 1,4 linkages ina1,4 anda1,6 linkages
GOTO CAT EES
O — glucose unit
2. Molecular weight is less than amylopectin 2. Molecular weight is four times that of amylose
3. Good thickening power 3. Lesser thickening power as compared to amylose
4. Capable of forming gels because of linear 4. No gel formation because of branched structure
form
Carbohydrates 49
Straight
chain of
amylose
i . / Branched
3 ; ay re
Fig. 4.10 Diagrammatic arrangement of amylose and

amylopectin in a starch granule
STARCH
General formula (Cg Hi9 Os), value of 2 is 400-4,000 units
High molecular weight polymer of glucose units only, i.e., it is a homoglycan
On hydrolysis yields glucose units (Cg H19 Os),+ m H2O > n Cg Hy Og
Starch granules contains two polysaccharides—amylose and amylopectin
By the process of photosynthesis, green plants manufacture glucose, which is converted
to starch and stored in the form of granules in various parts of the plant
Starch is present as granules within leucoplasts in plant cells.
Effect of Cooking on Starch

Gelatinization and viscosity When starch granules are mixed with cold water, they
do not dissolve but form a suspension. When the water is heated, the granules begin
to swell. The heat energy breaks the hydrogen bonds in the starch granules and
facilitates the entry of water into the granules. At the same time, some amylose from
the granule leaches into the cooking water. The temperature at which the granules
swell is called the gelatinization temperature and is characteristic for each starch.
The starch chains in the granules absorb moisture and begin to uncoil from their
tightly packed configuration. The size of the granule increases as more and more
water enters. The water in the granule gets bonded to amylose and amylopectin. The
mixture becomes viscous and translucent after continuous heating. The increase in
viscosity is due to the water bonded to starch and increase in size of starch granule
as well as reduction in free water in the mixture. Swollen grains find it difficult to
move past each other, adding to the viscosity of the mixture. This process of swelling
of the starch grains and formation of viscous starch pastes is called gelatinization.
Texture softens and

Firm texture, cannot
be mashed cells can be separated easily
Cellulose cell Soluble
wall
Insoluble
pectin
Mussel-shaped
starch granules
Gelatinized
starch granules
Uncooked potato Cooked potato

Fig. 4.11 Effect of cooking on potato starch
Factors which Affect the Property of Starch as a Thickening Agent

Mixing and stirring When starch is used as a thickening agent in soups or custards, it
should be dispersed completely to prevent unequal swelling or lumps forming in a
starch thickened product. This can be achieved by either of the following methods:
1. Mixing well with a cold liquid
2. Mixing with melted fat to coat starch particles
3. Mixing with another dry ingredient
Once the starch is dispersed, continuous stirring is necessary till gelatinization is
complete. Stirring of hot starch pastes prevents lumps and sticking of gelatinized
starch to the sides and bottom of the pan. Excessive stirring of the starch paste can
break the starch granules, releasing amylose and amylopectin into the liquid resulting
in a less viscous product.
Temperature Starch pastes gradually thicken with increase in temperature from |
52°C to 65°C. The starch granules continue to swell and amylose leaches out of the
granule. Shorter amylose molecules have more solubility. As the temperature
approaches 90—-100°C, some granules may burst and fragment.
Continuous heating decreases the viscosity of starches as granules which reach
their maximum volume implode and result in thinning of starch pastes. When cool,
it may thicken again.
Type of starch The thickening ability, texture, and translucency during gelatini-
zation are important criteria which determine the palatibility and overall quality of
. Carbohydrates 51
starch-thickened products. Different starches have different thickening power, potato

starch has the greatest thickening power, followed by waxy starches, tapioca, corn,
rice, and wheat which has least thickening power.
The texture should ideally be smooth and not stringy or mucilaginous. Root
starches, such as tapioca and potato, are more mucilaginous than cereal starches.
They are also more translucent when gelatinized. Of all the starches, corn starch is
the best thickening agent in terms of texture.
Effect of Added Ingredients
Sugar When sugar is added to a starch-thickened paste, because of its hygro-

scopic nature it competes with starch for water needed for gelatinization.
Gelatinization temperature is higher when sugar is an added ingredient and time
taken for gelatinization is longer. Sugar reduces the viscosity and strength of the
gel. It increases translucency.
Acid When starch paste is heated with acid like limejuice at a pH below 4,
starch molecules are hydrolysed into slightly smaller molecules. Acid hydrolysis
results in thinning of the starch paste as smaller molecules move freely in the
paste. If acid is added after gelatinization of starch, the paste does not turn thin.
Fats Presence of fat in starch-thickened pastes lowers the gelatinization and
thickening temperature.
Milk proteins Gelatinization temperature is lowered if milk is an added
ingredient. .
GELATION
Gelatinized starch mixtures may exhibit flow properties and remain a sol or may
cool and set to form a gel. The amylose, which has leached out of the swollen starch
granule, forms hydrogen bonds with other amylose molecules as the starch paste
cools and loses energy. Amylose molecules move slowly forming bonds and a three
dimensional continuous network of amylose is formed in which swollen granules
are trapped. This forms the continuous phase of the newly formed starch gel in
which water is dispersed. The starch mixture is transformed into a gel and no longer
exhibits flow properties.
Factors affecting gelation:
Type of starch
Concentration of starch
Duration of heating
Stirring
Other ingredients
Sy
SiaAging of gel
Type of Starch
The proportion of amylose and amylopectin in the starch determines whether a gel
will form and whether it will be permanent. The straight chains of amylose form
bonds easily while the branches of amylopectin come in the way and prevent the
formation of a firm gel. Starches rich in amylose can form gels at low concentra-
tions while starches lacking amylose, e.g., waxy starches can form soft gels at high
concentrations.
Wheat and rice flours are good thickening agents but poor gelling agents.|
Arrowroot starch forms a soft gel, while potato and tapioca starches do not have a
tendency to gel. Corn flour forms a stiff gel but retrogrades when frozen. Chemically
modified starches form stable gels.
Concentration of Starch
Corn starch forms a firm gel at 10% concentration while waxy starches which lack
amylose can form a soft gel at 30% concentration. Starches containing large
amounts of amylose will gel at low concentrations.
1_ tbsp starch in 1 cup liquid - thin sauce
2 tbsps starch in 1 cup liquid - medium consistency
3 tbsps starch in 1 cup liquid — thick sauce.
Browning of flour results in dextrinization with lessened thickening ability.
Duration of Heating
When starch is heated along with water, the hydrogen bonds in the starch granule
break and amylose fraction of starch leaches into the surrounding water. A starch
paste should be heated gradually for granules to swell and-release sufficient amylose
to form a gel. Prolonged heating results in fragmentation of amylose and formation
of a weak gel with a pasty texture.
Stirring
Vigorous stirring during heating results in fragmentation of amylose. A
firm gel
forms when the paste is allowed to cool undisturbed. Amylose starts forming
bonds
as the mixture cools and starts gelling. Stirring disrupts the bonds and
results in a
weak gel. Essences and colour should be added to the starch mixture as
soon as it
is removed from the heat and not while the mixture is cooling.
Other Ingredients ©
Sugar, acids, etc. modify the behaviour of starch gels. The greater
the amount of
sugar in the product, the more delicate the gel formed, as sugar preven
ts water from
binding to starch. Acids hydrolyse the amylose chains resulting in a more tender gel.
This is seen when acids are added before gelatinization of starch. If acid is added
after gelatinization of starch, the gel is soft because of extra liquid from lime juice or
fruit juice. This can be corrected by calculating the liquid in the acidic substance and
reducing that amount of liquid from the recipe.
Aging of a Gel
In a starch gel, water is trapped as the dispersed phase within the gel. Water is also
bonded by hydrogen bonding to amylose molecules and starch granules which
form the matrix of the gel. When a gel stales or its structure is disrupted by cutting
the gel, water which is trapped in the gel is released and the gel collapses. This
‘weeping’ or loss of moisture from a gel is called syneresis.
RETROGRADATION
Amylose starches form gels more readily but these gels are less stable. Amylose chains
have a tendency to recoil and partially recrystallize. Some hydrogen bonds which
hold the gel together break and amylose molecules move around forming new bonds.
As the gel stales, amylose molecules rearrange themselves in an orderly manner in
crystalline regions. This is accompanied by loss of solubility and release of water from
the gel, causing food defects.
A starch gel which has retrograded loses its smooth texture and feels gritly when
eaten. The rate and extent of retrogradation are influenced by temperature, size,
shape, and concentration of starch. Starch retrogrades rapidly at 0°C.
Retrogradation occurs when a starch gel stales or when it is frozen. Bread and
starch-thickened puddings stored in the refrigerator develop undesirable textural
changes because of retrogradation by formation of crystalline aggregates of amylose.
The texture defects caused by retrogradation in foods, which can be heated, are
temporarily corrected by warming the food containing starch. Heat energy breaks
the hydrogen bonds which hold amylose molecules together forming crystalline
areas. Stale bread becomes soft when it is covered and reheated, but as it cools it
develops an undesirable texture once again.
The problem of retrogradation is of concern in cold starch-based gels. This can
be corrected by using starches which are stable to freezing and thawing. A number
of modified starches are available in the market today.
DEXTRINIZATION
When starch is heated without any water, the temperature rises rapidly beyond
100°C. Water which is naturally present in flour and the high temperature brings
about chemical degradation of flour splitting the starch molecule at one or more of
the 1,4-o-glucosidic linkages. This reaction is called dextrinization, and the short chain
starch molecules of varying lengths formed are called dextrins. Dextrinization is seen
when flour is browned while making brown roux for gravies and sauces. Browned
flour has lesser thickening ability because of formation of shorter chain dextrins.
TYPES OF FOOD STARCHES

Unmodified Starches
Starches from different plant sources differ in their size, shape, gelatinization tem-
perature, gel forming ability, and texture. In the food industry the behaviour of
different starches as thickening agents and gelling or setting agents is an important
consideration while selecting the starch. Starches can be extracted from grains,
roots, tubers, and pith of trees in a comparatively pure form to be used in commercial
food products.
Corn flour, rice flour, wheat flour, waxy corn, waxy sorghum, potato, tapioca, and
sago are some of the common unmodified starches.
Modified Starches
Knowledge about the molecules of amylose and amylopectin in starch and the
structure of different starch granules has enabled scientists to modify natural starches.
Physical and chemical means have been used to develop a variety of special starches
with unique characteristics to meet specific needs of the food industry.
Pregelatinized starch These starches have been cooked till they are gelatinized
and then they are roller dried after the starch granules are swollen. When water is
added to the dehydrated starch, it swells to a desired thickness without heating.
Instant pudding mixes, baby cereals like Farex and Nestum are examples of con-
venience foods. In these products, a physical change modifies the characteristics of
the native starch. :
Acid modified or thin boiling starch Starch is chemically modified by treating it
with very dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid at temperatures below gelatinization.
Starch is hydrolysed and gets fragmented. Its solubility increases and thickening
ability decreases. When hot, thin boiling starches are very fluid and are used in
making gum drops as they can be easily poured into moulds which form firm gels
upon cooling and aging.
Oxidized starches These are chemically modified thin boiling starches which have
been treated with an alkali like sodium hypo-chlorite. The starch granule
is mildly
oxidized and forms a soft gel.
Carbohydrates 55
Cross-linked starches Cross-linked starches are formed when hydroxyl (OH)

groups on two different molecules in the same granule are substituted by alkalis
such as acetic anhydride or succinic anhydride. The greater the amount of cross-
linking, the lesser the tendency to retrograde. Both acetate and succinate cross-
linked starches are very useful as thickeners and stabilizers in salad dressings. Gels
formed using cross-linked starches show minimal retrogradation during storage.
Unmodified waxy cereal starches and root starches produce undesirable stringi-
ness in food products. They form clear pastes and do not gel. Cross-linking retains
the good qualities but controls the degree of thickening that causes long stringy
pastes.
Starch phosphates Starch is chemically esterified with sodium tripolyphosphate.

The starch phosphates formed improve the texture of starch pastes and increases its
stability. These pastes have excellent clarity and reduced syneresis or weeping.
They have high freeze-thaw stability.
Modified cellulose is most widely used in the food industry as the sodium salt of
carboxymethylcellulose also known as CMC or cellulose gum. It is used in ice
creams to give a good body, texture , and to retard formation of large ice crystals on
storage.
SUGAR
The main sugar used in cookery is sucrose or common sugar. It is a disaccharide
made up of glucose and fructose. It is extracted from sugar cane or sugar beet
and is available in different stages of refinement and varying crystal sizes. Sugar
is available as table sugar, as fine or granulated crystals or as sugar cubes. Jaggery
is the unrefined form, and brown sugar is the partially refined form of sugar.
Molasses is a biproduct of sugar used for making rum and industrial alcohol.
Castor sugar or powdered sugar and icing sugar are other common forms of
sugar.
Sugar solutions are used for different purposes in different concentrations. A thin
syrup is sprinkled on fatless sponge while making pineapple pastries, syrups are
used to soak rasgullas and gulabjamuns while pulled sugar is made into baskets and
fancy shapes. All these are made from sugar and require skill and precision.
Sugar Cookery
Three processes are of importance while making confections and preserves:
: Inversion When sugar is boiled in the presence of an acid, it is hydrolysed into
glucose and fructose. This process is called inversion, and the mixture of equal parts
of glucose and fructose is called invert sugar.
Invert sugar does not recrystallize.

Acid
Cio Ha2 Oy + HO eesf
ea
Ce Hy O6 + Cg Hag Os
Sucrose Water Glucase Oa Fructose
Invert sugar
The acid used may be lime juice (citric acid) or cream of tartar. Confectionery
glucose or liquid glucose contains readymade invert sugars. It is prepared by breaking
down corn starch into dextrins and different types of sugars.
Crystallization When a concentrated sugar solution is cooled gradually, large crys-
tals are formed which impart an unpleasant gritty texture to foods.
Crystal formation can be avoided or the size of crystals can be reduced by:
Beating While making fondants from sugar alone, the concentrated sugar solution
is heated to 115°C to saturate it, then cooled to approximately 40°C and beaten vig-
orously so that microcrystals are formed.
Inversion Addition of cream of tartar before heating results in inversion of sugar
and slow crystal formation, the fondant formed is mouldable.
Non-crystalline products are hard and glassy in appearance, e.g., chikki, pulled sugar,
and spun sugar. They have a low moisture content and are boiled at high temperatures.
Caramelization Caramel is formed when sugar is heated at high temperatures with
minimum amount of water (refer to Chapter 8).
Making Preserves
Jam, jellies, and marmalade are made by boiling sugar with fruit containing acid
and pectic substances. The acid in the fruit inverts 25-40% of the sugar and retards
crystal formation during storage.
Honey
The flavour of honey depends upon the flowers from which nectar is collected. It is
rich in fructose.
Artificial Sweeteners
They are also called non-nutritive sweeteners as they do not provide any calories or
provide negligible calories as compared to sugar. (Sugar provides 4 kcal/g, i-e., 1 tea-
spoonful sugar provides 20 kcal.)
Low calorie sweeteners are available as sugar substitutes in food and beverage.
Low calorie sweeteners, unlike carbohydrates, do not change blood sugar
levels
significantly.
Low calorie sweeteners are of two types - bulk sweeteners and high intensity
sweeteners.
Carbohydrates 57
Table 4.2 Relative sweetness of natural and artificial sweeteners
1. Natural sugars (Sucrose 100)
Glucose
Sucrose
Bulk sweeteners are indigestible and include sugar alcohols, such as sorbitol,
mannitol, and xylitol. Some are found in natural foods while others are manufac-
tured. High intensity sweeteners include the artificial sweeteners and need to be
added in very small amounts (see Table 4.2).
Sugar alcohols are used to sweeten chewing gum and other confectionery
|
products. High intensity artificial sweeteners are a boon for diabetic and obese
individuals. Use of saccharin is permitted in carbonated water, soft drink con-
centrates, supari, and paan masala. Artificial sweeteners, such as saccharin,
aspartame, or ace sulfame may be sold as tabletop sweeteners.
SOLUBLE FIBRES: PECTINS, GUMS, AND MUCILAGES

Pectin
It is a soluble polysaccharide present in the cellwalls of all plant tissues. It forms a
viscous solution in water and is a gelling agent for jams, jellies, and marmalades.
Unmodified Starch
1. Refined flour Thickening sauces and soups specially used in the
form of a roux
Thickening soups and rice pudding (phirnee)
3. Arrowroot For clear sauces, e.g., lemon sauce and as a glaze for
fruit flans
4. Tapioca Used for pudding
5. Potato Used to thicken soups which could curdle at high
temperatures
6. High amylose starch Edible films for wrapping candies
7. Waxy rice flour White sauces and starch-thickened pudding which
need to be stored frozen and thawed before cooking
8. Corn flour Thickening soups, sauces, and gravies. Anticaking
agent
Modified Starch
Thickeners and stabilizer in salad dressings
reducing foods
2. Cellulose compounds Thickening and creaming agents
Thickening and gelling agent. Stabilization of ice

cream, cheese, and chocolate milk
6. Seaweed extracts Prevent ice crystal formation in ice cream, stabilizes
(algin and agar) cream substitutes, modify crystal size in sugar con-
fections, and used in weight-reduction diets
As a humectant in confectionery
2. Caramel — As a colouring and flavouring agent in christmas
cake, soup mixes, instant puddings, etc.
3. Invert sugar Prevents formation of sugar crystals in preserves and
fondant
Carbohydrates 59
For a pectin gel to form, sugar and an acidic pH are necessary. Apples, oranges,
and lemons are rich sources. Commercial pectin is available as a coarse or fine
yellowish white powder which is added to fruit preserves which are low in natural
pectin.
It is a polysaccharide complex extracted from algae. It forms a stiff gel at 1% con-

centration. It is mainly used to prepare culture media and as a stabilizer in food
gels.
Algin
Algin and alginates are extensively used in the food industry. Algin is sodium algi-
nate, the sodium salt of alginic acid. It is extracted from giant brown seaweed or
horsetail kelp. It is available as a cream-coloured powder soluble in water, which
can form a viscous gel. Algin and alginates are used as stabilizers in the preparation
of ice creams and other dairy products. They prevent the formation of ice crystals
during freezing and give good whipping ability.
They are used in cakes, fruit drinks, milk shakes, desserts, sugar confectionery,
and wines.
Gums
A number of gums extracted from plants are used for a variety of purposes.
These polysaccharides are extracted from the seed, e.g., locust bean gum and Guar
gum, or as an exudate from several species of trees and shrubs, e.g., gum arabic, gum
tragacanth, gum karaya, and ghatti gum.
Gums are important for their thickening ability, stabilizing action in emulsions,
retardation of crystals in sugar, etc.
USES OF CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD PREPARATION

Starch from various sources in its natural form is used as a thickening and gelling
agent in a wide range of products. It is the primary thickening agent in soups
and roux-based mother sauces, such as Bechamel, Veloute, and Espagnole
sauces. These sauces are used for casseroles and vegetable and meat-based prepa-
rations, salads, and pastas. It is used in custard sauce, puddings, pie fillings, and
souffles.
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), pectins, gums, and alginates have varied applica-
tions in their natural and modified forms (refer to Table 4.3).
Commercially, starch derivatives are used for an exhaustive range of products.
Sugars have a wide range of uses apart from sweetening and energy giving. Sugar
cookery involves controlled formation of crystals which has a direct bearing on the
texture of crystalline candies, such as fondants and fudges.
UAE RETA AM RMN BEM LS MEM TT LN AEB ARETE TELS LL DIELS
SEMEN ESIUEE SEEaur
HUN TET URE ellie PERRO SUN RA
SUMMARY
Carbohydrates are one of the most important constituents of food. They are manu-
factured by green plants by a process known as photosynthesis. The glucose formed
in this process is converted into starch and stored in various parts of the plant to be
used as food. On the basis of saccharide or sugar units present, they are classified
as mono, di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides.
Starch is present in two forms — amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a straight
chain polysaccharide that is capable of forming a gel, apart from its thickening ability.
The second and larger fraction is amylopectin which has a branched structure
because of which it has thickening ability but no gelling power at normal concen-
trations. Both amylose and amylopectin are made up of glucose units linked to each
other in long chains. Amylose and amylopectin are arranged in cell granules in an
orderly arrangement and are tightly compacted.
When a mixture of starch and water is heated, the insoluble starch absorbs water
and swells. On further heating, amylose gets leached into the water and the granule
swells further, resulting in increase in viscosity. The starch granule at this stage is
gelatinized and as the starch paste cools, viscosity increases. If the percentage of
amylose is adequate, the cooled paste sets into a firm gel. This step is gelation. Many
factors affect gelatinization and gelation of starch. As the gel ages or if the gel struc-
ture is disturbed, syneresis or weeping of a gel, and retrogradation or changes in tex-
ture of a gel are observed.
Sugars when cooked, show inversion, crystallization, and caramelization, all of
which have a definite bearing on the quality of the product. A number of non-nutri-
tive bulk and high intensity sweeteners are available in the market today. They are
suitable for diabetics and calorie-conscious individuals. The unavailable or zero-calo-
rie carbohydrates, such as cellulose derivatives, pectins, and gums, are used as thick-
ening agents, stabilizers, setting agents, etc. The food industry depends on natural
and modified carbohydrates for specific additive functions in many processed foods.
RE PR SEM OLB SS TRU US PT SEE OGAM LRA SSE
OPTUS ES RTL TST LE ETERS ETH LEST LEST TUPLE ETT HP SATS IY SEER TETAS
KEY TERMS
Amylopectin Branched. form of starch made up of Gelatinization Swelling of starch granules on heating
chains of glucose units linked to each other by 1,4 link- __with water, resulting in thickening of starch pastes and
ages in the chain and 1,6 linkages at point of branching. leaching out of amylose from the granule into water.
Amylose Form of starch made up of long straight 1,4-C-Glucosidic linkage Linkage between Carbon 1
chains of glucose units linked together by 1,4 linkages. and 4 of first and second glucose units respectively,
Carbohydrates 61
forming disaccharide maltose. In starch all glucose the air, and water and minerals from the soil in the
units are joined by this linkage. presence of sunlight.
Heteropolysaccharide Also called heteroglycan, Retrogradation Gradual increase of crystalline areas
and is made up of more than one repeating unit of in starch gels during storage which affect texture and
monosaccharide. palatability of puddings.
Homopolysaccharide Also called homoglycan, and is Starch Complex polysaccharide made up of amylose
made up of one repeating unit of monosaccharide. and amylopectin.
Implode Implode means to burst inwards. Starch granule Formed in the leucoplast of the cell
Leucoplasts Colourless plastids in the cytoplasm of by deposition of amylose and amylopectin in layers.
plant cell in which starch is stored. Syneresis Separation of liquid from a gel caused by
Modified starches Starch, whose natural state has contraction of the solid phase thereby squeezing the
been changed by physical or chemical methods. liquid out or by cutting the gel.
Molasses Local name kakvi, is a sweetener pro- Waxy starch Genetically modified starch containing
duced as a by-product during refining of cane sugar. only amylopectin.
Photosynthesis The process by which green plants
manufacture complex foods from carbon dioxide in
SS SSSSS SSS SP TSI LRU
RTI EAR LUTTE ETOP REE BOUNTY ST LEED MELEE ELE LI EET EET TE,
)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
|
| Ql Classify carbohydrates based on number of saccharide units present.
Describe the process of photosynthesis and list parts of plant where starch
|
/ Q2
}
is stored, giving suitable examples.
|
'
Q3 Define and explain the process of gelatinization and factors affecting the
) same.
Differentiate between the following:
i Amylose and amylopectin
ii Gelation and gelatinization
iii Natural and modified starches
iv Nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners
Explain the following:
i Retrogradation
ii Dextrinization
iii Structure of a starch granule
List ten recipes in which starch is used as a thickening agent.
ees Sif
en and prevent undesira
INTRODUCTION
roteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen

oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus
along with traces of other elements. Proteins are not only essential for life
but also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many fooc
products is influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared
An understanding of the structure and behaviour of protein in food products is nec
essary for every caterer.
Proteins 63
BASIC STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES

Proteins are made up of amino acids which are organic acids with a carboxyl group
(COOH) and amino group (NH) attached to a carbon atom. R is the functional
group which differentiates one amino acid from another.
H
|
NH,— c— COOH
Peptide Linkage
The carbon of the carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with the nitrogen
group or amino group of another amino acid with the loss of one molecule of water.
This bond which unites the two amino acids is called a peptide bond.
Ome
H O H O H
| O
Za el ding 4 Sos | iN 4
H,N—C—C + N—C—C N—C H C +H,O
l < Ew ~
R HOH. . Hoe OH
Peptide bond Dipeptide
Protein molecules are polypeptides being made up of repeating units of -C-C-N-

group which forms the backbone of the protein. Projecting alternately on either side
of the main chain, are the R groups.
One protein molecule differs from another in the particular R group it contains
(or the particular amino acids it contains) and in the order in which they are united
in the long polypeptide chain.
The bonding angles between various atoms along the polypeptide backbone are
arranged in a zigzag or spiral manner called the ‘helix’.
Holding the polypeptides in a helical configuration are the hydrogen bonds which
are formed between the carboxyl (C=O) and imido group (N-H) along the polypep-
tide backbone. These hydrogen bonds are parallel to the major axis of the helix.
H R ,
fa am orins a
Fig. 5.1 Primary structure of protein
64° Food Science and Nutrition
O | Nai Shows hydrogen bonds
Fig. 5.2 Secondary structure of proteins
Some of the side chains (R group) contain carboxyl, amino, and imido groups
which form salt bridges. These also hold the polypeptides in a helical manner.
(Salt bridges are formed between -COO group of an acidic amino acid radical
and the -NH3 group of a basic amino acid radical, i.e., -N H3-COO )).
Classification of Protein
I Classification of proteins based on structure
1. Fibrillar or fibrous proteins
(a) The helix of the protein molecule is stretched. For example, in muscle
myosin the helix is stretched but elastic.
In collagen the helix is stretched to a great extent and is inelastic.
(b) They are relatively insoluble in water and are resistant to acid, alkalis,
and moderate heat.
2. Globular proteins
(a) The helix is bent to give a compact shape, e.g., egg albumin, globin of
haemoglobin, and globulin in meat and pulses.
(b) These proteins are soluble in water and water solutions containing acids,
alkalis, salt, and also in alcohols. They are easily affected by heat. This is
due to the fact that the cross-links holding the helix are weak and hence
slight increase in temperature, or a change in pH, disrupts these cross-
links causing the chains to unfold, i.e., protein gets denatured.
Proteins 65
Fig. 5.3 Tertiary structure of proteins
II Classification based on characterization

1. Simple proteins
Those which yield amino acids on hydrolysis, e.g., albumin in egg white,
zein in maize, keratin in hair, and globin in haemoglobin.
2. Compound or conjugated proteins
Those proteins which are combined with a non-protein molecule, e.g.,
haemoglobin (protein + haeme), casein (protein + phosphoric acid), mucin
(protein + carbohydrate), and lipoprotein (protein + lipid).
3. Derived proteins
Those produced by the action of acids, alkalis, heat, or enzymes on native
proteins.
Proteins —» Proteoses —» Peptones —» Polypeptides —» Dipeptides
III Classification based on function

1. Complete proteins or first class proteins
Complete proteins contain all the essential amino acids. They promote
growth and maintain essential body processes, as kinds and amounts of
amino acids are proportional to body needs, for example, animal proteins
from milk, egg, fish, and meat.
|
2. Partially complete or second class proteins
These do not contain all the essential amino acids in required amounts.
So they are capable of maintaining life but cannot promote growth, e.g.,
gliadin of wheat.
3. Totally incomplete proteins
These are deficient in a lot of amino acids. They are incapable of meeting both
major functions of growth and repair of proteins, e.g., zein in maize and gelatin.
NATIVE PROTEINS
Proteins found in living tissues (within the cell and in the fluids) of animals and
plants are called native proteins. These are large molecules (macromolecules),
which are sensitive and fragile. These colloidal protein particles are dispersed as a
é +H ‘ ete
NH3— o — COOH ~«~—— NH;— ce —COO- ——»> NH,— i — COO-
R R al
Positive ion Zwitterion Negative ion
Fig. 5.4 lonic character of an amino acid
sol. They are stabilized by:

1. All colloidal particles have similar charge on the molecules. Like charges
repel each other and the particles remain dispersed.
2. Protein macromolecules are hydrophilic colloids and are stabilized by a layer
of water.
This acts as an insulation and prevents bonding. Some amino acids with a ring
structure ©) and carbon chains (-C-C-—C-C-C-) are hydrophobic while the acidic
group (COOH group) is hydrophilic.
The free amino and carboxyl groups in a protein molecule have an electric
charge depending on the pH of the medium in which the protein is found. Proteins
are said to be amphoteric, i.e., they can react with acids and bases. Hence, they act
as buffers in food preparations.
In the presence of an acid, (the amino group neutralizes the acid) the protein
molecules are drawn towards the cathode as a result of the net positive charge
on them.
NH3— CH— COOH
R
In the presence of an alkali, (the carboxyl group neutralizes the alkali) the
protein molecule migrates towards the anode because of the net negative charge
on them.
NH,— CH—COO™
R
This migration of proteins in an electric field at a definite pH is called elec-
trophoresis. It depends on:
1. Charge on the molecule
2. Size of the molecule
3. Shape of the molecule
At the isoelectric point (IEP) the charge on the protein molecule is neutralized
and they show no movement in an electric field. Proteins at the IEP are called
zwitterions.
At this point hydrophobic colloids like casein flocculate and hydrophilic colloids
show minimum hydration, e.g., gluten.
a ard a sein sR Proteins 67
TONEINS | BOL
IEP for some protein:

Casein
Ovalbumin
Gelatin
Myosin
Gluten
When a fluid food containing protein is brought to its IEP, curdling is likely to
occur (addition of acid while curdling milk) as there is no charge which keeps pro-
tein dispersed.
DENATURED PROTEINS
Denaturation is defined as any non-proteolytic modification in the original structure
of the native proteins, giving rise to definite changes in physical, chemical, and bio-
logical properties. Denaturation is brought about by the following:
1. Denaturing agents, such as acids, alkalis, salts
2. Increase in temperature
3. Extensive beating
Stages in Heat Denaturation

1. Unfolding of helix of the protein molecules as the cross-links holding the
helix is disrupted.
2. R groups are exposed. Rebonding takes place between adjacent R groups of
protein molecules leading to aggregation of the molecules, bringing about
increased viscosity. This is the first change in denaturation which involves
structural alteration (1st stage).
When sufficient proteins have united, the protein molecules are no longer dispersed
as a ‘sol’. At this stage the protein is said to have coagulated (2nd stage), i.e., water is
held in the capillary spaces formed by united protein molecules and the coagulated
proteins form a ‘gel’.
If the liquid separates from the coagulated protein, the protein is said to be,
‘precipitated’ or ‘flocculated’, i.e., ‘curdling’ takes place (3rd stage of denaturation).
These stages can be observed while cooking scrambled eggs. If it is overcooked,
liquid separates out.
|
Effects of Denaturation
|
Properties of denatured proteins are completely different from their native form.
1. Denatured proteins are easily attacked by proteolytic enzymes, e.g., cooked
meats are more easily digested than raw meats.
2. They show decreased solubility. For example, cooked egg white is not soluble
in water.
3. They lose their biological activity as enzymes are destroyed , e.g., browning
does not take place in boiled potato.
4, Denatured proteins lose their ability to crystallize.
5. There is an increase in viscosity of food.
6. Heat denaturation results in improved flavour and texture, e.g., cooking
improves flavour in meat, and eggs give structure and improve texture of
cakes.
7. Denaturation of food is irreversible unless it occurs under very mild conditions.
Factors Affecting Denaturation
pH Denaturation is brought about by controlling pH and occurs at the IEP when
the protein is unstable.
1. Caseinogen is dispersed as a sol in milk. When milk turns sour (pH 4.6 ; IEP),
it curdles (3rd stage in denaturation).
2. Egg albumin is colloidally dispersed as a sol. It has a pH of 72-78. But when
the pH is reduced to 4.6 (its IEP) by adding vinegar to water used for poach-
ing eggs, the egg coagulates faster.
Heat When egg white is heated at 60°C the protein ovalbumin gets denatured. As
temperature increases, coagulation takes place and egg white separates out as a
solid.
If the temperature is below 100°C, e.g., poaching, then coagulation is slow and
coagulated protein is soft and easily digested.
If temperature is above 100°C, e.g., boiling and roasting, coagulation is fast and
coagulated protein is hard and more difficult to digest.
So ‘a stew boiled is a stew spoiled’.
Surface denaturation This is brought about by mechanical means, e.g., beating
egg white or milk to a foam. Surface denaturation of the protein takes place leading
to pellicle or skin formation. This stabilizes the foam (pellicle is seen when foam has
subsided).
If such a foam is heated, as in egg white foam, it becomes firm due to the coagu-
lation of ovalbumin.
If pH of ovalbumin is at its IEP, then coagulation is faster. Hence, acidic sub-
stances (cream of tartar, lime juice, etc.) are added when whipping egg white.
Salts When present in a high concentration it precipitates proteins out of solution
and disperses them, e.g., cured ham baked in white sauce. The high salt concentra-
tion of the ham can cause the milk in white sauce to curdle.
Moisture Low moisture levels cause less denaturation than higher moisture levels
at the same temperature.
Proteins 69
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SPECIFIC PROTEIN RICH FOODS

Gelatin
Gelatin is a partially degraded protein prepared from collagen. Collagen is the
intercellular cementing substance between cells. Skin, ligaments, and bones are
hydrolysed by dilute acid or alkali, breaking collagen molecules into shorter
fibrous molecules called gelatin. Gelatin contains a large proportion of amino acids
which have a great affinity for water. The long thin fibres of gelatin help in form-
ing firm gels at low temperatures.
Dry gelatin is soaked in cold water for preliminary hydration before adding some
hot water. The mixture is stirred to form a sol. Alternatively, hydrated gelatin is
heated in a double boiler for gelatin to dissolve. The concentrated gelatin sol is
added to gel a liquid, stirring thoroughly to prevent gelatin from solidifying into
rubbery strands or lump. Stirring also ensures even dispersion.
Gelation of a gelatin sol Gelatin is a hydrophilic colloid. Polar groups on gel-
atin molecule bind water molecules in layers forming a shell around the mole-
cule. Cooling of the gel increases its viscosity, and at chilling temperatures the
fluid sol is converted into an elastic solid or gel. A three-dimensional network
of gelatin molecules join to form a gel which entraps and immobilizes liquid in it.
A gelatin gel is reversible. At 28°C it melts and forms a sol, which can reset and
form a gel.
chilling
Hydrated gelatin sol <———= Gelatin gel
warming
Once a gel is formed, rigidity increases with time and maximum gel strength is
reached in 24 hours. As the gel ages, some of the liquid may escape from the net-
work, a phenomenon studied earlier called syneresis.
The strength of a gelatin gel is affected by the following:
|
Concentration of gelatin A concentration of 1-2% gelatin can form a firm
gel, which does not melt at normal serving temperature. Excess gelatin forms a
stiff rubbery gel.
Sugar Presence of sugar in excess increases the amount of gelatin needed for
gelation.
Acid Acid increases the clarity of the gel and lowers gel formation and melting
temperature.
Fruits and Vegetables Uncooked pineapple and figs contain proteolytic
enzymes, which hydrolyse gelatin and do not permit gelation.
Fruits and vegetables if added uncooked, float in jelly because of pockets of inter-
cellular air. While making such jellies, blanch the fruits/vegetables and add them
only when the gelatin sol is as viscous as thick raw egg white.
Whips, sponges, and creams These cold desserts are prepared by whipping the
cold viscous gelatin sol. Whipping at this stage gives a foam double in volume of
the original sol. After foam is formed, the desserts are chilled for the gelatin to set.
These desserts are a combination of a foam and a gel.
Pieces of baked fish skins, when cooled on the baking pan, stick to it because of
conversion of collagen in the skin of fish to gelatin.
MILK
Milk is a solution of sugar lactose, and water soluble vitamins and minerals. It is a
colloidal dispersion of protein and an emulsion of fat in water. Water accounts for
87% of milk.
Proteins in milk are of two types:
1. Casein - alpha, beta, and kappa caseins
2. Serum or whey proteins — albumin and globulins.
They are of colloidal dimensions and make milk opaque. Casein is colloidally
dispersed in milk as calcium phosphocaseinate. Casein molecules form micelles by
ageregating with calcium and phosphorus.
Milk Cookery
Colloidal proteins remain dispersed in water as the molecules are hydrated. Mole-
cules of water are bound to the polar groups of proteins. Besides the protective water
layer, protein molecules are stabilized by the charge they carry as all molecules carry
the same charge and like charges repel each other.
Effect of heat on milk proteins:
1. Heat denatures and coagulates serum or whey proteins which settle to the
bottom of the container.
2. When milk is heated in an uncovered vessel a skin forms on top. This is
because of evaporation of water and concentration of casein which blocks
calcium salts and milk fats. The skin holds steam and makes milk boil over.
A foam minimizes skin formation and this is the reason why hot coffee, cocoa,
etc., are whipped to induce a foam or served with whipped cream. Casein is
otherwise insensitive to heat.
3. The colour and flavour of condensed milk is because of browning caused by
lactose and milk protein (refer Maillard browning in Chapter 8)
Effect of Acid on Casein
Fresh milk has a pH of 6.6 and casein micelles are dispersed as a colloidal sol.
Acidity is increased when acid is added to milk, e.g., while making paneer, or
acidity formed due to natural souring by lactic acid bacteria which ferment lactose
to lactic acid, lowering the pH of milk. This reduces the stability of casein micelles
Proteins 71
and it coagulates, forming a gel. This is because addition of acid neutralizes the
charge on protein.
Calcium phosphocaseinate + H* ———» Neutral casein + Ca**
(sol) (acid) (gel)
If the gel formed is cut, stirred, or heated, liquid seeps out and the gel separates
into two phases - the casein rich solid called curd and the watery liquid called whey.
When milk or cream is added to acidic fruits, such as peaches and strawberries, the
acid from the fruit lowers the pH of milk/cream causing it to thicken or even curdle.
While making curds or yoghurt, a starter culture of lactobacilli species is added
to warm milk. The bacteria ferment milk sugar lactose to lactic acid and convert
milk into curds.
: lactic aci
Milk [ platen aoe Curds
bacteria
(sol) (gel)
Warm temperature
Yoghurt differs from curds because of the difference in species of lactobacilli used
in the culture. The acid added to curdle milk for making paneer or cottage cheese
is citric acid or, sour whey water or lime juice.
EGGS
Eggs are used in a number of dishes because of the properties of egg white and yolk
proteins.
_ Egg White
| Nine proteins are dispersed as a sol in egg white. The two albumins, ovalbumin and
conalbumin, which form 70% of the proteins are fibrous proteins. Lysozyme is a
globular protein and ovomucin gives thickness to the egg white. The protein avidin
in raw egg white binds biotin making it unavailable.
Egg Yolk
, Proteins and lipids are the major constituents of dispersed phase in the yolk. Many
proteins are present as lipoproteins. Some lipoproteins contain lecithin, which is a
natural emulsifying agent. Cholesterol is also present in the yolk.
Table 5.1 Composition of hen's egg
Effect of Heat on Fgg Proteins

Except for ovomucoid, all other egg white proteins are denatured by heat and get
coagulated. The transparent viscous sol of egg white turns white and opaque, and
forms a gel with water trapped inside.
The yolk, which is a thick liquid, becomes a solid with a mealy texture when dena-
tured by heat. Egg white begins to coagulate at 60°C and is complete at 65°C,
while the yolk starts to coagulate at 65°C and is coagulated at 70°C. Heating beyond
this temperature shrinks and toughens the coagulated egg protein.
Egg Cookery
Cooking eggs in their shell Eggs may be boiled in their shell to a soft or hard
consistency. Sometimes a greenishgray layer forms on the surface of the yolk in a
hard-boiled egg. This layer is ferrous sulfide formed by iron of the yolk reacting
with hydrogen sulfide liberated by sulphur-containing proteins. This layer forms
due to prolonged cooking. If hard-boiled eggs are immersed in cold water or
cracked immediately after boiling, the HaS formed is drawn away from the yolk.
Poached eggs Eggs are cooked in hot water till the white is set and yolk semi
liquid. Vinegar added to poaching water hastens coagulation of egg proteins.
Fried eggs The pan temperature should be above coagulation temperature. If the
pan is too hot, the egg white toughens and develops a brown edge which is more
flavourful.
Scrambled eggs The whole egg is blended with milk and heated to bring about
coagulation of protein. Scrambled eggs should be moist, tender, and fluffy. Once the
egg is coagulated, turn off the heat otherwise protein will get curdled, i.e., separate
into curd and liquid.
Custards An egg custard is prepared using one egg, a cup of milk, a tablespoon of
sugar, and a pinch of salt. Milk is heated and added to beaten egg along with sugar
and salt.
In egg custards, the egg protein ovalbumin gets denatured by heat and unites to
form a network in which liquid milk is trapped to form a fragile gel. In a stirred cus-
tard, stirring breaks the gel as it forms and results in a smooth velvety texture. Heating
should be done in a double boiler because at higher temperatures the custard curdles.
Many factors affect the viscosity of the finished product such as the concentration of
egg — more the egg, more viscous the custard. Sugar and salt help in gel formation by
forming hydrogen bonds and salt increases viscosity. The quality of the egg and
milk used for making the custard as well as the age of the custard affects its viscosity.
Stale custards show syneresis. Beating egg to a foam before preparing custard gives
desirable texture.
Proteins 73
I}
| Egg Foams
!
Egg white is a viscous sol with proteins dispersed in it. It can be beaten into a foam.
The proteins ovomucin, ovoglobulin, and conalbumin are necessary to form a fine
foam with small air cells.
As air is incorporated into the liquid, protein molecules collect at the air-water
interface. When more air is incorporated, the water layer gets thinner and protein
molecules get stretched and unwind from their coiled structure. Surface denaturation
takes place exposing the reactive ‘R’ groups along the protein molecules. These
groups unite and give rigidity to the foam. Surface denaturation makes the foam rigid
and when heat is applied the proteins coagulate forming a permanent foam.
Stages of fresh egg white foam formation
- Foamy
(a) Bubbles form on surface, but all egg white is

not broken up
Foam is extremely unstable PSSSSSOO
COTO TSS OOOOO
Air cells are generally large i ckigs Ae RIT
Mixture is still fluid
Mixture starts to become opalescent. Acid, salt, and vanilla are added at
this stage.
Soft peaks
(a) Air cells are medium fine, all egg white exists
as foam
Foam is fairly stable, slight drainage occurs
on short standing
Mixture is shiny, flows easily in bowl, but is elastic
Soft peaks fall over to near the base of foam as beater is lifted from
foam
Sugar is added gradually at this stage.
3. Stiff peaks
(a) Air cells are fine, especially if acids are added

at foamy stage. Mixture is white and opaque
Foam quite stable, some drainage occurs
on prolonged standing
Mixture is shiny, flows slowly in bowl, but is still elastic
Peaks are still quite soft, but the tip of the peak falls over as the beater is
pulled from foam
Egg whites for souffles and omelettes are beaten to this stage
Egg white and sugar are beaten to this stage for angel cakes and pie
meringues.
4. Dry:
(a) Air cells are very fine, mixture is extremely

white
(b) Foam is not stable, drainage is rapid
on long standing
(c) Mixture is dull, has lost its ability to flow in the bowl
(d) Mass is brittle and inelastic, peaks remain in rigid points
(e) This stage is avoided for products of fresh egg white. Only reconstituted
dehydrated egg whites must be beaten to this stage.
Once the beaten egg white has reached the desired stage it should be used
promptly otherwise it will stiffen upon standing without additional beating.
When egg white is beaten beyond the stiff peak stage a dry stiff foam, curdled in
appearance, is obtained. Overbeating makes the surface a denatured film which is
insoluble, so that liquid drains from the film and air bubbles coalesce. So coagulation
of protein can be due to overbeating as well as heating.
Egg yolks should be beaten extensively to form a fine, fairly stable foam. The
foam is not denatured by beating unlike egg white.
Factors affecting egg white foam formation
le Utensil should be large enough to allow for full increase in volume of foam.
However, it should not be too large that the beater has no contact with egg
white.
A rotary beater or wire whip should be used. Thinner the blade or finer the
whip, the smaller are the air cells and finer is the foam.
Egg whites whip readily at room temperature than at refrigerated tempera-
ture. At colder temperatures whites are too viscous to whip readily.
Presence of fat, even in traces, interferes with foaming and produces foam of
less volume. So bowl and beater used should be perfectly dry and free of fat.
Egg white should be separated completely from the yolk.
Salt and cream of tartar are used in egg white foams. Salt is used for flavour.
Lemon juice or cream of tartar makes foam more stable. Both these ingredi-
ents delay foam formation, so should be added after foamy stage is reached
and not before you begin beating. Cream of tartar strengthens egg white pro-
tein and prevents foam from collapsing.
Addition of water up to 40% of the volume of egg increases volume of foam.
It also makes the product more tender, especially in omelettes and sponge
cakes. However, water is incorporated towards the end.
Sugar acts as a dehydrating agent and excess beating is required to produce
a foam. But once formed, the foam is stable and very fine but of less volume.
Egg white foam is shiny as sugar prevents, in part, coagulation of protein that
causes opaqueness. Excess sugar reduces extensibility of egg white foam.
Proteins 75
Sugar added to foam prevents foam from being overbeaten inspite of longer beat-
ing time. Since sugar reduces coagulation with its accompanying loss of elasticity,
a foam with sugar can be used for spreading without rupturing the air cells.
Meringues are egg white foams with sugar incorporated into it. There are two
types of meringues - soft and hard.
ie Soft type are used for topping baked alaska, cream, and chocolate pies. Equal
amounts of sugar and egg white are used, i.e., 2 tablespoons sugar for every
egg white which measures 2 tablespoons. Water in egg white is converted into
a fairly concentrated syrup.
Egg white is beaten to foamy stage and then salt is added. Continue beat-
ing till foam barely flows in the bowl. Sugar is added and foam is beaten till
the soft peak with rounded top stage is reached. A meringue is more stable
when sugar is beaten rather than folded in.
Soft meringues are spread on soft pie fillings and baked. Baking causes
proteins in foam to coagulate and stabilize the foam without undue shrink-
age. Iwo defects seen are:
(a) ‘Weeping’ or accumulation of liquid where the meringue and filling meet.
This is due to under-coagulation of foam. This leakage can be overcome
by placing the meringue on a hot filling (60-77°C or 140-170°F).
(b) Appearance of amber-coloured droplets on the surface of the foam. This
is due to overcoagulation of foam proteins due to the hot filling used.
This beading can be overcome by baking meringue for a short time,
i.e., hot oven 425°F for 4% minutes.
A soft meringue is fluffy, slightly moist, and tender. The surface should
be light brown with little contrast in colour between peaks and depressions.
It should have a glossy sheen.
Hard meringues are used to make macaroons or as a base for pie fillings.
It contains 1/4 cup sugar for every egg white used.
Egg white is first beaten to soft peak stage, sugar is added, and then beaten
again to form stiff peaks. Meringue mixture is spooned onto oiled baking
sheet. Hard meringues are baked at lower temperature (250°F) for 45-60
minutes. A good meringue should be dry, crisp, and tender. They should
look puffy and be delicate brown.
Omelettes: For puffy omelettes, egg yolk with added liquid is beaten till
thick and light lemon in colour. Egg white is beaten separately till stiff. The
two foams are combined with gentle folding till a homogenous mixture is
obtained. The mixture is poured into a preheated greased pan. When
omelette sets along the edges, the pan may be covered and heat lowered to
complete cooking. Air bubbles incorporated during foaming are poor
conductors of heat.
A puffy omelette should be light and fluffy, uniformly cooked throughout,

and should be well blended. It should be tender, ce moist, and a delicate
uniform brown.
Souffle and Fondue

Both contain milk, grated cheese, eggs, salt, and butter. Bread is used in fondue and
flour in souffle. Fondue has double the amount of milk.
In fondue, milk is thickened with bread cubes. This hot milk — bread mixture is
blended with egg yolk, then grated cheese, and finally beaten egg white is folded in.
In the case of souffle, a very thick white sauce is made. Egg yolk is blended in it
followed by grated cheese. The white sauce should be hot enough to cause fat in
cheese to melt. The stiffly beaten egg white is then beaten in.
Both souffle and fondue are baked in a moderately hot oven at 350°F. The casse-
role, which contains the mix, is placed in a pan of hot water to protect the contents
directly in contact with baking utensil from overcoagulation.
As the product bakes, heat expands the air bubbles incorporated in the foam and
the product rises. To prevent product from falling as it cools a high proportion of
egg (which gives structure) should be used. A very thick white sauce base also helps.
The souffle or fondue should be served immediately.
Cake
No baking powder is used in sponge and angel cakes as these are foam cakes. The
proportion of egg, sugar, and water to cake flour is high. No fat is used.
The exception is chiffon cake in which salad oil is added at the last stage.
Functions of Cake Ingredients
Eggs:
1. Incorporates air into the batter — leavening agent
2. Coagulated egg protein — structure
3. High water content of egg provides water which is essential for flour to form
batter. Water converted to steam acts as a leavening agent.
Sugar:
1. Castor sugar is a tenderizing agent which counterbalances the effect of egg
and flour.
Acid:
1. Cream of tartar or lemon juice changes colour of egg white to a snowy white
crumb.
2. Acid stabilizes protein film at air —- water interface so that it lasts until heat
penetrates batter and structure sets — the air cell walls are hence finer.
3. Lemon juice adds flavour to the product.
Proteins 77
Flour:
1. Flour provides structure. Good quality cake flour of fine granulation should
be used so that it is evenly dispersed.
Flour should be folded in not mixed. Excess manipulation should be avoided as
flour will absorb liquid and foam will collapse and product will become tough.
In angel cake only egg white is used. In sponge cake the entire egg is used.
Baking is done at higher temperatures (400-425°F) for faster expansion of air
cells and more rapid setting of batter and absorption of less water by starch of flour.
Role of Protein in Breadmaking

Bread is made from wheat, which is milled into flour. Wheat flour from hard wheat
is higher in protein and is used for breadmaking, while soft wheat is low in proteins
and yields a weak flour which is suitable for cakes and biscuits. The principal
protein in bread is gluten which is a protein complex made up of more or less equal
amounts of glutenin and gliadin proteins. When flour and water are kneaded
together, the gluten complex starts forming and an elastic dough is formed. This
dough is extensible and when yeast produce carbon dioxide gas, gluten is stretched
and forms air cells. On application of heat, the gluten coagulates and forms a fairly
rigid cellular structure. The gluten matrix, thus, forms the foundation of the
structure of all bakery products. Excessive mixing of the dough can weaken the
gluten structure.
MEAT
Flesh food includes meat, poultry, and fish. The term meat is used for red meats
from animal sources, such as beef, veal, pork, lamb, or mutton.
Meat is composed of 15-20% protein of high biological value, 5-40% fat,
B-complex vitamins, iron, and phosphorus. Lean meat is made up of one or more
muscles. Each muscle is made up of many bundles of muscle fibres arranged in
them. The simplest structure in meat protein is the protein molecules, myosin and
actin, which form myofilaments. Thick myofilaments are myosin and thin myofila-
ments are actin. Several myofilaments form myofibrils and bundles of myofibrils
embedded in sarcoplasm are enclosed in a thin transparent membrane called the
sarcolemma and form a muscle fibre.
Connective tissue consisting mainly of ground substance, collagen, and little
elastin is found between each fibre. Connective tissue which surrounds each muscle
fibre is called endomysium. Several muscle fibres are bundled together to form
thicker fibrous bundles surrounded by connective tissue called perimysium. The
outermost covering of the muscle which encloses many bundles of fibres is the
epimysium. When meat is cooked, collagen is hydrolysed to gelatin.
Iron in ferrous Iron in ferric

form (Fe**) form (Fe**+) further
+O, oxidation oxidation Faded brown
Oxymyoglobin Ss Myoglobin —— Metmyoglobir a green colour
. ey . (Sea ‘
-0O; reduction enzymes, bacteria
Bright red colour Purplish red colour Brownish red colour

Fig. 5.5 Colour changes in meat
Fat is deposited in the connective tissue within the muscle, and is called marbling.
The amount of exercise, age, and feed of the animal influences the fat content of
meat.
The colour of meat is due to pigment myoglobin and partly due to haemoglobin.
In the living tissue, myoglobin which is purplish red exists in equilibrium with
oxymyoglobin which is the bright red oxygenated form. After death of the animal,
the colour changes to purplish red. On cutting the meat, due to oxidation, a bright red
colour is formed. Further oxidation due to micro-organisms and warm temperature
change the colour to brownish red.
When meat is cooked, the proteins get denatured by continuous heating and
denatured globin hemichrome is formed which is the denatured form of metmyo-
globin that is greyish brown in colour.
Post-mortem Changes
When an animal is slaughtered, the skeletal muscles stiffen and remain stiff for about
24-48 hours after which they soften and become flexible once again. This condition
is called rigor mortis. Many factors, such as age, species of animal, and activity prior
to slaughter affect rigor mortis. Meat cooked while in rigor mortis is much tougher.
After slaughter, glycogen store is broken down and lactic acid is formed lower-
ing the pH to 5.6. Low pH in meat is desirable. It inhibits bacterial growth and the
meat is juicier. Animals prior to slaughter should be well rested, with a 1% glycgen
store so that maximum lactic acid is formed.
Ripening or Aging
After rigor mortis passes, meat gradually becomes more juicier and tender because
of autolytic breakdown of cell proteins by enzymes.The flavour also increases. The
time and temperature also influence the aging process. Planned aging is costly and
is used for prime and choice grade of meat.
Changes in Meat during Cooking

The following changes are observed:
1. Cooking destroys micro-organisms and their spores. If pork is infested with
Trichinella, the cysts get destroyed at 77°C.
Proteins 79
N N N 2 N y Oy
pare +H
Oia LO i hit
Fe a Fe Fe** at RE a Fet++
a fe |NS eS aes
N N N N N N
Globin Globin Denatured globin
Myoglobin Oxymyoglobin Denatured globin hemichrome
Fig. 5.6 Colour changes in cooked meat
2. The jelly-like protein gel stiffens and toughens as proteins get denatured.
3. Hydrolysis of collagen, the main component of connective tissue surround-
ing meat fibres, takes place. Collagen gets hydrolysed to gelatin and the
stock or gravy gels on cooling. As temperature increases, more collagen
is lost.
4. Colour changes from red to purplish red to brown. Pork should be cooked to
the grey stage to ensure destruction of parasites.
5. When meat is cooked, liquid or drip separates out (drip formation), meat
shrinks and loses weight. Drip contains water soluble compounds, protein,
and fat.
6. Cooked meat has appetite-stimulating flavours. When meat is browned,
amino acids are broken down forming volatile compounds which give a
strong flavour to meat.
™N Cooking causes fat cells to rupture and fat to disperse in meat.
8. Overcooking toughens meat because of excessive loss of drip and loss of col-
lagen and fat. Volatile flavour compounds are lost and mutton fibres become
stringy.
9. There is a marked reduction in volume and increase in density caused by
shrinkage of muscle fibres lengthwise.
Tenderness of Meat
Tenderness is the first sensation we perceive when we bite into a piece of meat. This is
the most important criteria for judging meat. Many factors affect the tenderness of
meat.
The amount of connective tissue in the muscle When meat is cooked,

collagen in the connective tissue is hydrolysed to gelatin. This increases tender-
ness of meat.
The extent of hydration of proteins Aging results in greater hydration of
proteins because of movement of ions into and out of the cells. Water is held by
hydrogen bonds and this increases the tenderness of meat.
Marbling of meat Fat deposition in the connective tissue within the muscle
is called marbling. In well marbled meat, fat lubricates the lean meat and makes
it juicier.
Use of tenderizers Meat can be made more tender by using tenderizers.

Tenderness can be increased by mechanical means, vinegar, enzymes, and
salt.
Mechanical means When meat is subjected to mechanical treatment, such as
grinding, pounding, needling, scoring, or cubing, it becomes more tender.
These methods cut or break the muscle fibres and connective tissues of meat.
Vinegar When the pH of mutton is lowered by adding vinegar, curds, or
lime juice, there is increase in hydration of meat proteins and subsequent
increase in tenderness.
Enzymes Proteolytic enzymes are often used to tenderize tough cuts of
meat. Enzymes destroy the sarcolemma, and hydrolyse the proteins in the
fibre and break down collagen and elastin. Cooking temperatures activate
the enzymes and denature the connective tissue. Commercial papain
extracted from the unripe papaya is applied to the surface of meat to be ten-
derized. The meat is pierced with a fork to allow the enzyme to penetrate
the meat.
Other proteolytic enzymes are bromelin from pineapple, ficin from figs, and
trypsin from fungal protease. Papain from unripe or green papaya is most com-
mon. Excessive use of enzyme results in an undesirable mushy texture.
Salt Salt used in moderation enhances the water retention and ultimately the
juiciness. The bound water is held tightly and less juice is lost from meat during
cooking.
Cured Meat
Cured and smoked meats develop a particular desirable flavour. Meat is cured using
salt, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, sugar, and vinegar. These ingredients are used
in the form of a rub, a pickle, or injected into the meat.
Muscle
Connective tissue
Bundle of fibres
Muscle fibre Thick myofilament
Tendons (myosin)
Thin myofilament (actin)

Myofibril —> Myofibril
enlarged
Fig. 5.7 Structure of mutton muscle
Proteins 81
Epimysium
Endomysium
Perimysium
Bundle of fibres
Muscle fibre
Myofibrils
OD
O'
Se58 Sarcoplasm
oO 00
Q
Sarcolemma
Fig. 5.8 Cross section of mutton muscle
Salt acts as a preservative while nitrate reacts with myoglobin to form unstable
nitric oxide myoglobin which is denatured by heat to nitrosomyoglobin giving a
stable pink colour to cured ham, bacon, and beef.
Smoked meats are impregnated with constituents of smoke which have preser-
vative action by destroying micro-organisms. Smoking has a drying effect and
imparts desirable organoleptic properties to meat. It brings out the colour inside the
meat and gives a desirable gloss or finish to meat.
COMMERCIAL USES OF PROTEINS

The major role of protein in food preparation includes the ability of proteins to:
Form foams
Bind water and form viscous sols and gels
Get coagulated by heat
Exhibit emulsifying properties
ee
oe
he Show enzymatic activity
No single protein exhibits all these properties and these complex reactions are
influenced by other constituents present in food. Proteins are of major significance
in determining the organoleptic characteristics and nutritional value of a food. Egg,
milk, and gelatin are used for gels, foams, whips, souffles, meringues, custards,
cakes, puddings, confections, soups, sauces, and gravies.
Proteins extracted from natural and novel sources are being extensively used in
the manufacture of convenience foods for catering systems and for low cost feeding
programmes which rely on proteins to bridge the protein calorie gap.
Soya bean proteins, protein isolates from oilseed cakes, single cell protein, and
milk proteins are being widely used today by the food processing industry. They are
used in health drinks, weight-reduction foods, muscle-building foods, and many
infant foods and general convenience foods. Protein hydrocolloids have many uses
in the food industry today.
Textured Vegetable Protein

Plant proteins can be used to produce textured protein products also called protein
analogs. They form an important substitute for expensive animal products. Textured
vegetable protein (TVP) includes proteins manufactured from soya bean, groundnuts,
and other oilseeds after oil has been expelled. Proteins can also be extracted from green
leaves, grass, and certain species of micro-organisms, such as yeast, mould, bacteria, and
algae. Textured vegetable proteins are made by extracting the proteins from plants —
mainly soya beans by treating it with alkali. The protein extracted is spun into fibres of
nearly pure protein. The fibres are coloured, flavoured, and shaped into products that
resembles and tastes like meat. They are often enriched with the essential amino acid
methionine, B-complex vitamins, and iron to make it as nutritious as real meat.
These proteins are available in the market in the form of granules, nuggets,
cubes, or slices. These products contain 50% protein on dry weight basis.
Advantages of using TVP:
1. They can be used as a substitute for real meat in curries, biriyanis, etc.
2. Alternatively, they can be used along with real meat as a meat extender by
mixing it with meat products as in cutlets, koftas, keema matar, etc.
Table 5.2 Novel sources of protein
1. Single cell protein

Bacteria 54%
Yeast 65%
Algae (blue green — Spirulina, green — Chlorella) 62%
Fungi (Fusarium)
2. Leaf protein (dry weight)
Grass
Harvested crops re bag ll

3. Oil seed residues (pure protein isolated from seed cake)
Groundnut Elie
Cotton
Sesame
4. Textured vegetable protein (meat extenders) 50%

Soya beans
3. It is equally nutritious as meat and cheaply priced thereby cutting down on
costs.
4, ‘'T'VPs are widely used in food processing industry.
5 They are acceptable to vegetarians and are used in nutrition feeding
programmes.
Other Commercial Uses of Protein

1. Dehydrated egg whole, Cakes, omelettes, bakery products
egg white
2. Whey proteins Health food, muscle building
3. Casein Artificial whipped toppings, coffee
whiteners
4. Gelatin Gelling agent, whipping agent in foams, and
clearing agent in wines and fruit juices
Prevents ice crystal growth in ice cream
5. Synthetic amino acids Lysine, methionine, and tryptophan
Protein hydrolysates Beef and yeast extracts (flavour enhancers)
NIDMilk solids Health drinks, infant foods (Complan, Bournvita, etc.)
ae aes re ae adap ccc
SUMMARY
Proteins are complex organic molecules containing nitrogen which are not only essen-
tial for life but also play an important role in food preparation. They are made up of
amino acids linked together into long chains by peptide linkages. These long chains or
polypeptides form the backbone of the protein molecule.
Proteins differ from one another on the basis of amino acids present, and can be clas-
sified in various ways. Proteins found in living tissues are called native proteins and are
present as macromolecules which are sensitive and fragile. They are hydrophilic colloids
stabilized by charge on the molecules and a layer of water surrounding the molecules.
When proteins are heated, beaten, or subjected to acids, alkalis, etc., they show
changes in physical, chemical, and biological properties. This is called denaturation.
Many factors affect denaturation.
The proteins of specific importance to a caterer are milk, gelatin, egg, and meat.
They are capable of forming gels, play a role in emulsification, used for various
stages of foam formation, and increase the viscosity of many food products. Apart
from these properties, proteins in food have a wide variety of uses both in the
kitchen as well as in the food processing industry. Proteins extracted from soya
beans, oilseed cakes, foliage, and micro-organisms are used extensively as food or
in health foods to bridge the protein gap. Because of their properties, proteins have
many commercial applications in the food and beverage industry.
ES RAG EEL UL EE UL,

eS
KEY TERMS
Autolysis Breakdown of a cell by its own enzymes. Nitrosomyoglobin Pinkish red coloured compound
Coagulation Solidification of a liquid protein on produced by action of curing salts on meat.
heating. Organoleptic Qualities of a food which appeal to the
Collagen Protein in bones, skin, and connective tis- sense of taste, smell, etc.
sue which is completely hydrolysed to gelatin by heat Perimysium Connective tissue binding groups of
during cooking. Collagen fibres predominate in meat. bundles of muscle fibres.
Connective tissue Made up of four proteins, namely, Primary structure Covalently bonded backbone
elastin, reticulin, ground substance, and collagen chain of a protein (-C-C-N-C—C-N-—C-C-N-).
which is most important. It is present within and Rigor mortis Stiffening of muscles immediately after
between muscles. animals have been slaughtered.
Denaturation Relaxation of the tertiary structure to Secondary structure The helical configuration of the
the secondary structure, accompanied by decreased backbone chain of a protein, held by secondary
solubility of a protein. bonds.
Elastin Yellow connective tissue present in very small Tertiary structure Distorted convolutions of the helical
amounts in muscle and does not get gelatinized during configuration; the form in which many proteins occur
cooking. in nature and which is held by secondary bonding
Epimysium Sheath of connective tissue which covers forces.
the muscle. Textured vegetable protein (TVP) Prepared from soya
Ground substance Protein in meat in which collagen bean and used as a meat extender and in vegetarian
and elastin are held to form connective tissue. dishes.
Micelles A colloidal ion composed of an oriented Trichinella spiralis A nematode worm present in
arrangement of molecules. infected pork that causes trichinosis disease.
Myoglobin An oxygen carrying pigment found in
mutton muscle and is oxidized to oxymyoglobin
_.which
ee
is bright
redEERSTE
incolour.
ILM RET ELI LES TTT LAGS PRS SRS ITS ARGS RRR ISITE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Classify proteins on the basis of their structure and on the basis of character.
Explain the ionic character of an amino acid and influence of acid and alkali
on it.
Explain the term denaturation and list the factors which affect denaturation.
What points should be kept in mind while preparing a fresh fruit jelly?
Explain briefly: .
Effect of acid on casein
Post-mortem changes in meat
Cured meats
Prevention of discolouration of boiled egg yolk
Explain the different stages in egg white foam formation. What products are
prepared from egg foams?
Q7 With the help of a neat diagram explain the structure of meat and factors
which affect tenderization.
Q8 Discuss the commercial uses of protein.
© copie theipa of the
© understand the properties of various fa
_ © know the factors which contribute towardsoe changes n fat and cils andtheir
control — GG oe :
classify fats and oils on — ofSorigin and ion oFStation oe
describe the steps in extraction, refining, and winterizing fats and oils
- distinguish between rancidity and reversion offats and oils _
know the role of shortenings and apply the same in the bakery _
state vi commercial ssisiheaanen of cuerots oils 7
INTRODUCTION
he basic use of fats and oils in cookery is to add richness and flavour
to food and as a cooking medium to fry or cook food. They improve the
texture of various preparations, such as cakes, pastries, and biscuits.
Fats and oils are found in plant, animal, and marine foods. The properties of fats
and oils depend on their source as well as a number of other factors. The quality of
the food product depends largely on the fat or oil which is used while preparing it.
The storage conditions of fat as well as preparation temperatures and time influence
the quality of the final product.
(a) Based on origin
Lipids
Animal fats | Vegetable oils

(solid at room temperature) Marine oils (mainly liquid at room temperature)
Butter (from milk) Cod liver oil
Lard (from hogs) Shark liver oil Fats Oils
Tallow (from beef ) Halibut oil —Cgcoa butter Groundnut
Suet (from sheep and oxen) Whale oil = Ggconut oil Sesame
Vanaspati Sunflower
Palm oil Safflower
Palmolein Rice bran
Corn
Mustard
Cotton seed
Olive
(b) Based on degree of saturation
Lipids
Fats and oils
Glycerol + Fatty acids
Saturated Unsaturated
(no double bonds)
Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
(one double bond) (two or more double bonds)
Fig. 6.1 Classification of lipids
Fats and oils are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They are collectively known as lipids. Unlike carbohydrates, lipids contain a smaller
proportion of oxygen and a larger proportion of hydrogen and carbon. This is why
lipids provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates.
STRUCTURE
Simple fats and oils are of great importance in food preparation. They are com-
posed of glycerol and fatty acids linked together to form an ester. One, two, or three
fatty acids may be esterified with glycerol to form monoglycerides, diglycerides, or
triglycerides respectively.
The most common form of food fats are triglycerides. Triglycerides are made up
of three fatty acids esterified to the glycerol molecule. This is the maximum number
of fatty acids that can be attached.
Fats and Oils 87
oo on pines! R
CHOH OER ———» CHOH + H,0
|
CH,OH CH,OH
Glycerol + Fatty acid Simple fat + Water
(monoglyceride)
Fig. 6.2 Formation of a monoglyceride
In Fig. 6.2, R is the symbol for the fatty acid half of any chain length. The fatty
acid chain is generally of 16-18 carbon atoms. The most common fatty acids found
in fats are palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic. In a simple triglyceride, the three
fatty acids that combined with glycerol are similar. In a mixed triglyceride more
than one kind of fatty acid is present.
The fatty acids present in fats may be saturated, unsaturated, or polyunsaturated. -
The flavour and hardness of a fat depend on the kinds and amounts of fatty acids
present. Fats found in foods are a mixture of saturated, unsaturated, and polyunsa-
turated fatty acids. The fat is classified on the basis of the amount and type of fatty
acids present. A food fat is called saturated if it contains more saturated than
unsaturated fatty acids. Such fats are solid and are generally found in animal food.
When polyunsaturated fatty acids are more in a fat than saturated fatty acids, the fat
is generally liquid and found in vegetable oils. The exception to this rule is fishliver
oil which is liquid, and cocoa butter, palmolein, and coconut oils which are solid
inspite of their vegetable origin.
In a saturated fatty acid each carbon atom in the fatty acid carries all the hydrogen
atoms possible. In unsaturated fatty acids, the full complement of hydrogen atoms
is not received. This leads to the formation of double bonds between the atoms, e.g.,
oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acid with 1, 2, 3, and 4 double bonds
respectively.
Properties:
1. Fats are insoluble in water and soluble in a fat solvent like ether, acetone, etc.
2. They are greasy to touch
3. They have a specific gravity less than one
H
| aN
H—C—O-~C—R
O
| \
H—-C—O>5C—R
| \
ear ees
Fig. 6.3 A triglyceride

4. At room temperature fats are solid due to the high percentage of saturated
fatty acids. Oils are liquid because of the higher percentage of unsaturated
fatty acids.
5. Fats do not melt sharply but soften over a range of temperature. This is
because fats are generally mixed triglycerides, each one having its own
melting point.
6. The spreading quality of a fat is due to its plastic nature. Solid fats which
spread are composed of a mass of tiny crystals in a matrix of liquid fat. The
crystals slide over one another as they are not trapped in the liquid oil and
permit the fat to be deformed.
7. When fat or oil is heated, the temperature at which a thin bluish smoke is
given off is called the smoke point. Fats used for deep fat frying should have
a high smoke point.
8. When fats and oils are heated to high temperatures, the fat is decomposed
into glycerol and free fatty acids. Glycerol is furthur broken down by high
temperature and acrolein is formed. Acrolein has a sharp odour and irritates
the nose, throat, and eyes.
9. Iodine value is a measure of the extent of unsaturated fatty acids present in
fats and oils.
RANCIDITY
The development of any disagreeable odour and flavour in fats and oils causing spoilage
is known as rancidity. This change is observed when fats and oils are stored for
sometime. Rancidity develops in fats, oils, and the fatty phases of foods, such as
pickles, fried snacks, cakes, cheese, and salad dressings.
Different types of oil and fat show varying degrees of resistance to spoilage, thus
most vegetable oils deteriorate only slowly whereas animal fats deteriorate more
rapidly, and marine (fish) oils which contain a relatively high proportion of highly
unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate most rapidly.
Vegetable oils resist oxidation because of the presence of antioxidants which
occur naturally in the tissues and which are present in oil when it is pressed, €.23
vitamin E or tocopherols. The antioxidants get readily oxidized themselves and
protect the oil from oxidation.
Types of Rancidity -
Two types of rancidity is commonly observed in food, namely:
1. Hydrolytic rancidity
2. Oxidative rancidity.
Fats and Oils 89
Hydrolytic rancidity is brought about by hydrolysis of triglyceride molecule to

glycerol and free fatty acids by the presence of moisture in oils. The rate of hydro-
lysis is hastened by:
1. The presence of enzymes, e.g., lipases present in oils which have not been
subjected to heat treatment
2. Micro-organisms like moulds, yeasts, and bacteria present in oils or conta-
minants during processing.
The nature of the unpleasant flavours and odours produced by hydrolysis
depends upon the fatty acid composition of the triglyceride. If the triglyceride contains
low molecular weight fatty acids (4—14 carbon atoms), hydrolysis yields free radicals
having characteristic unpleasant taste and odour. For example, hydrolysis of butter
yields the rancid-smelling butyric acid. Oils containing fatty acids with more than
14 carbon atoms yield free acids which are odourless and flavourless.
Auto-oxidation The spontaneous uptake of oxygen by the unsaturated oils exposed
to air is known as oxidative rancidity. It is the most common and important type of
rancidity which results in the production of rancid or tallowy flavours. It is caused by
ORE
peat
|
ese
|
eolul
ebIRl
Bethy ilies gigictea
Light °
H H
+O,
Double bond portion Free radical formed
of fatty acid by removal of H
jim eld i
BePate teed
Peroxide |
+
i SSE Pe te
| ragepe sl msec
Unsat. fatty acid tea =C— ¢ae
DH
iy
Gok Eee
ey igtageROT
Es
ap San a
H C
(reaction continues) Free radical b Hydroperoxide
|
OH
Fig. 6.4 Auto-oxidation

the reaction of unsaturated oils with oxygen. Moisture and impurities do not
have any effect on oxidative rancidity. Pure and refined oils can turn rancid
on exposure to oxygen. Oxidative rancidity is a complex process in the form
of a chain reaction. Once the reaction begins it is a continuous process.
The reaction occurs in two stages:
1. Induction period in which the fat or oil gradually takes up oxygen

from the air. Heat, light, and traces of metal help in the formation of
free radicals. The free radical is formed by the removal of a hydro-
gen atom from the carbon adjacent to the carbon involved in the
double bond. The free radical combines with two oxygen atoms,
forming a peroxide. The peroxide formed combines with another
hydrogen atom from another fatty acid to form a hydroperoxide
and anew free radical. This new free radical again takes up two oxy-
gen atoms and the chain reaction continues till all unsaturated fatty
acids are used up or all oxygen gets exhausted.
The products of oxidation are auto-catalytic so that the uptake of
atmospheric oxygen is accelerated as rancidity progresses and new
free radicals continue to be formed. Rancidity is detected at this stage.
2. In the second stage the peroxides and hydroperoxides formed
rapidly break down into aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols which
contribute to the undesirable flavours and odours in rancid fat.
REVERSION
Many fats and oils undergo a change in flavour before becoming rancid.
This change in flavour which is very different from the rancid flavour is
called reversion. In rancidity the change in flavour is the same for all fats.
But in reversion the flavour may be buttery, beany, grassy, painty, and
Table 6.1 Differences between rancidity and reversion
LN
1. May be hydrolytic or oxidative leading | 1. Flavour change develops before onset of

to typical flavour changes of rancid oil rancidity with very little oxidation
. All oils can turn rancid, e.g., maize, 2. Only some oils revert,
groundnut, sesame, sunflower, e.g., soya bean oil, rapeseed, fish oils, and
safflower, and mustard linseed oil, i.e., oils with high proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids
. Change in flavour is typical and same . Flavour developed may be fishy,

for all oils buttery, beany, painty, or grassy depending
on the oil which reverts
Fats and Oils 91
fishy. Reversion is seen in fish oils, linseed, and soya bean oil. Very small amounts
of oxygen are required as compared to oxidative rancidity.
FACTORS LEADING TO RANCIDITY AND REVERSION

Temperature
High storage temperatures accelerate the development of off-odours and flavours in
fats and oils.
Moisture
Low moisture content in cereals specially breakfast cereals to keep them crisp,
accelerates their deterioration due to rancidity.
Presence of moisture in butter and oils brings about hydrolytic rancidity. In but-
ter, the enzyme lipase hydrolyses butter fat to butyric acid, which gives stale butter
a rancid smell. When butter is heated to prepare clarified butter or pure ghee, the
enzyme lipase is inactivated and moisture from butter is removed by heat. Clarified
butter can be stored at room temperature and does not turn rancid.
The amount of air in contact with the fat or oil is an important factor in determin-
ing its shelf life. Auto-oxidation or oxidative rancidity occurs when fats are exposed
to oxygen. Reversion occurs with very minor amounts of oxygen. Potato chips and
salted nuts because of their large surface area turn rancid at a faster rate.
Light
Light accelerates the development of both rancidity and reversion.
Metals
The presence of metals in traces accelerates the development of both rancidity and
reversion as they are active pro-oxidants. Metal contamination can occur from
equipment used for extraction and refining of oils. Rust from steel equipment, traces
of copper, lead, zinc, and tin can accelerate the onset of rancidity.
Degree of Unsaturation
This is an important criteria for oxidative rancidity and reversion.
Oils containing high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids and shortenings made
from such oils show flavour reversion. Oils with high proportions of linolenic and
linoleic acids revert. Oils with unsaturated fatty acids turn rancid.
Absence of Antioxidants
The natural presence or addition of antioxidants to oils prevents rancidity. Vitamin E
or tocopherol is naturally present in vegetable oils and acts as an antioxidant
preventing auto-oxidation of oil. The antioxidant takes up oxygen and gets oxi-
dized, thereby preventing rancidity.
PREVENTION OF RANCIDITY
Disagreeable odours and flavour in fat can be prevented by the following ways:
1. Store fat at low temperatures in a cool, dark place.
. Use airtight containers. Keep minimum headspace.
3. Do not keep strong smelling foods in the vicinity of fats and oils as they
absorb foreign odours and get tainted.
4. Copper containers and rusted iron accelerate rancidity. Only steel or aluminium
should be used.
5. Avoid undue exposure to light and air. Expose minimum surface area.
6. If antioxidants are added to fats rich in unsaturated fatty acids, oxidative
rancidity can be significantly delayed. Tocopherol (vitamin E) and lecithin are
antioxidants naturally present in some oils. Synthetic antioxidants such as buty-
lated hydroxy toluene (BHT), butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), TBHQ added
to oil in which snacks are fried, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), citric
acid, or ascorbic acid may be added to fats to prevent rancidity. These sub-
stances act as scavengers and bind copper and other metals present which
cause oxidative rancidity. :
Tocopherols and ascorbic acid are excellent antioxidants.
7. If fats and oils have to be stored for sometime, they should be hydroge-
nated and stored. Hydrogenation increases the shelf life of fats and prevents
rancidity.
EFFECT OF HEAT ON FATS AND OILS

During cooking or prolonged heating of fats and oils certain changes are seen:
There is an increase in the free fatty acid content
Smoke point is lowered
Iodine number decreases
Melting point falls
Fat turns darker in colour
Fat gets polymerized
>NDR
wh Refractive index increases.
All these changes influence the overall quality of food. These changes are faster
when the cooking temperature is increased.
Fats and Oils 93
POLYMERIZATION
This takes place because of the intense heat which the fat is subjected to during frying.
Lipolysis or lipid breakdown takes place and free fatty acids are released. These free
fatty acids undergo further changes and form polymers. Polymerization is generally
seen in fatty acids with one double bond. The larger polymers increase the viscosity of
the hot fat. The colour darkens and the quality deteriorates. Gum may be formed at
the edge of the vessel.
It is of utmost importance to avoid unnecessary heating of fats and oils and con-
trolling frying temperature and time. If the fat is not hot enough, excess fat is
absorbed by the food. If the fat is too hot, the surface browns but the food is not
cooked. The moisture should be removed before frying a food. Fat used for frying
should have a high smoke point.
CARE OF FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are used in many preparations and as a method of cooking food. If care
is not taken while heating and storing fats, it may result in wastage of food as well
as the fat used in preparing it. The following points should always be kept in mind
while handling fats and oils in the kitchen.
1. Do not overheat fats, as they decompose at high temperature
2. Follow a time and temperature chart for frying foods
3. Cover fats when left in the deep fat fryer and ensure that the temperature
does not exceed 200°F
4. Strain fat after use and used fat should be stored in closed containers in
the refrigerator
5. When fat has to be reused for frying, replace with equal quantity of fresh fat
mn Do not use fats with a low smoke point for frying
7. To prevent fat from going rancid, it should be stored in an airtight container
away from light
8. Fat should be stored in tall containers to keep minimum surface area exposed
9. Always remember that fats and the fatty phases of foods take up flavours
and odours of other foods stored nearby
10. Copper or rusted containers should not be used for storing fats.
EXTRACTION OF FATS AND OILS
There are three methods for extraction of fats and oils from animal or vegetable tissues.
1. Rendering
2. Pressing
3. Solvent extraction
Rendering
This method is mainly used for extracting animal fat from fatty tissues. The tissue
from which fat is to be extracted is carefully removed from the carcass and chopped
or minced. Rendering is of two types ~ wet rendering and dry rendering.
Wet rendering It is carried out in the presence of water. The chopped tissue is
treated with very hot water or steam. Fat melts and forms a layer on top which is
skimmed off. Fat obtained by this method has a bland flavour and complete extrac-
tion is not obtained. Antioxidants are added to prevent rancidity.
Dry rendering The chopped tissues are heated without addition of water. Lipids
escape from the cells and melted fat is removed by draining and squeezing the fat
out of the residue.
Pressing
In this method, oil is extracted by the application of high pressure to oilseeds or fruit
rich in oil. The oil obtained is filtered to remove all extraneous matter. Oil obtained
from the first pressing is called virgin oil and is particularly bland in flavour.
In hot pressing, the oil bearing tissue is rolled, crushed, or ground into flakes, and
then heated by steam to 70°C. The hot tissues are pressed to extract oil. Along with
oil, gums and free fatty acids are also extracted.
Solvent Extraction
ae ie,
The crushed or flaked tissue is agitated along with a solvent to extract the oil. This
method is used to extract the fat remaining in the seedcake after pressing. The
solvent is separated from the mixture by evaporation.
REFINING
The oil extracted by rendering, pressing, or solvent extraction is called crude oil.
It may contain undesirable constituents such as gums, free fatty acids, pigments,
cellular material, and odourous compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, and
essential oils.
Crude oil needs several types of treatment to extend its shelf life and make it
suitable and pure for use. |
Steps in refining oil:
1. Settling The cell debris is allowed to settle down and is removed by filtration.
2. Degumming and neutralization The gum and free fatty acids present are
removed by steam distillation. Steam is passed through hot oil under pressure.
Water soluble low molecular weight fatty acids which are volatile are removed.
Fats and Oils 95
Hot oil is treated with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. The free fatty
acids saponify and soap is separated out. This step is called alkali refining.
3. Bleaching This step removes undesirable colouring and flavouring contami-
nants. Pigments are removed by filtering the oil through activated charcoal till
it is light in colour.
4. Steam deodourization Steam is injected into the hot fat under pressure.
Low molecular weight aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, and free fatty acids are
removed. The oil is cooled rapidly.
WINTERIZATION
After steam deodourization, the oils are chilled rapidly without stirring so that large
filterable crystals are formed. These crystals are composed of high molecular weight
triglycerides which have a high melting point. They are separated out by filtration
and the cold viscous oil obtained is said to be winterized.
Winterized oil does not turn cloudy or solidify in the refrigerator. It is suitable to
be used in foods which require refrigeration, e.g., salad dressings and mayonnaise
which can be poured even when chilled. It is an important step in refining oil. Olive
oil is not winterized or deodourized as desirable flavour is lost in these processes.
HYDROGENATIOFN OF OILS
Liquid oils can be converted to solid fats by a process known as hydrogenation.
In this process, hydrogen is added to unsaturated fatty acids. Some unsaturated
fatty acids become saturated and the melting point of the fat increases.
The hot oil and finely divided nickel catalyst is stirred together under an atmos-
phere of hydrogen. Hydrogen is introduced under pressure so that maximum is
dissolved in oil. The oil and catalyst are heated under vacuum. The reaction is
continued till the desired consistency of fat is obtained. The oil is cooled, filtered
to remove the catalyst, and chilled rapidly. By chilling small crystals are formed and
the fat gets a grainy texture.
MIO Meee 8Aetbs

PY
, eM +H |
In Bl Figastil
Unsaturated Saturated
(double bond) (no double bond)
Hydrogenation is utilized in the manufacture of a wide variety of fats such as vanas-

pati and margarine. These can replace costly animal fats such as butter and clarified
butter. The hardness of a fat depends on the degree of hydrogenation. Sometimes
additives such as antioxidants, monoglyceride, and vitamin A and vitamin D are
added to the fat. Air may be whipped in to impart a snow white colour.
Palm oil, palmolein, rice bran, cotton seed, sunflower, maize, soya bean, groundnut,
and sesame oils are generally hydrogenated.
SHORTENINGS
Shortening Power of Fats and Oils
All baked goods use fat as a shortening, the amount varying from 5-10% in biscuits
and cookies, 10-20% in cakes, and 15-30% in pound cakes.
Fats impart flavour, texture, and tenderness to the product.
In pound cake air is incorporated by creaming of fat. Each little air bubble is sur-
rounded by the gluten of flour which stretches and sets to a rigid structure when
the cake is baked. The extent of creaming the fat affects the texture. The tender-
ness of the product is also due to fat. Fat lubricates the tough and hard gluten and
starch so that they slide over one another and the walls crumble (tenderness)
when the cake is bitten.
In butter cakes leavening depends on air and steam as well as on CO, produced
from baking powder. The air bubble serves as the nucleus for COz gas.
In pastry the fat is flattened into sheets between layers of flour and water (stiff
dough) and causes their separation. This produces flakiness. The fat gets squeezed
between the gluten strands so that a continuous tough matrix is not formed, but
pastry is brittle or short.
Fats have different shortening abilities. The shortening ability of a fat is deter-
mined by a shortometer which measures the load required to break a wafer or
a pastry. If a small force is required to break a wafer then the wafer is said to be
very short.
The fat that covers the greatest surface area of the flour particles in a particular
baked product is said to have the greatest shortening power.
The following factors affect the shortening power of fats.
The nature of the fat Fats with the greatest unsaturation (3 or more double bonds)
have the greatest shortening power. Greatest shortening powermeans greatest sur-
face area of flour covered in a particular product. Polar groups are strongly attracted
to each other. Water is polar. Fats contain both polar groups (COOH group and
double bonds and phosphorus) as well as nonpolar groups (hydrocarbon chain).
When a small amount of oil is placed on a large clean surface of water it spreads
rapidly until a definite area is covered and then shows little tendency to spread further.
This is because of the attraction of polar groups of fat for water. Fats with more polar
groups will spread more.
Concentration As the concentration of fat increases, its shortening power is also
increased, e.g., butter has less shortening as compared to hydrogenated fats.
Fats and Oils 97
Temperature Fats are less plastic and oils are more viscous at low temperatures.
Therefore, they spread less readily and area covered is smaller with the same
amounts of mixing than at higher temperatures.
Other ingredients Presence of other ingredients may modify the shortening power
of fat. When oil or melted fat is used in a batter with egg yolk, the fat is emulsified
as an O/W emulsion and has less shortening power.
Manipulation of fat It includes creaming or stirring the fat to soften it, thoroughly
mixing fat with flour, way of rolling and handling and this affects shortening power.
For example, pastry making — relaxation of dough in a cool place between rolling
is important in pastry making because if fat melts then layers are not formed.
Shortenings available in the market are mixtures of high melting animal fats, low
melting animal fats, and low melting hydrogenated fats or oils. They are called com-
pound shortenings and are mixtures of oleostearin, edible tallow with hydrogenated
cotton seed or groundnut oil. The oils are carefully blended and hydrogenated to
obtain longest possible keeping period, plasticity and consistency for incorporation
in batters and doughs. A balance should be maintained between oleic, linoleic, and
linolenic acid as excess linoleic/linolenic acid shows signs of reversion and excess
oleic acid hardens the fat and reduces its plasticity. Shortenings available in our
country are mainly of vegetable origin.
Diet Margarines
They contain half as much fat as other margarines and twice as much water.
Whipped Butter and Margarine

Butter and margarine are whipped mechanically into fat foam which is lighter more
airy textured, and have fewer calories per gram.
Soft (tub) Margarines

They are made with higher content of PUFA and low melting point fats.
Peanut Butter
It contains oil, protein, and other components of groundnuts, which are finely
blended into a smooth paste.
Stick Margarine
Stick margarine spreads are made by hydrogenating plant oils and made to resemble
butter by adding colour, flavour, milk solids, and water. Cheese spread, garlic spread,
tofu spread, and many other flavours are available in the market.
POPULAR FATS AND OILS AVAILABLE
A wide varity of fats and oils are available in the market today.
Oils
Oils from different oil seeds are available refined or unrefined as a single type of oil
or as a blend of two or more oils. Single oils are preferable for deep fat frying as each
oil has a different smoke point.
Butter
It is available salted or unsalted.
Spreads
These are emulsions of oil in water as compared to butter and margarine which are
emulsions of water in oil.
The consumer can choose from a large number of spreads which unlike butter/mar-
garine are easy to spread even when removed from the refrigerator. Spreads may be
blends of hydrogenated plant oils, water, milk solids, flavouring, and colouring.
They may be whipped into a foam to increase volume. They have a light texture
and provide lesser calories per teaspoon as the water and air content is more. They
are marketed as diet spreads or low-calorie spreads. They contain half the fat and
twice the water of ordinary margarine.
Vanaspati
It is prepared by hydrogenation of oil to varying degrees to give a soft grainy fat or
a hard fat. They are usually prepared from a blend of different oils.
Margarine
It is a synthetic emulsion containing at least 80% or more fats and oils. Margarine
used for spreads is more plastic while cakes and pastries need harder margarine. The
fats and oils used may be from plant, animal, or vegetable sources. Margarine is a
saturated fat. ;
In India it is made from a blend of different oils. Since it is a substitute for but-
ter, it is fortified with vitamin A, 25 IU, and vitamin D, 2 IU, per gram. After the
fats and oils are refined and hydrogenated, it is ripened with pasteurized milk inoc-
ulated with streptococci for 12-24 hours to develop butter flavour. The fat — milk
emulsion is further treated and kneaded to obtain a hard fat which has no crystals.
Compound Fats
These are special blends of hydrogenated fats that are available to the bakery indus-
try for specific use. (refer section on commercial uses of fats and oils)
Fats and Oils 99
Suet
It is the solid fat deposits around the kidneys of various animals. It is used for mak-
ing suet puddings.
Dripping
When meat is roasted, especially beef, the drippings are clarified and fat which rises
to the top is separated and used for shallow frying.
Olive Oil
Virgin olive oil extracted by cold pressing is of premium quality and is used for
salad dressings such as mayonnaise and vinaigrette dressing.
Fresh Cream
Cream is obtained by skimming whole milk and contains 18-55% fat. It is available
as single cream, double cream, sour cream, whipping cream, and clotted cream.
Synthetic cream which is dairy free is available in the market and is a convenient sub-
stitute to fresh cream because of its enhanced properties. It is made from oils and
does not contain cholesterol. It is 100% vegetarian and does not curdle, but blends
well with other ingredients.
It is available in two forms — for whipping and for cooking.
Both are purchased in the frozen form and at — 18°C have a shelf life of one year.
They are prepared using vegetable oils, water, sugar or cornsyrup, soyprotein
concentrates, emulsifiers, stabilizers, and added flavours.
COMMERCIAL USES OF FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are used in the food industry because of their ability to:
1. Increase tenderness and make the product short

2. Form emulsions
3. Spread and be plastic
4. Fry or cook food
5. Get creamed and form foams
6. Impart flavour, aroma, and colour to food.
Fats available in the market are specially manufactured for a variety of applica-
tions. Separate hydrogenated fats are available for each of the following:
1. Crispness of biscuits
2. Puff pastry and kharis for excellent layer separation, i.e., highly plastic variety
available as vanaspati or as margarine
3. Soft and tender cakes with high volume
Softer bread with easy dough handling

Cream filling for cakes and biscuits
Crunchy cookies and biscuits
NO Easy release of baked products from the baking pan.
Oe
Shortening Power
Superglycerinated or high ratio shortenings are specially manufactured to achieve
a desired consistency by hydrogenation of oil. Mono-and diglycerides are added
to improve the emulsification ability of the shortening in batters and doughs. The
amount of water and sugar used in a recipe can be increased and these are used
to produce high ratio cakes of sufficient strength. The usual sugar-flour ratio is
1:1, but with high ratio shortenings it is possible to prepare cake with a 1.4:1 ratio.
Antioxidants are generally added to prevent the development of rancidity.
These shortenings are not suitable for deep fat frying as they have a lower
smoke point. 7
Mono- and diglycerides added are glyceryl monostearate (GMS) and glyceryl
mono-oleate (GMO) which help in softening the crumb, reduce spattering in
margarine when it is heated and are good emulsifying and stabilizing agents. |
SSR SSR SE lI SSO HSS TUBE ESS A EMME BILE LEG TU EET LIEGE STS OE LLY IESE LIE LLL EI IEE IRIEL LDL ILE RELI LLL LLL LENE
SUMMARY
Fats and oils are unimportant components of our daily diet. Most of the fat which
we consume is simple fat made up of one molecule of glycerol and three molecules
of fatty acids. Fatty acids may be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated.
Fats and oils are mixed triglycerides containing different fatty acids and hence have
different properties. The hardness of fats depends on the fatty acids present in the
fat. Saturated fats have higher melting points and liquid oils can be converted to
solid fat by a process known as hydrogenation.
Undesirable odours and flavour changes develop in fats and oils due to hydrolytic
rancidity, oxidative rancidity, and reversion. Hence, fats and oils have to be stored - |
in cool dry places in containers. .
When fats are heated during cooking and frying, certain changes are seen.
Hence, care should be taken when fat is used as a cooking medium. Fats should be
stored properly to prevent uptake of flavours or turn rancid.
Fats and oils have to undergo several steps in processing before they are fit for
the table. These include extraction, refining which means degumming, neutralizing,
deodourizing, bleaching, winterizing, and hydrogenation. Depending on the degree
of hydrogenation, various shortenings specific for certain food products have been
manufactured for the bakery industry.
Fats and Oils 101
Fats have many uses in food processing such as tenderizing, emulsifying, medium for
cooking, creaming and foam formation, preparation of low-calorie diet spreads, and to
impart flavour, aroma, colour, and texture to food. Fats are available as vanaspatis of
varying degree of hardness to be used over an extensive range of products.
SSS
SSS SSS SIS IES pS PEL SD SHORES TEST MES ILS VIS SSUES AME THESAURUS UT LES MSPS
KEY TERMS
Acrolein A highly irritating volatile substance formed Lipolysis Reaction of a molecule of water with a fat
when glycerol is heated till it is broken down. molecule to release a free fatty acid in the presence of
Antioxidant A compound that is oxidized very read- lipase or heat.
ily. Thus, preventing unsaturated fatty acids from Neutralization A step in refining to remove free fatty
getting oxidized quickly. acids from oils.
Auto-oxidation Oxidation reaction which is auto- Plasticity The property of solid fats to spread and get
catalytic and continues easily once it begins with deformed when pressure is applied.
little added energy. Polyunsaturated fatty acids Fatty acids containing
Bleaching A step in refining oil in which oil is filtered two or more double bonds between the carbon atoms
through charcoal to remove colouring and flavouring in the carbon chain. ;
matter. Rancidity Developmen of off flavours and odours in
Cholesterol Lipid widely distributed in animal tissues fats because of oxygen, lipases, heat, etc.
only, not in plant tissues. It is synthesized by the body. Rendering Process by which fat is extracted from
Cold pressing Mechanical pressing of ripe olives to animal tissues using dry or moist heat.
extract oil without using heat, producing excellent Superglycerinated fats They are not triglycerides but
quality pure virgin oil. are mono- or diglycerides, e.g., glyceryl mono-
Degumming A step in refining in which natural gums stearate (GMS) used as an emulsifier and stabilizer
are removed from oil. and as a plasticizer in bakery products.
Deodourizing A step in refining to remove low mole- Triglyceride Esters of glycerol with three fatty acids
cular weight aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, etc., which to form a simple fat.
could affect flavour and aroma of fats and oils. Unsaturated fatty acid Fatty acid having one or
Free radicals Groups containing an unpaired electron. more double bonds in the carbon chain.
Hydrogenation Addition of hydrogen to an unsatu- Winterization Removal of high molecular weight
rated fatty acid in the presence of a catalyst to triglycerides with high melting points by chilling the
increase saturation and melting point. oil, so that oil remains clear and pourable at refrige-
UMS AE PE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Differentiate between:
i Fat and oil

ii Saturated fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acid
iii Rancidity and reversion
iv Butter and margarine
v Smoke point and melting point
Classify fats on the basis of saturation giving two examples for each.
What is hydrogenation? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
How can you prevent fats and fatty phases of food from going rancid?
Briefly explain the various stages in refining of oil.
What is the role of shortenings in the bakery industry?
Explain the commercial significance of fats and oils.
Explain the following terms:
Polymerization
Superglycerinated fats
i Spreads
Rendering
Virgin olive oil
é arning ‘Objectives
fter reading this chapter, you should be abe to:
_understand the significance of flavour in the food industry
classify different flavours present in food
know various flavouring agents and flavour enhancers permitted iinfood -
* explain and control the effect of cooking and processing on. flavour retention and
sit - se
INTRODUCTION
he enjoyment and acceptance of a meal depends to a large extent on the

blend of different flavours present in food. Flavour is the most important
attribute of food. It is detected by our senses of taste and odour. It is
produced by aromatic chemicals that stimulate the senses of odour and taste. These
stimulating components are synthesized in plants and animals. They may be further
modified by cooking and processing. The intrinsic flavour of food represents the
complex effect of these aromatic substances on our senses of odour and taste.
There are four basic tastes — sweet, bitter, salty, and sour. All other tastes are
permutations and combinations of these four taste sensations. Taste is detected
by the 10,000 taste buds located mainly on the tongue while odour is detected by
extremely sensitive 10 million cells situated in the upper portion of the nasal cavity.
Fig. 7.1 Site of taste detectors on the tongue
Sweetness and saltiness are detected by taste buds on the tip of the tongue, sourness
on the sides of the tongue, and bitterness at the back of the tongue.
The level at which a taste can be identified is called the threshold level. This level
may vary from one individual to another. Even at subthreshold levels, one taste can
modify another taste, e.g., a pinch of salt added to a glass of lime juice increases the
apparent sweetness of sugar.
DEFINITIONS
Flavouring It is a substance which can impart flavour and is generally used to
impart taste or odour or both to a food.
Aroma It refers to a pleasant often spicy odour, fragrance, or smell.
Flavour It is a blend of taste and odour perceptions experienced when food is in
the mouth.
Aftertaste It is the flavour that lingers in the mouth after food has been swallowed.
Flavour intensifier It is a compound that enhances the flavour of other foods with-
out contributing any flavour of its own.
The flavour of any food depends upon minute quantities of 100 or more chemicals
that are present in food. These flavouring components are present in concentrations
ranging from a few ppm to 0.1%. Food flavours are broadly classified as natural food
flavours, processed flavours, and added flavours which may be natural extracted
flavours or synthetic flavours.
i ee vO AOS
Natural Flavours
These are usually extremely complex mixtures of many different substances.
Sometimes, the flavour of a natural flavouring agent may depend upon a single sub-
stance, e.g., the flavour of clove oil is because of the chemical eugenol that consti-
tutes 85% of clove oil or it may be present in extremely small amounts such as citral
in oil of lemon which constitutes 5% of the oil. Natural flavouring agents are com-
posed mainly of aromatic organic compounds present as volatile essential oils or as
non-volatile constituents such as resins and oleoresins. They are formed in the plant
during normal plant metabolism and remain as such when the plant is harvested.
Some Flavoursome Plant Products

Herbs Basil, parsley, celery, thyme, Fruits Orange, lemon, apple,
mint, etc. banana, strawberry, pineapple, etc.
Spices Cardamon, clove, turmeric, © Vegetables Mushrooms, corn, peas,
peppercorns, etc. onion, garlic, cabbage, turnips, etc.
Aromatic seeds Aniseed, cumin,
fennel, dill, caraway, etc.
The aroma of onion, garlic, cabbage, etc. is mainly due to sulphur-containing
compounds. These vegetables should not be overcooked. Other flavouring com-
ponents in vegetables are methanol, acetone, propanal, etc.
Fruits such as apple owe their distinct flavour to 131 chemical components while
fresh strawberries contain over 100 volatile components. The flavour and aroma of
fruits and vegetables is because of the presence of volatile organic chemicals such
as esters, aldehydes, acids, alcohols, ketones, and ether present as essential oils in
natural foods.
Processed Flavours
These flavours develop during processing by decomposition, combination with
other compounds, or formation of a new compound. The following flavours form
during processing of various foods.
1. Flavour resulting from enzyme action: When vegetable tissues are cut or
damaged, e.g., onion and garlic, the crushed garlic odour is because of the
formation of diallyl disulfide.
2. Flavour produced by microbiological action during fermentation of sugar
to alcohol by yeast and fermentation of milk to curd and cheese by bacteria.
3. Flavours formed during cooking and other heat processing, e.g., cooked meat
flavour and aroma of freshly baked bread or roasted coffee beans (refer
Chapter 8, Maillard browning).
4. Undesirable flavours caused by oxidation, e.g., oils turning rancid in pickles
and fried snacks such as chiwda and chakli (refer rancidity in fat in Chapter 6).
Added Flavours
Natural flavours or synthetic flavours are often addec to food to increase its accept-
ability. With advanced techniques used in the food industry and development of
new food products such as bakery and confectionery items, ready-to-cook, ready-
to-eat foods, beverages, and fast food items, the role of added flavours has gained
importance. Although some flavours develop during processing of some foods,
natural flavours are often lost during cooking and processing. These flavours can be
replaced by either of the methods discussed here.
1. Adding natural flavourings and extracts, e.g., natural essences from fruits,
essential oils extracted from spices, beef extract, yeast extract, etc. Vanilla
essence is prepared by extracting the essential oil from vanilla pod with
ethanol.
2. Adding imitation or synthetic flavours that consist of a blend of chemicals
which smells like the original substance, e.g., saffron flavour instead of pure
saffron, vanillin is the synthetic flavour instead of vanilla.
Synthetic flavours are easy to prepare when the natural flavour is composed
of a single chemical. With the advent of modern analytical techniques, the food
technician can understand and develop flavours to closely match natural
flavours. Perfect matching of the flavour profile is possible but is a costly process.
The electronic nose is a gadget which can measure the quality of odour very
quickly and objectively. Synthetic chemicals are blended to match a natural
flavour, but there is generally a detectable difference between the natural and
synthetic flavours.
The number of flavours used today is so large that flavours form the largest group
of food additives.
Commercial flavour is usually a mixture of essential oils, aroma chemicals, gums,
resins, emulsifiers, etc. in which the actual flavour ingredient is approximately 1%.
Other substances which contribute towards the flavour of food are sweeteners
and flavour enhancers.
Sweeteners The basic taste of a food especially the acid:sweetness ratio

also affects the effectiveness of flavours used. Sweeteners used in food may be
natural or artificial. Natural sweeteners or carbohydrate sweeteners are also
called nutritive sweeteners. Artificial sweeteners or synthetic sweeteners are also
called non-nutritive sweeteners as they provide no calories (refer Chapter 4 on
carbohydrates).
Sugar is added to savoury dishes in minute amounts to improve the flavour of
the dish.
Flavour enhancers They are chemicals which by themselves have little or no

odour or taste. When they are added to food, even in small quantities, they are able
ee I Flavour “ERI?
DIR SORSIAVOUl 107
Food flavours
Natural flavours Processed flavours Added flavours

Herbs Fermented
Spices Baked
Aromatic seeds Toasted
Fruits Roasted
Vegetables Caramelized
Natural extracted flavours Synthetic flavours
Essential oils Essences Extracts _-Fruit flavours Savoury flavours

Clove oil Vanilla Yeast _ (blend of esters) Chicken
Menthol Beef Banana Onion
Peach Smoked
Pineapple
Vanillin
Fig. 7.2 Classification of flavours
to bring out the existing flavour of the food. In other words, they are capable of
enhancing, modifying, or intensifying the original flavour.
The following chemicals are used as flavour enhancers.
_ Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is also called aji-no-moto or Chinese salt. It is
the sodium salt of glutamic acid, an amino acid. Glutamate is present natu-
rally in many foods such as meat, fish, poultry, milk and many vegetables
such as peas, mushrooms, and tomatoes. Although glutamic acid is present in
many foods, its content decreases during harvesting to processing, causing a
natural loss of flavour. This can be partly restored by adding MSG to food.
It draws out the hidden flavour of food and reduces the less desirable
flavours. MSG increases salivation and its excessive consumption leads to
a condition known as ‘Chinese Restaurant Syndrome’ in which people suffer
from various symptoms such as a burning sensation, migraine like symptoms,
and chest pain.
MSG is used worldwide as a flavour intensifier in soups, sauces, gravies,
taste makers and flavourings, canned and frozen vegetables, meat, poultry, and
combination dishes. A level of 0.05—0.8% by weight in foods gives best flavour
enhancement and excessive use decreases the palatability of food. Under the
PFA act, MSG has been banned in foods meant for infants below 12 months of
age, and should not exceed 1% by weight in foods meant for adults.
Nucleotides are flavour enhancers widely present in plant and animal cells.
Like MSG, nucleotides bring out the flavour of foods. They are 50 to 100 times
stronger than MSG and cover more flavours than MSG, which is basically a
‘meaty’ flavour enhancer. The two are ideally used together in the ratio of
1:50, i.e., 1g of nucleotides is used with 50g of MSG, with a flavour enhancing
effect equal to 100g of MSG used alone.
It is used in processed foods such as potato chips, peanuts, dry and canned
soups, sauces, ketchups, sausages, canned vegetables, and meat. The quantity
of nucleotide added is very low.
Prof. Kikunao Ikeda in 1908 was the first to isolate glutamic acid from a
bouillon as the ingredient which gave the taste to soups.
3. Maltol is used as a flavour enhancer for sweet flavours. It is found in several
plants and is formed when cocoa, coffee, and malt are roasted and in bread
when it is baked. It is synthesized from soya bean protein fermentation and
is used as a fragrant, caramel-like flavour for addition to fruit-based products,
ice creams, chocolates, and candies. It imparts a ‘freshly baked’ flavour to
breads and cakes.
It is also used in cookies, beverages, instant pudding mix, and soup mixes
at levels ranging between 50-300 ppm.
4, Salt is used in food for its flavour, as a preservative, and as a dietary con-
stituent. The main role of salt in food is for salty taste, flavour intensification,
and as a digestive stimulant. It is used at 2% level.
Salt also blends with and enhances other flavours present. It is capable of
reducing the sourness of acids and increasing the sweetness of sugar. If small
quantities of salt are added to softdrinks, the amount of sugar required may
be reduced by 5%.
5. Sodium-restricted flavouring: When salt is restricted on health grounds
because of hypertension, oedema, kidney disorders, etc., the flavour of food
can be improved by using herbs and spices such as pepper, dry mustard,
paprika, lime juice, mint, celery, onion, ginger, garlic, and bay leaf. If small
quantities of sugar are added to vegetables while cooking, the natural flavour
of food is brought out.
Salt substitutes are salts which do not contain sodium but contain potassium
or ammonium instead, such as potassium chloride and ammonium chloride.
To improve the palatability of the diet, salt mixtures are available which con-
tain potassium and ammonium chloride, citrates, formates, phosphates, and
glutamates along with herbs and spices.
USE OF FLAVOURS IN FOOD PREPARATION

Retaining the natural flavours while processing food is an art. An understanding of
volatile and non-volatile flavours is necessary for any chef. Flavours are often lost
when food becomes stale, and off-flavours may develop. Processing of food results
in both development of flavour and loss of flavour. Different processes and ingre-
dients used give different flavours to food. These flavours can be altered, modified,
or intensified by the use of flavouring agents.
Flavour 109
Table 7.1 Some flavours in food
_Naturalflavours ee
| ‘Principal flavouring agent
Menthol
Lemon Citral
Garlic Dially! disulfide
Curcumin
-
=
: _Syntheticfruitflavours -
ae 2 | Chemical (mixtures ofesters
s andalcohols)
Apple Ethyl acetate

shred Pentyl acetate
ee and butyrates
Chicken soup Mono sodium glutamate

Mushrooms Nucleotides: i.e., GMP Disodium-5-guanylate
Table 7.2 Taste components in fruits and vegetables
Glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose, arabinose, and xylose
Quinone-like compounds
Organic acids such as citric, tartaric, oxalic, malic, isocitric,

succinic acid, etc.
Small amount of salt

Flavouring agents are widely used in the food industry to

1. Enhance a food flavour, e.g., addition of chocolate essence to chocolate cake.
2. Replace flavours lost while processing food.
3. Give a particular flavour to a food.
4. Mask some undesirable flavours in order to increase the acceptability of a
food, e.&tie
ss cee essence to °88 nee2to mask the 88 flavour.
Sr UA TBR REE SC eS URE RETA LL
SUMMARY
Flavour is an important attribute of food which contributes to its palatability and
acceptance. It is produced by aromatic chemicals that stimulate our senses of odour
and taste. Flavouring agents may be naturally present in food as volatile essential
oils or non-volatile chemicals. Flavours may be complex, consisting of 100 or more
chemicals present in varying proportions.
Flavours are classified as natural flavours, processed flavours, and added
flavours which may be natural extracts or essential oils in an alcoholic base or they
may be synthetic chemicals which are blended to match a natural flavour as close-
ly as possible. Sweeteners and flavour enhancers also contribute towards the flavour
of foods. Sweeteners may be nutritive sweeteners such as sugar and jaggery or non-
nutritive sweeteners such as saccharin or aspartame. Flavour enhancers include
monosodium glutamate, nucleotides, maltol, sodium chloride, and sodium-restricted
flavourings.
They are widely used in the food industry to enhance flavours, replace flavours,
add flavours, or mask undesirable flavours. Processing of food needs to be carefully
controlled to develop the desired flavour in a food.
A A EE AEE Ud SL EA EPL EM UA EEL RU RSE UTS SLR SMT ETA ATE IT SLATS
UMESS METS LE ESM SL
KEY TERMS
Electronic nose An instrument with multisensors such as guanine. They are present in animal tissues
and pattern recognition techniques which can and give a characteristic meaty taste to food.
measure the quality of odour very quickly and accu- ppm Parts per million
rately. Synthetic flavours Mostly mixtutes of esters which
Essential oils Volatile, natural flavouring agents pres- give an imitation flavour when added to food, e.g.,
ent in plants which are oily but chemically not related banana flavour is a mixture of ethyl butyrate and
to fats and oils. amyl acetate.
Flavour intensifiers These substances enhance the Taste threshold It is that critical concentration value
flavours of other substances without itself imparting at which the presence of a taste can be just detected.
any characteristic flavour of its own, e.g., monosodi-
Vanilla It is the extract of the vanilla bean. The beans
um glutamate, small quantities of sugar, salt, and
are allowed to ferment till they become dark brown
vinegar.
in colour. Flavour is extracted by crushing the beans
Nucleotides Compounds made up of five carbon and adding alcohol. Synthetic vanillin is 3), times as
ib hosphoric acid, and ic b th al vanilla extracted from beans.
UP ESE TS STETL TET ELL TLL SELLE HUES LEE
Flavour 111
REVIEW GUESTIONS
Ql How are food flavours classified?
Q2 What are flavour intensifiers? Which flavour intensifier will you use in
i Hypertensive diets
ii Cookies
iii Cream of mushroom
iv Tomato ketchup
v_ Lime juice
Q3_ Explain the following
: i Types of sweeteners
ii Detection of taste
iii Commercial flavours.
Q4 Why is flavour an important characteristic of food?
g
pa
Browning Reactions
Learning (
Objectives —
7 After reading this chapter, you should - ableto:
'e understand the different types of browning reactions seen in food .
appreciate the need for controlling the extent of these reactions in different foodprod icts
gain insight into factors which accelerate and retard these reactions
gain knowledge as to how these reactions take place — :
ca aah other cranes which accompany these reactions and thei effecton nutritiv:
INTRODUCTION
rowning is a common colour change seen in food during pre-preparatior

processing, or storage of food. It occurs in varying degrees in some foc
material. The colours produced range from cream or pale yellow to dar
brown or black, depending on the food item and the extent of the reaction.
Browning reactions may be desirable or it may be undesirable. In some food
the brown colour and flavour developed during browning is highly desirable and
associated with a delicious, highly acceptable, and quality product. Browning rea
tions contribute to the aroma, flavour, and colour of the product such as the brov
crust of bread and all baked goods, potato chips, roasted nuts, roasted coffee bear
caramel, peanut brittle, and many other processed foods.
Browning Reactions 113
Non-enzymatic browning
[ | | had
Maillard reaction Caramelization Lipid browning Ascorbic acid browning
Fig. 8.1 Classification of non-enzymatic browning reactions
The undesirable effects of browning reactions is seen in dehydrated food, such as

milk, eggs, dry fruits, in cut fruit and citrus fruit juices and juices concentrates, in
canned milk, and in coconut. The colour varies from light cream to black while
coconut develops a saffron colour. The off-colour and off-odour developed in foods
depend on the extent to which the browning reaction has progressed. Off-flavours
may vary from mild flavour changes to stale and very bitter.
Controlled browning is necessary even in foods where browning is desired
because excessive browning can produce an undesirable product. Changes in odour
and flavour, which may also develop along with browning, may be characteristic of
a food and desirable or may be bitter, making the food unpalatable.
TYPES OF BROWNING REACTIONS

Browning reactions observed in food may be classified as — enzymatic browning and
non-enzymatic browning.
Non-enzymatic browning may be further classified as in Fig. 8.1.
Enzymatic Browning
Some light coloured fresh fruits and vegetables darken when exposed to air as a
result of the presence of oxidative enzymes. Enzymatic browning occurs in these
fruit and vegetable tissues when cellular organization is disrupted by cutting, bruis-
ing, or other injury to the tissues. This is due to the action of oxidative enzymes on
the phenolic substances present in the fruit or vegetable tissues. Apples, bananas,
pears, brinjals, and potatoes undergo enzymatic browning. The cell contents come
in contact with each other resulting in browning of uncooked fruits and vegetables
which are cut or bruised.
Enzymatic Browning takes place only in fruits and vegetables which contain phe-
nolic compounds. These phenolic compounds act as the substrate, and in the presence
of oxygen and by the action of enzymes, the following oxidative reaction is observed.
Oxyaes Quinones (compound which is

(from air or intercellular spaces)
Phenolic compound _, not dark coloured but readily
(substrate) polymerizes to dark
Phenol oxidase (enzyme)
coloured compounds)
Fig. 8.2 Enzymatic browning reaction
The formation of O-quinone is the first step in brown colour formation. Quinones
are polymerized to form complex compounds which darken in colour.
The details of chemical changes which take place in conversion of colourless sub-
strate in the intact fruit to the brown-coloured reaction product in the damaged tissues
are not known. First quinols are formed, which change to Quinones. Polymerized
quinones are oxidized non-enzymatically and are responsible for brown colour for-
mation.
Phenol oxidase enzymes are specific for certain substrates and are present in
many fruits and vegetables such as apples, bananas, pears, peaches, potatoes, and
brinjals.
Phenolic compounds present such as tannins and related phenolic substances
such as leucoanthocyanin contribute towards the astringency of food.
Prevention of enzymatic browning Enzymatic browning can be prevented by the
following methods.
By inactivating enzymes Enzymes can be inactivated by any of the fol-
lowing measures.
Application of heat Blanching or cooking fruits and vegetables which are
prone to browning prevents discolouration. Enzymes are protein in
nature and heat denatures proteins there by inactivating the enzymes.
Addition of salt “Vegetables may be immersed in a solution of sodium
chloride to retard enzymatic browning. The chloride ion in NaCl inhibits
enzyme activity. However, this is a temporary measure to retard brown-
ing, as the amount of salt required to prevent browning temporarily
would make the food unpalatable.
Lowering the pH Enzymatic browning is prevented by lowering the pH
to 2.5-2.7 by addition of acid. Acids used to prevent browning are
ascorbic acid, malic acid, citric acid, and lime juice. Ascorbic acid or
vitamin C acts as an antioxidant and retards enzymatic browning. The
quinones formed by the action of enzymes are reduced to their dihy-
droxyl state by vitamin C and in turn vitamin C is oxidized to dehy-
droascorbic acid.
Chilling a food below temperatures optimum for enzyme activity Optimum
temperature for enzymes to act is 43°C (109°F). In cold storage, the
browning reaction slows down, but even fruits stored in frozen storage
brown unless they are treated.
By avoiding contact with oxygen Oxygen should not come in contact
with the substrate. This can be achieved by any of the following measures.
Coating fruit with sugar or covering it with syrup keeps atmospheric oxy-
gen away from the surface. Intercellular oxygen is present in fruits, but
sugar reduces the concentration of oxygen dissolved in the syrup and at

the same time suppresses enzyme activity.
Immersing vegetables in water Contact with atmospheric oxygen can be
avoided by immersing cut vegetables in water. Since water contains dis-
solved oxygen, it is more effective if it is first boiled to remove dissolved air.
Vacuum packing Protecting food from contact with oxygen as in vacuum
packing prevents enzymatic browning since it is an oxidation reaction.
By elimination of substrate This method of prevention is not practical.
A variety of peach called ‘sunbeam’ is an exception because it is deficient in
substrate.
Sulphuring of fruits prior to dehydration Sulphur prevents oxidative
browning due to enzyme activity. Fruit is treated to sulphur fumes prior to dry-
ing. Treatment with sulphur dioxide (SO,) gas or sulphurous acid solution
(H,SO3) or 0.25% sodium sulfite for 45 seconds is adequate to prevent
browning. Bisulfites and metabisulfites are also used. Sulphurous acid is a
strong reducing agent and prevents discolouration.
Non-Enzymatic Browning
Maillard reaction Maillard was the first to describe the development of a brown
colour in mixtures containing amino acids and reducing sugars. The reaction
between certain free groups of amino acids, such as the NHp group and a carbohy-
drate, affects the product in many ways in addition to the colour change. The aroma
and flavour of the ready product is also affected. The reaction is also known as car-
bonylamine reaction or protein sugar reaction.
The brown pigment formed contributes to the aroma, flavour, and colour of
many ready-to-eat cereals, toffees, malted barley, and bakery products such as bread,
Condensation of amino group of protein

+
Carbonyl group of sugar
various reactions such

as rearrangement,
fragmentation, and
polymerization
Brown pigment
Fig. 8.3 Maillard reaction
cakes, and biscuits. If the dough contains less reducing sugar then the colour of the
crust is light. The more the percentage of reducing sugar, the darker the crust in
bakery products such as dinner rolls. .
The characteristic flavour developed differs in different products because of the
amino acid involved in the reaction. For example:
Food product Amino acid involved
Beer Glycine
Fresh bread Leucine
Maple syrup Aminobutyric acid
Conditions which favour Maillard reaction
High temperature. The rate of browning increases rapidly with a rise in
temperature.
Moisture Certain amount of moisture, approximately 13%, will favour the
reaction. Very high or very low water levels will decrease the rate of the
reaction.
pH value Browning is accelerated by an increase in alkalinity, ie., a
pH above 7.8. Presence of phosphate, citrate, and acetate buffer salts
acelerate the rate of browning.
Concentration and type of amino acid and sugar present Maximum browning
effect is observed with amino acid lysine and sugar glucose.
Presence of catalyst Browning reaction is generally catalyzed by the pres-
ence of metals such as copper and iron.
Desirable changes Many favourable changes in colour, flavour, and aroma are
seen during roasting of coffee beans and nuts and improvement in quality of bread
during baking.
This reaction is also partly responsible for the flavour of meat extracts, breakfast
cereals, and all bakery items.
Undesirable changes Maillard reaction is also responsible for certain undesirable
effects seen in dried foods such as
Off-odour
Off-flavour - mild, stale, or bitter
Off-colour — ranging form mild cream to nearly black.
Dried milk powder and condensed milk darken on storage for a long time.
Coconut turns saffron in color. Undesirable Maillard browning can be prevented by
low pH and low temperatures during processing and storage.
There is some loss of nutritive value because of the presence of nutrients involved
in the reaction. Several essential amino acids, especially lysine and methionine, .
undergo this reaction and the substances formed cannot be hydrolyzed by digestive
enzymes. Losses of amino acids lysine and methionine in toasted and flaked breakfast
cereals are quite significant because amino acids involved in the reaction are
unavailable to the body.
Bread loses 10-15% lysine during baking, 5% during staling, and 5-10% during
toasting. Lysine is also lost when meat is roasted.
Caramelization Sugars are caramelized at 163-170°C or 325-338°F because of
action of heat. Darkening of syrups, brown colour of candies such as caramels, taffy,
and brittle are because of caramelization reaction. Caramelization or sugar brown-
ing reaction occurs with sugar alone. Sugar is broken down into a number of com-
pounds because of intense heat.
high temperature
Sucrose? > Caramel*+ acid
decomposition
reaction,
dehydration,
and
polymerization
Stages of sugar cookery When sugar is boiled, it passes through regular stages
till it gets caramelized at 163°C.
The various stages of sugar cookery are listed in Table 8.1.
The rate and extent of browning in carbohydrate solutions are influenced by the
following factors.
Heat For caramelization to take place, high temperatures is necessary.
Temperature can be lowered by the presence of a catalyst.
Table 8.1 Stages of sugar cookery

Se HANS
4. Small thread
2. Large thread 103
6.
7. Hard crack
163-177
Effect of pH Both acids and alkali increases browning, but alkalis are
more effective.
Type of sugar Fructose shows the greatest degree of browning, followed
by sucrose. Glucose shows least browning.
Presence of catalysts Metals such as iron and copper accelerate the rate
of reaction.
Caramel is used to flavour and colour alcoholic beverages, soups, gravies, sauces,
soup cubes, cake mixes, coffee products, canned meat products, etc.
Ascorbic acid browning Cocum and strawberry preserves undergo a change in
colour during storage. The original bright red/crimson of the anthocyanin pigment
in the fresh fruit becomes dull and develops a rusty brown colour. A similar change
in colour is also seen in citrus fruit juices and squashes.
The ascorbic acid present in these fruits undergoes oxidation with the formation
of a compound which produces a brown pigment and causes discolouration. The
oxidized ascorbic acid hastens the degradation of the red pigment of anthocyanin
giving the product a dull brownish colour.
Factors which hasten this reaction are
1. Presence of oxygen
2. Reducing sugars present
3. High pH
4. Warm storage temperatures
Lime juice cordial loses its lemon colour to become darker and brown. This type
of browning is seen in preserves. To prevent this discolouration, strawberries are
kept as frozen stock and made into preserves only as and when required. Low stor-
age temperatures and addition of bisulfites retard the reaction.
Lipid browning ‘This type of browning is seen in fats and fatty phases of food. The
amino groups of phospholipids and lipoproteins-can react with aldehydes and
reducing sugars resulting in browning.
This type of browning is quite uncommon and may be observed in fats stored for
long periods. It is an undesirable reaction.
ROLE OF BROWNING IN FOOD PREPARATION

Browning reactions may be desirable or undesirable affecting the appearance,
flavour, and aroma of food. All browning reactions can be controlled and hence
it is essential that the caterer is aware of all factors which influence these reac-
tions. ;
Enzymatic browning is considered unsightly and undesirable, especially while
preparing salads and fruit salads. Natural browning is usually undesirable but normal
| Browning Reactions 119
: a
cooking processes such as roasting, grilling, or baking bring about brown coloura-
tion. This is expected and desirable and contributes to the acceptance and palatability
of food. Cooking brings about chemical breakdown which along with colour, adds
flavour to food. The aroma of freshly baked bread and roasted coffee beans is due
to desirable Maillard reaction.
Food components interact chemically and give rise to a brown colour accompa-
nied by modifications in flavour, aroma, and taste. Because food components are
involved in the formation of the brown colour, there is some loss of nutritive value.
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF BROWNING

Enzymatic browning of apples and bananas makes fruit salads unappe-
tizing and cannot be served to customers.
Maillard reaction In baked and toasted products and in milk, some
lysine and methionine are lost.
Ascorbic acid browning Some ascorbic acid is lost from citrus juices
and strawberries because of auto-oxidation of vitamin C.
In desirable browning reactions, it is necessary to control cooking temperatures
to prevent blackening or burning of the product.
Enzymatic activity can be retarded by blanching vegetables and fruit to inactivate
the enzymes. Cooked food is not discoloured by enzymes.
Browning plays an important role in the aesthetic value of food. A baked product,
e.g., cake or bread, would lose its acceptability if the golden brown crust and the
accompanying aroma is absent. The kitchen staff should understand the various fac-
tors which can prevent undesirable browning and control them.
9} DGB
I AEFI ASAL YOR PEE 0) oa a det ada re Ue
ISUMMARY
Browning reactions occur very widely in food products and bring about changes in
colour ranging from cream or pale yellow to dark brown or black.
These reactions may be desirable like in the brown crust of bakery items and
caramelized sugar in peanut brittle. It may be undesirable in some fresh fruits and
vegetables, such as bananas and apples, when they are cut or bruised or the dark-
ening of milk powder and strawberry preserves.
Browning reactions need to be controlled as excessive browning may make the
product unpalatable. Changes in odour and flavour may also accompany the reaction.
They are broadly classified as enzymatic browning and non-enzymatic browning.
Enzymatic browning is seen in fresh, uncooked fruits and vegetables which contain
phenolic compounds. In the presence of oxygen, specific enzymes bring about
discolouration of phenolic substrate. This type of browning can be controlled by

inactivating the enzymes.
Non-enzymatic browning is accelerated by temperature and is further classified as
1. Maillard reaction
2. Caramelization
3. Ascorbic acid browning
4. Lipid browning.
While most Maillard reactions and caramelization are desirable reactions, ascor-
bic acid browning and lipid browning are undesirable. Since food components are
involved, the nutritive value is reduced to a srnall extent in some reactions.
Browning plays an important role in food preparation and it needs to be con-
trolled to ensure high acceptability of the product. The development of colour in
baked goods along with enhanced flavour and aroma increases the acceptability
and quality of food.
Coe eee LLL LLL LL LLL LLL LLL LLL
KEY TERMS
Carbonyl group Free group of reducing sugars. fruits, vegetables, and mushrooms in which they are
Enzyme Catalyst made up of protein and responsible present.
for most reactions in living tissues. Destroyed by heat Phenolic compounds Group of aromatic compounds
as protein gets coagulated. (with a ring structure) that undergo oxidative enzy-
Maillard reaction A reaction between proteins or matic browning, e.g., tyrosine, catechins which are
amino acids and sugars resulting in a brown colour, colourless pigments in plants.
often accompanied by aroma and flavour when food Reducing sugars Sugars that contain the aldehydic
is cooked. or ketonic reducing group, e.g., glucose, fructose,
Oxidation A reaction in which oxygen is gained or lactose, and pentoses (five carbon sugars).
hydrogen is lost or loss of electrons.
Phenol oxidases Enzymes that oxidize phenolic
compounds to quinones causing browning in some
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Classify the different types of browning reactions seen in food.
Q2 You have been asked to prepare fresh fruit salad. What precautions would
you take to prevent enzymatic browning.
Q3 Explain briefly
i Uses of caramel
ii Factors affecting Maillard reaction
iii Measures to retain red colour in strawberry preserves.
Q4 List any five examples of desirable browning and five examples of undesir-
able browning, mentioning type of browning reaction.
Food Processing
F Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you uh be able to:
understand the need for processing food
know the different methods by which food is preserved. a
describe the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods
select the appropriate method for preservinga food stuff —
_understand the limitations of irradiation of food
appreciate the benefits of using a combination of methods instead of a a method
understand the effect of processing on toed constituents
—@
@©@:6
INTRODUCTION
n Chapter 1 on Food Science we have read about the intimate relationship of

| food chemistry and food microbiology with food processing. The chemical com-
-». position of food and its microbial load will dictate the processes food needs to be
subjected to if its shelf life has to be extended. Without adequate processing, food
cannot be stored indefinitely. Unless natural foods are processed or preserved
they will deteriorate. Most foods are easily decomposed by micro-organisms
and every food handler should be familiar with the principles underlying food
spoilage. This knowledge would enable one to handle food correcily and extend
its keeping quality.
Food can spoil at any stage in its preparation or storage. In fact spoilage in food
begins as soon as:
1. Vegetables and fruits are harvested
Eggs are laid
Fish is caught
Animals are slaughtered for meat
a Milk is drawn from milch animals.
ane
This spoilage continues till food is consumed.
Spoilage Spoilage can be defined as decomposition or damage causing undesir-

able changes in food. It is caused due to various agents making food unsuitable for
consumption. A spoiled food looks, smells, and tastes bad.
Contamination The term contaminated is used for those foods which are not fit to
be eaten for sanitary reasons. Although contaminated food may look, smell, and
taste good, it may contain harmful chemicals, non-food matter, and_ bacteria.
Contamination of food results in its spoilage.
CAUSES OF FOOD SPOILAGE

Foods spoil because of any one or more of the following reasons.
Growth and activity of bacteria, yeast, and mould Micro-organisms can
cause visible changes in the food. Milk turning sour, mould growth on bread, and fruit
juices fermented by yeast are some examples of visible signs of spoilage. The kind of
micro-organisms which spoil the food will depend on the composition of food, i.e., its
pH, moisture content, nutrients, temperature, etc.
Insect infestation Insects such as worms, weevils, and moths infest cereal grains
and make grains unfit for consumption. Weevils bore holes into grains and multiply,
destroying the flavour and the grain.
Enzymatic changes Natural enzymatic changes by autolysis, such as overma-
turing, softening, browning, and sprouting damage the food. Sprouting of potatoes,
browning/darkening of bananas, and softening of fruits and vegetables are seen after
harvesting if cool temperatures are not maintained.
Chemical action Chemical reactions which are not catalysed by enzymes or
micro-organisms can also result in chemical spoilage of food. Oxidative rancidity in
fats and hydrogen swell in canned foods are examples of this type of spoilage.
Physical changes Physical changes in food caused by freezing, dessication,
absorption of moisture, etc. can spoil food. Mechanical damage such as bruising or
cracked egg shells can accelerate spoilage by micro-organisms or by enzymes.
Bruised apples which are brown when cut, freezer burn in deep frozen foods, or
cracked eggs are signs of spoilage in foods.
Food Processing 123
Spoiled food cannot be rectified by any processing method. It results in wastage

and should be discarded immediately. To prevent spoilage and ultimately wastage of
food, any surplus food should be processed and preserved immediately. Only food
which is wholesome, i.e., at the desired stage of maturity, free from pollution, and any
objectionable changes resulting from microbial or enzyme action should be preserved.
Market is flooded with a vast array of processed foods, processed using latest tech-
nology, to meet the ever changing demands of the customer. The glut or surplus pro-
duced is preserved to meet the year round demand during the lean period.
OBJECTIVES OF FOOD PROCESSING

The main objectives of food processing on a home scale, institutional scale, or in the
food industry are similar. They include the following.
Removal of unwanted matter from the food Unwanted matter may be inedible,
indigestible, or harmful to health, such as husk from grains, rind from oranges, cherry
stones, and coconut shells. Unwanted matter is removed by appropriately designed
gadgets. The processes include shelling, destoning, milling, peeling, etc.
Making food safe for consumption Some foods contain natural toxins which need
to be inactivated, e.g., trypsin inhibitors in soya beans and goitrogens in the red skin
of groundnuts. Fungal toxins such as aflatoxin in mouldy groundnut and grains,
infected portions of food material, and green portion in potatoes are removed by
visual examination, and chemical toxins and poisons are discarded. Ensure safety
of food by using processes to remove toxins, and heat to destroy micro-organisms
and their toxins. Develop safe processes to prevent contamination at any stage.
Increasing digestibility Most foods are difficult to digest unless they are cooked.
Cooking softens fibre, gelatinizes starch, denatures protein, and makes food easier
to digest. With the exception of fruit, all other foods need some kind of processing
to make them more digestible.
Enhance flavour, colour, and taste The acceptability of food depends to a large
extent on its organoleptic or sensory qualities. Processing techniques enhance the
appearance of food and many techniques make food more appetizing and tasteful
such as baking of cakes and bread. The brown crust is formed due to Maillard reac-
tion which gives bakery items its characteristic baked flavour, aroma, and taste.
Processes such as caramelization of sugar, fermentation of idli batter, and alcoholic
fermentations produce a superior taste as compared to unprocessed foods.
Improving texture and consistency Processes such as emulsification, aeration,
gel formation, and increase in viscosity are aimed at improving the texture and
consistency of ready-to-eat, cook-chill, and cook-freeze operations. Processing
prevents changes in consistency of such operations during the freeze-thaw process.
Special starches which do not retrograde or show syneresis are used for setting gels.
Crystal formation in fondants, jams, and ice cream can be retarded in processed
foods and desirable texture can be obtained.
Minimizing nutrient loss Nutrients are better retained by controlled processing
conditions such as autoclaving, freeze drying, and controlled heat. Nutrients lost
during processing are generally compensated by adding synthetic vitamins.
Processed margarine, a substitute for butter, is fortified with 30 IU vitamin A and
2 IU vitamin D per gram of fat. Processed foods are often enriched with vitamins,
minerals, and lysine.
Extending the shelf life Processing extends the shelf life because apart from
removing unwanted, spoilt, and harmful matter and subjecting the food to temper-
atures outside the danger zone, all processes such as dehydration, cold storage, can-
ning, and pasteurization are aimed at preservation of food.
Increasing acceptability through fabricated foods New products of uniform size
and shape are being introduced in the market. They are made from low-grade com-
modities which are plentiful or good for health.
Extruded ready to eat snacks, soya meat substitutes, non-dairy whiteners, and
creamers have flooded the market. Tapioca, maize, dried fish, etc. are blended into
tasty snacks. Health drinks like Aloe vera juice is blended with its tastier counter parts
such as blackcurrant and blue berry to which Aloe vera pieces are added.
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Use of Low Temperature
Low temperatures preserve food by retarding chemical reactions, enzymatic action,
and growth and activity of micro-organisms. The lower the temperature, the better
the food will be preserved. At low temperatures, micro-organisms are not killed and
since foods already have a microbial load, micro-organisms will multiply once the
temperatures become favourable.
Refrigeration/chilling Temperatures of 1-4°C prevent food from spoiling for
short periods. It merely retards the decay but frozen foods kept at —18°C preserve
food for a year and at —28°C food can be preserved for upto two years.
Chilling temperatures retard microbial growth and biochemical changes which
affect colour, texture, flavour, and nutritive value. Most perishable foods such as
eggs, dairy products, chicken, meat, and seafood are held at chilling temperatures for
a limited time without affecting their condition. They need to be consumed by the
‘Best before date’. The relative humidity (R.H.) in refrigerator storage is another
important factor which needs to be controlled. A low R.H. results in loss of moisture
and wilting and shrinkage in fruits and vegetables. A high R.H. favours surface
spoilage by micro-organisms.
Food Processing 125
Cook-chill In this system food is cocked in the kitchen in advance and rapidly chilled
and stored at 0-3°C. It is reheated just before it is served. The cook-—chill system is used
for almost all kinds of foods and is popular in airlines and institutional catering. Proper
cooking procedures and hygienic standards need to be followed to ensure safety and
quality.
Precautions for Cook—chill Foods
f Food should be properly cooked to destroy micro-organisms and complete the

cooking process.
2: Cooked food should be portioned and chilled in a blast chiller unit within
30 minutes of cooking.
Chilling temperature of 3°C must be reached within 14 hours after cooking.
Chilled storage temperature should be between 0-3°C.
While distributing cook-chill foods, temperature should be as low as possible.
OS During reheating the temperature must reach 70°C (internal temperature)
Sr
Fy,
and it should be held at that temperature for at least 2 minutes.
MN Food should be reheated just before it is consumed and it should not be con-
sumed after 2 hours of reheating.
Purchase fresh Store in correct Preparation

saitn geeanegg sapere Remarc (internal temp. 70°C)
Freezer Meat
Fish
Vegetables
Desserts
Portion
(before or after chilling)
Hygienic environment
Labelled containers
Depth of food 2"
Reheating Distribution Biss chafing and

(quick reheating to <—————- (temp. should not <————— chill bibrkne
at least 70°C) exceed 10°C)
Immediate service and

consumption (discard if not
consumed in 2 hours)
Fig. 9.1 Steps in cook—chill process
8. The critical safety limit for chilled food is 10°C and if the temperature during
storage or distribution exceeds this limit the food should be discarded.
9. Recipes should be suitably modified for cook—chill foods to prevent curdling or
changes in consistency of soups, sauces, and crispness of batter-fried products.
10. The storage life of cook-chill meals should not exceed 5 days.
The caterer should know that even at chilling temperatures, bacterial, chemical, and
enzymatic reactions are taking place but at a more slower rate than room temperature.
Chilling temperatures only help to prolong shelf life.
Freezing Food is preserved for long periods by reducing its temperature to —18°C or
lower. At this temperature, water present in food is converted to ice and microbial
growth stops. Freezing retains colour, flavour, and nutritive value. However, the tex-
ture of some foods is adversely affected. If properly stored, frozen food has a shelf life
of 3-12 months. Fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and poultry can be preserved in this way.
Food to be frozen should be frozen quickly so that small ice crystals form in the
cells of the food which is desirable. Slow freezing causes large irregular shaped ice
crystals to form in the cells. These contain the flavour and nutrients. When food is
thawed, flavour and some nutrients are lost as large ice crystals pierce the cells. Food
is quickly frozen by using any one of the following equipments.
Blast freezers In this cold air at —18°C to —34°C is vigorously circulated over food
while it passes through an insulated tunnel.
Plate freezers Food to be frozen is placed in contact with a metal surface which is
cooled by a refrigerant. It is used for ice creams, juices, etc., both packaged and
unpackaged foods.
Immersion freezers Packaged or unpackaged food is frozen by immersing it or
spraying it with a freezing agent. It is used for freezing poultry.
Spray freezers This is the quickest freezing method in which liquid nitrogen or
carbon dioxide is used. It is called cryogenic freezing. The food to be frozen is
placed on a conveyor belt which passes through an insulated freezing tunnel. Liquid
nitrogen or carbon dioxide is injected into the tunnel through a spray which
changes its state and vaporizes, resulting in instant freezing.
Freeze flow In this system food freezes but does not harden.
A wide variety of frozen foods, both cooked and uncooked, are available in the
market. They should be thawed/cooked as per manufacturer’s instructions. Some
are to be cooked in the frozen state. Frozen foods once thawed should never be
refrozen. This is because when food is thawed its temperature is within the ‘danger
zone’ in which bacteria present in food multiply rapidly.
Cook-freeze It is a specialized method of a food processing system in which food is
cooked and immediately blast frozen at 18°C or below, and stored at that tempera-
ture till it has to be served. Such food has a shelf life of 3-6 months. The food should
Food Processing 127
be frozen immediately so that large ice crystals do not form and freshness is
retained and should be accomplished within one to one and a half hours.
Once the foods are frozen they should be stored at —18°C, and transported as and
when required in insulated containers and refrigerated transport. Before service,
foods should be thawed in a thawing cabinet at 10°C and reheated in a combina-
tion oven or in a microwave oven if quantity is less.
Advantages of Cook-—freeze
1. Complete utilization of staff time
2. Complete utilization of equipment
3. Portion control and minimal wastage
4. Less frequent deliveries from commissary
5. Food can be prepared, when in season and prices are low, days or weeks in
advance during lean periods
6. Menus can be planned and prepared in advance
7. Lesser staff required with more variety in menu
8. Overall savings in staff, equipment, space, fuel, and food costs.
Steps in Cook-freeze System Precautions

1. Purchasing and storing Licensed suppliers
Temperature control
2. Prepreparation Clean kitchen and equipment
Wholesome ingredients
3. Cooking Use proper method of cooking
Use a probe thermometer
Check internal temperature
4, Portioning and packaging Use clean sanitized containers of correct size
’ Accurate portion size filled to 5 cm depth
Cover/seal container
5. Labelling Label should state production date, best by date,
name of preparation, number of portions, and
shelf life
6. Freezing Freeze immediately below —5°C within 14 hours
Once frozen shift food to deep freeze storage
7. Storing Record temperature of freezer regularly (at least
—18°C)
Destroy outdated packages
Follow FIFO and keep freezer door well shut
8. ‘Transporting Distribute in refrigerator vans in insulated con-
tainers. If temperature increases, use up the
food and do not refreeze
9. Thawing and reheating Thaw in thawing cabinet. Reheat to at least

70°C for 2 minutes. Serve immediately and dis-
card food unconsumed for 2 hours.
Follow proper instructions while preparing and storing food to prevent loss of
flavour and texture. Avoid slow freezing and freezer burns due to prolonged storage
and badly packaged food.
Use modified starches such as waxy maize starch along with regular starches to
prevent syneresis and retrogradation of starch-based dishes.
Vacuum cooking Also known as sous-vide, it is a form of cook-chill using a combina-
tion of processes. The food is first sealed in a plastic pouch. It is then cooked by steam
and quickly chilled in ice-water. It can be used by many catering establishments.
Steps in vacuum cooking
Put prepared food and seasonings in plastic pouches
:
Vacuum packaging at 1,000 millibars
pressure and sealing of pouch
Cook by steam in oven at 100°C
:
Chill in iced water/air blast chiller
Label and refrigerate at 3°C
Reheat in boiling water or steam oven

Although this system has many advantages, its main disadvantages are uneven
cooking if size of cut food varies, longer cooking time, and extra cost of vacuum
pouches and packing equipment.
Creating a Vacuum
Removal of oxygen can stop aerobic micro-organisms from growing. This can be done
by packing foods in airtight containers or vacuum packing of foods as in canned foods.
However, anaerobic micro-organisms can still grow in such foods if these have been
inadequately processed.
Food Processing 129
“FA 338 Sterilization by

dry heat
Complete sterilization UHTS
Bacterial spores killed Sterilization by

moist heat
Commercial sterilization Canning low
acid food
Vegetative cells die, spores survive Canning high acid

Bacterial load reduced to safe levels food/blanching, boiling
Dish sanitization
Trichinella cysts killed, cooking
Safe temperature
temperatures destroy most
for pork
bacteria (74-100°C)
No bacterial growth, some Pasteurization HTST
survive, pathogens are killed Internal temperature
of reheated food
Danger zone ends
Pathogenic bacteria killed above 60°C
survival and scant growth Pasteurization LTH
120
Bacteria multiply rapidly Body temperature
Cool for refrigeration,

60 thawing cabinet
Some bacterial growth occurs temperature
Dry food store ideal
temperature
Scant multiplication and survival Danger zone begins
Refrigerated storage
Freezing point of water
No growth, some bacteria Freezer storage

survive freezing
Blast freezing
Fig. 9.2 Temperatures used in the food industry and their effect on micro-organisms
130_Food Science and Nutrition
Vacuum Packing
Vacuum packing of prepared food in vacuum packs of special plastic pouches is an
excellent means of preserving food. Vacuum-packed food does not get oxidized, there
is minimal weight loss or drip, and once packed chances of cross contamination is
reduced. Packs should be stored at appropriate storage temperature, well labelled,
and FIFO must be followed strictly. If the contents of the pack are discoloured or if
pack is bloated or leaking it should be discarded immediately. Strict hygiene needs to
be followed for such processed food.
Use of High Temperatures

High temperatures destroy micro-organisms by denaturation of cell proteins and
inactivation of enzymes needed by them for their metabolism. At temperatures
above 63°C bacteria stop multiplying and as the temperature increases, they are
gradually destroyed. The thermal death time (TDT) is the time needed at a given
temperature to kill a number of microbes. Heat used to destroy microbes may be in
the form of wet heat or dry heat.
Wet heat This is more commonly used in the food industry. If carefully adminis-
tered, it is a useful method of controlling micro-organisms.
Blanching Foods which are to be frozen, dried, or canned are immersed in hot boil-
ing water for a few minutes prior to processing. Blanching helps in removal of peel,
inactivation of enzymes that oxidize vitamin C, removal of gas in tissue spaces, and
wilting of the tissue which helps in proper filling of the can. The enzymes which
bring about discolouration or browning seen in apples, pears, and potatoes are also
inactivated.
Pasteurization This method is used to control micro-organisms in milk, fruit juices,
and wines. Food may be pasteurized by any one of the three methods:
(a) Low temperature holding (LTH) method at 62°C for 30 minutes.
(b) High temperature short time (HTST) or flash method at 72°C for 15 seconds.
(c) Ultra high temperature sterilization (UHTS) at temperatures above 135°C for
2 seconds.This method makes foods commercially sterile. Such foods are
packed under aseptic conditions and can be stored at room temperature for
three to six months.
Canning In this process temperatures used are above 100°C. All micro-organisms
that could spoil food under normal conditions of storage are destroyed by heat-
ing the food in an autoclave at temperatures between 115°C and 125°C. The exact
temperature and time required for canning depends on the type of food to be
canned. Acidic foods such as fruit are heated to 100°C only because acid also
helps in preventing microbial growth. A vacuum is created inside the can or
the air in the headspace may be replaced by nitrogen gas to prevent growth of
aerobic bacteria.
Food Processing 131
This is the most common method of food processing in developed countries.

It is used to preserve fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, poultry, etc. In this process, no pre-
servative is added to the food which is sealed in airtight containers. These are then
heated to sterilize the food.
The following basic steps need to be followed while canning or bottling food:
Cleaning and preparing The food to be canned is cleaned thoroughly and pre-
pared for canning. For example, fruits and vegetables may be cut, peeled, sliced,
or stoned. Some foods may be blanched.
Filling Raw prepared food is filled into cans or bottles either mechanically at the
rate of 1,200 containers a minute or by hand. Filling should be carefully con-
trolled to ensure that the headspace, i.e., the amount of empty space in the can
is neither too little nor too large.
Exhausting A partial vacuum is created in the can by removing part of the air.
As oxygen is reduced, bacterial spoilage is retarded. Exhausting
prevents the ends of the can from bulging during heating.
Sealing Cans and bottles are sealed with airtight lids by sealing machines.
Processing The sealed containers are heated at a controlled temperature for a spec-
ified length of time. The time and temperature depend on the food being processed
and the size of the container. Cans are processed in containers called retorts. They
are commercially sterilized using steam under pressure.
Cooling As soon as processing is over, cans are cooled immediately to stop further
cooking. Cans are cooled by dipping them in cold water, spraying them with cold
water, or partially cooling them by water as well as air-cooling.
The cans are then labelled and packed in cartons to be marketed.
Disadvantages:
1. Heat labile nutrients are lost
2. Heat required for processing affects the texture, colour, and flavour of the product
3. Cost of canned food is high in India
4. Once opened, canned food should be treated like fresh food and consumed
within stipulated period.
Advantages:
Convenience
2. Long shelf life
3. Needs little preparation
4. No chemical preservatives
5. Variety of food is available.
Cooking (boiling, steaming, stewing, and poaching) In these methods of cooking,
wet or moist heat is used. The temperature attained is 100°C. At this temperature
most micro-organisms are destroyed but spores survive. Foods cooked by these
methods cannot be stored for long periods.
Dry heat It is used in following methods.

Sun drying, smoking, and freeze drying also make use of heat to preserve food In
these methods, dry heat is used to control micro-organisms. Dry heat brings about
dehydration of the foods or of the surface of food. It destroys moulds, yeast, and
most bacteria and spores.
Cooking (baking, roasting, grilling) In these methods of cooking, food is cooked by
dry heat. The temperature reached on the surface is approximately 115°C. Most
bacteria are destroyed. Internal temperature of food is generally lower.
If food has to be kept for sometime, it should be cooked thoroughly. Foods
cooked by dry heat methods do not spoil as fast as moist heat methods as they have
a lower moisture content.
Removal of Moisture from Food
Micro-organisms need moisture for their growth. If foods.are dried or dehydrated,
i.e., if the moisture is extracted from food, they will not be spoilt by bacteria, yeasts,
or moulds.
Moisture can be removed by sun drying, mechanical dryers — spray or roller driers,
and freeze drying.
Sun drying It is used for certain fruit, such as grapes, figs, and apricots, which are
placed on trays. The fruit may be turned during drying. Light coloured fruit is
sulphured to prevent enzymatic browning.
Disadvantage: Can be used in hot dry climates only.
Use of mechanical dryers The food to be dried is passed on conveyor belts
through hot air with controlled relative humidity, or hot air is passed through the
Methods of food preservation

(any one or a combination of two or more methods)
Low Vacuum
temperature High temperature packing Fermentation
1. Chilling 1. Pasteurization 1. Canning 1. Alcohol
cook—chill 2. Cooking at 100°C 2. Vacuum cooking 2. Acid
2. Freezing 3. Retorting (a) Acetic acid
cook-freeze above 100°C (b) Lactic acid
Controlled
Chemical
atmosphere storage Dehydration Irradiation preservatives
1. Sun drying 1. Ionising rays 1. Class I preservatives
om Mechanical 2. Microwaves (a) Sugar
drying 3. UV rays (b) Salt
3. Freeze drying (c) Smoke
2. Class II preservatives
Fig. 9.3 Classification of methods of food preservation
co Food Processing’
Processing 5193
133
food. Liquid food such as milk is dried either by passing it over heated rollers or by
spraying the liquid into a current of dry heated air. Dried food should be packed in
airtight containers immediately.
Freeze drying In this process of dehydration the food to be dried is first frozen in
a cabinet. A vacuum is created by pumping out the air in the cabinet and by the
process of sublimation, ice turns into vapour. Freeze-dried food needs no further
refrigeration or preservation. It is light in weight and retains its size and shape, and
when soaked in water, regains its original size and flavour. It is used to dry fruits,
vegetables, meat, poultry, and seafood.
Advantages of Drying
1. Dried food is easy to transport and store
2. It has a long shelf life provided it remains dry
3. It occupies less storage space
4. Itis a cheap method of preservation and is convenient to use.
Use of Preservatives
A preservative is any substance which retards deterioration of food. There are two
groups of preservatives used in food.
Class I preservatives This class includes sugar, common salt, glucose, fructose,
alcohol, spices, vinegar or acetic acid, honey, and wood smoke. There is no restric-
tion by law on the addition of these substances in food.
Class II preservatives ‘This class includes chemicals which inhibit microbial
growth and can be added to certain foods only in definite permitted limits. They are
usually added at the end of the processing operation and their presence has to be
mentioned on the label, i.e., there is a restriction on the use of these preservatives
in food by law. They include salts of benzoic acid, fumaric acid, sulphurous acid,
nitrates and nitrites of sodium and potassium, sorbic, propionic, and acetic acid.
Nisin, an antibiotic, is used in the preservation of cheese.
They are used to preserve food in the following ways.
1. They may be added to food, for example, sodium benzoate in tomato sauce
and potassium metabisulfite in lemon squash.
2. They may be applied on the surface of foods. Sulphur dioxide is used on dry
fruits and borax is used to wash vegetables and whole fruit.
3. Wrappers may be impregnated with sorbic acid to prevent surface spoilage
of cheese.
4, The ice used to chill foods like fish may contain tetracycline, an antibiotic
which is a permitted preservative.
5. They may be used as gases around food. Fruits and vegetables are stored in
an atmosphere containing two to three percent carbon dioxide to retard the
ripening process.
Table 9.1 Uses of chemical preservatives
1. They include sugar, salt, vinegar, spices, smoke, | 1. They include salts of various acids.
and oil. (a) Benzoic acid and its salts, e.g., sodium ben-
(a) Sugar: A high concentration of sugar pre- zoate in tomato sauce, squashes, and
vents moulds, yeast, and bacteria and is syrups.
used to preserve jams, jellies, marmalades, (b) Sulphurous acid and its salts, e.g., potassi-
fruit preserves, candied fruit, glaced fruit um metabisulfite in fruit beverages such as
crystallised fruit, and chutneys. lime cordial, before dehydratingof fruits
(b) Salt: Micro-organisms cannot grow in high and vegetable, and in bulk storage of fruit
concentrations of salt. Meat is pickled in salt pulp.
solution, e.g., ham and ox tongue. Salt is (c) Nitrates and Nitrites of potassium and sodi-
used for pickling and curing. Mango, lime, um are used in the preservation of meat
and vegetable pickles are preserved by salt. and for colour retention in pork.
Salt and sugar preserve food by binding
water and making it unavailable for microbial (d) Propionic acid and its salts such as sodium
activity. and calcium propionate are used as mould
inhibitors on cheese surface and to prevent
(c) Smoke: It is a complex mixture of alcohols, rope in bread.
acids, phenols, and toxic substances which
inhibit microbial growth. Meat to be smoked (e) Sorbic acid and its salts like potassium sor-
is first salted and then smoked. Temperature bate is used In fruit juice, SAUCE Ia, flour
control during smoking is essential to main- confectionery, and in margarine to prevent
tain the texture. yeast and mould growth.
(d) Vinegar: 4% acetic acid in water is used for

pickling vegetables such as onions, gherkins,
red cabbage, shallots, and to preserve
chutneys.
Controlled Atmosphere Storage

When fruits and vegetables are harvested they are still alive and respire using up
oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. The faster the rate of
respiration, the quicker the ripening process. The ripening rate can be reduced by:
1. Lowering the temperature
2. Reducing available oxygen
3. Increasing the carbon dioxide concentration.
All three methods are used in controlled atmosphere storage.
Fruits can be stored for varying lengths of time under controlled conditions, thus
extending their shelf life.
Modified atmosphere storage is also used for food storage. It differs from controlled
atmosphere storage because in controlled atmosphere storage the percentage of gas is
monitored, while in modified atmosphere the air is initially replaced with gas, but no
further measures are taken to check the percentage of gas in the atmosphere. The
Food Processing 135
Table 9.2 Composition of the atmosphere
Oxygen 20.95%
Carbon dioxide. 0.3-0.4%
Nitrogen 79%
concentration and proportion of gases used varies with the kind and variety of fruit.
The carbon dioxide concentration is usually increased and oxygen concentration is
decreased for fresh fruits and vegetables stored in cold rooms. Modified atmosphere
packaging is another technique of enhanced preservation based on gas storage (refer
Chapter 11).
Preservation by Fermentation
Select micro-organisms act on certain foods such as milk, soya beans, cereals, pulses,
and cabbage, and give it a distinctive taste, better acceptance, higher nutritive value,
and a longer shelf life. Examples of food fermentations are:
1. Alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine
CH p05 he 2C3H;OH + 2CO,4
anaerobic conditions
Simple sugar Ethyl alcohol
2. Acetic acid fermentation in vinegar manufacture
GOH + 0. One > CH.COOH + H,0
Acetobacter
Ethyl alcohol Acetic acid
3. Lactic acid fermentation in curds and yoghurt
CsH 2.06 ————_——~> 2C3H6O3

Lactobacilli
Lactose Lactic acid
It is also seen in sauerkraut and dill pickles.
Preservation by Radiation
Radiation of various frequencies ranging from low frequency microwaves to high
frequency gamma rays are being used to preserve various foods. Radiations can be
classified into two categories on either side of the light spectrum.
1. Low frequency, long wavelength, and low energy rays — from radio waves to
infrared rays.
2. Higher frequency, shorter wavelength, and higher energy rays on the other
side of the light spectrum are of two types:
(a) Shorter wavelength, lower frequency, and lower energy rays, e.g., ultra-
violet rays
(b) Higher frequency, short wavelength, and high ‘energy rays, e.g., ionizing
rays that are capable of breaking molecules into ions.
Ultraviolet irradiation This type of radiation is most widely used in the food industry.
Ultraviolet rays are an invisible form of light. They lie just beyond the violet end of the
visible spectrum. They are present in sunlight. They can be produced artificially by low
pressure mercury vapour lamps.
Ultraviolet rays are effective in killing bacteria and viruses. ‘They have poor pen-
etrating power and can be used for surface sterilization of food, or for sterilizing the
air in storage and processing rooms. They are used to control mould growth on the
surface of bakery products and to prevent spoilage of meat while tenderizing and
aging. Treating knives for slicing bread, treating water for beverages, and sanitizing
of food service utensils are some of other successful uses of UV rays.
Microwave oven Microwaves are short radio waves which heat food by penetrat-
ing it. These waves cause molecules in food to vibrate rapidly. The friction caused
by the rapidly moving molecules creates heat which cooks the food.
Microwaves are produced by an electronic vacuum tube called a magnetron.
They penetrate food to a depth of 1% inches. Cooking is faster in a microwave oven
The electromagnetic spectrum

Visible light spectrum
~=— Radio waves ———» —=— lonizing rays ——»
Microwaves| rays rays rays
10° io or io
Low frequency Wavelength High frequency
Long wavelength (inm) . Short wavelength
Low energy rays High energy rays
Cooking _ : Infrared
Microwaves
Surface
sterilization : Ultraviolet rays
Irradiation : X-rays
of certain Gamma rays
foods
Fig. 9.4 Types of radiation used for cooking food
Food Processing 137
because heat is produced inside the food and no heat is lost. Natural flavour is bet-
ter retained if correct cooking procedures are followed.
Ionizing rays or cold sterilization Foods are exposed to ionizing radiation to
extend its shelf life. These rays transfer some of their energy as they pass through
food killing pathogenic and spoilage causing micro-organisms.
Food irradiation in low doses of 0.05—70 kilo grays is used for the following purposes.
To inhibit sprouting, e.g., potatoes, onions, garlic, ginger, and shallots
To control insect infestation, e.g., rice, wheat, and dry fruits
To reduce microbial load, e.g., spices, meat, chicken, and frozen fish
To extend shelf life and delay ripening, e.g., mango, papaya, and banana
To sterilize food, e.g., packaged food and food in hermetically sealed containers
WN For treatment of water.
Aone
Ionizing radiation is electromagnetic like radiowaves, infrared light, or ultraviolet

light. Its controlled use can protect food without making it radioactive. It is more
powerful than UV rays. The advantages of irradiation are:
1. It can be used for heat sensitive food and frozen food as it does not increase
the temperature.
2. Nutritive value and chemical changes in foods are minimal as compared to
any other method of preservation.
3. Food can be sterilized after it is packed.
Milling
Whole grains of cereals, pulses, and nuts are often crushed or ground into flours of
various particle size. For example, wheat is ground into whole wheat flour, refined
flour, semolina, and dalia.
Whole grains are made up of an outer most covering of bran which encloses the
endosperm and the germ. Bran is rich in cellulose and resists the action of waier and
heat. Crushing helps in absorption of water and heat and in cooking the grain. A num-
ber of flours are available in the market. The processing quality and the nutritive
value depénd on the quality of grain used and the rate of extraction. Since wheat is
the most popular cereal in the world, milling will be explained with reference to
wheat grain.
The extraction is the percentage of whole wheat grain present in the flour. Whole
meal flour is 100% extraction and it retains all the grain components. Lower extrac-
tion rates mean most of the bran and the germ have been removed. Refined flour
or maida has an extraction rate of 70% and is almost pure endosperm. Removal of
the bran and the germ can improve the processing quality and the shelf life of the
cereal. The lower the extraction rate, the lighter is the colour of flour.
Endosperm
Crease
Bran
Scutellum
Germ
(embryo)
Za
Fig. 9.5 Structure of a wheat grain
But the nutritive value of the cereal depends on the amount of bran and germ
retained when the cereal is milled. Bread made from whole wheat flour is dark in
colour and coarse in texture as compared to white bread, but more nutritious.
Modern milling processes are carried out using steel rollers, and the bran and
germ can be removed producing a flour which is purely endosperm. The complex
process involves many steps. The grains are cleaned to remove extraneous matter
and conditioned or brought to the optimum moisture content before it is milled.
The grain is passed through a series of rollers which break the grains which is then
sifted to obtain flour of different extraction rates.
Effect of milling on nutrient content Bran is made up of cellulose, B-complex
vitamins and contains 50% of the minerals present in the grain. It constitutes 15%
of the grain.
The germ is rich in vitamin E, B-complex vitamins, proteins, iron, and oil, and is
approximately 20% of the grain.
Starch is the major constituent of the endosperm along with protein.
The scutellum or membrane which separates the germ from the endosperm is
very rich in vitamin B, or thiamine.
Food Processing 139
When refined flour is extracted, practically all the bran, germ, and scutellum are
removed during milling. Since wheat germ is rich in oil, which can turn rancid,
removal of the germ increases the shelf life of flour.
EFFECT OF PROCESSING (HEAT, ACID, AND ALKALI) ON FOOD CONSTITUENTS

_ The term processing is very vast and includes a number of treatment food is sub-
jected to while making it ready for consumption.
Processing helps preserve surplus food so that it can be made available at a later
date. While food is being processed, some loss of nutrients does occur, but if we see
the overall benefits of processing, this loss is minimal and can be replaced by restoring,
Table 9.3 Effect of some processes on constituents
Soya bean Trypsin inhibitor destroyed

Digestibility increases
Egg white Avidin destroyed, hence biotin is available
Egg yolk Iron availability increases
Starch and protein Digestibility increases
Bioavailability of niacin increases
Fruits and vegetables Loss of B1, B2, and C vitamins
Leaching loss of minerals and water soluble
vitamins while washing and cooking in water
Sugar Caramelization
Bakery products Maillard browning with aroma
Freezing Vegetables and fruits Loss of vitamin C minimal
Loss of B,, Bz, and C vitamins during blanching
prior to freezing and while thawing
Freeze drying 7 Meat, vegetables, and fruit | Loss of pyridoxine

Loss of vitamin C in unblanched foods
Sun drying, dehydration | Carrots Loss of carotene due to oxidation

Loss of vitamin C
Fermentation Milk and cereals Digestibility increases B-complex increases

Bioavailability of minerals increases
Smoked foods Meat and fish Fat oxidation is retarded

Carcinogens may be present
Milling Cereal, pulses, and nuts Varies with rate of extraction of flour
enriching, or fortifying food. Colour pigments present in fruits and vegetables are
affected by heat, acid, alkali, and metals, and these need to be controlled.
Effect of processing has been dealt with under the different nutrients as effect of
heat, acid, and alkali on nutrients, specially the water soluble, heat labile vitamin
B-complex and ascorbic acid.
SUMMARY
Food, unless processed or preserved, is bound to spoil. The spoilage rate depends
on the composition of food, the temperature at which it is stored, and the time for
which it is held at a specific temperature. Food needs to be protected from spoilage
and contamination at all stages till it is consumed. Food spoils for various reasons
and a wise food handler should be able to protect food from spoilage by subjecting
it to various processes.
The objective of food processing is to remove unwanted matter from food, make
it safe for consumption, increase its digestibility, enhance its flavour, colour, and
taste, minimize nutrient loss, extend the shelf life, and increase the overall accept-
ability of the food.
Food is preserved by use of low temperature, high temperature, adding chemical
preservatives, vacuum packing, modified atmosphere packaging, aseptic packaging,
irradiation, fermentation, etc. A single method or a combination of methods may
be used. All these processes have some effect on the constituents of food which must
be borne in mind. If the losses of nutrients are significant, these could be replaced
by restoring, fortifying, or enriching the food.
TU aa ea ae SA ETE LHL LE LEI TT TT RY IE TALES LEST REMUS TLLTSS ST LM
Blast chillers Use of rapidly moving cold air to chill Danger zone The temperature range of 5-63°C in
food evenly and rapidly. This may be fitted with tem- which micro-organisms multiply rapidly in food. At
perature probes.
temperatures below 5°C they become dormant, and
Commercially sterile Packaged food which has been at temperatures above 63°C they start getting killed.
subjected to sufficient heat to prevent any growth of Enrichment Addition of nutrients which are present
micro-organisms that may cause spoilage under normal in limited quantities in a food to enrich it.
storage conditions.
Fortification Addition of nutrients to a food which
Commissary A central food production kitchen from were not originally present, e.g., iodized salt.
which food is distributed to other food service outlets.
Freezer burn Dehydration and discolouration of
Controlled atmosphere storage Storage of fruits and foods which are frozen for long periods without
vegetables in a cold modified atmosphere in which being packaged.
percentage of CO and O) are controlled to preserve Gray (Gy) A gray is equal to 100 rad. A kilogray is
the food. equal to 1,000 gray.
-Food Processing 141
Kilogray (kGy) A unit for measuring radiation. A It is the unit of radiation dosage. A kilorad is 1,000
kilogray (kGy) is equal to 100 kilorads (krad). rad and a megarad is equal to 1 million rads
Microwaves Short radio waves which can be used to (1,000,000 rad).
cook food. Its wave length ranges from 1 mm to 30 cm. Restoration Addition of nutrients to a food which
Millibar A unit for measuring atmospheric pressure were originally present but were lost in process-
equal to 000 bar or 1,000 dynes/sq.cm. ing, e.g., addition of vitamin C to canned orange
Pasteurization A process to destroy the pathogens in juice.
milk and extend its shelf life. Two methods —- low Retorting An autoclave used for processing cans
temperature holding (LTH) method at 62°C for and bottles by using steam under pressure. The
30 minutes, and high temperature short time (HTST) time and temperature for processing will depend on
method at 72°C for 15 seconds. the microbial load, the pH, the size of the can,
ppm Parts per million, a measure for concentration. the type of food, etc.
200 ppm means 200 mg of a substance in 1 kg or a UHTS Ultra high temperature sterilization of food
million parts of water (1 kg = 1,000,000 mg). stored in tetrapacks packed under aseptic conditions
Rad (rad) A rad is that quantity of radiation which and heated to 135°C for 2 seconds.
results in absorption of 100 erg/g at the point of
application.
SPLEEN TNA PARENT UE LIMP PAP AER Ea ae ea edd LM beau ee,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Why is food processing necessary? Explain with suitable examples.
What type of undesirable changes in food can be controlled by food
processing?
Describe the steps in the cook-chill process.
How can irradiation be used to preserve food?
Discuss the effect of heat processing on the nutritive value of food.
How do sugar and salt help in preserving food?
List five Class II preservatives which are permitted in food and name the
food in which they are used.
Q8 Write notes on
i Types of freezers
ii Types of radiation in food
iii Advantages of cook-freeze system
iv Steps in canning process
Evaluation of Food
C Learning Objectives — ae a ce
_ After reading this siantee ool
i souks He able te . .. —
themarl
- understand. the importance of evaluating food before itiis‘Sorcaatk ante n
_ © know the different types of evaluation and the various tests conducted =>
-e define and differentiate between different tests
_e select the proper testortechnique for evaluating specific.characte ‘istics
a
_ appreciate the special é ny oomenta nd) tons andprecautions to befolloy red foraccurac
in test results. -
oe understand the limitations of both subjective A objective tests 7
INTRODUCTION
“ood is constantly being rated for its quality either consciously or sub-
consciously by all people. Consumers choose food on the basis of its quality
and their individual likes and dislikes. The attractiveness of food is clearly a
quality which is important both to the manufacturer and to the consumer. When
consumers make a selection they basically look for food that is attractive in terms
of colour, flavour, and texture, apart from other psychological and social factors
which they may associate with food. The nutritional quality and shelf life or keep-
ing quality and cost factor are other criteria which may affect their selection.
The distinctive and attractive colours of food are not only pleasing but an indicator
of good quality and freshness. The senses of taste and odour help us in detecting
Evaluation of Food 143
and appreciating different flavours and deciding on whether we like the food. The
feel and texture of food entering the mouth be it firm, juicy, crisp, or bland are
extremely important characteristics that dictate the acceptance of a food. Todays con-
sumers are discerning, demanding, and more knowledgeable about food. They
expect products that are safe, of good value, and of high sensory quality. Therefore,
knowing consumer’s preferences and perceptions of the sensory characteristics of
food and beverage products is vital to food manufacturers as well as caterers.
Without appropriate evaluation, there is a high risk of market failure.
Importance of evaluation to the food industry:
1. The food industry depends on evaluation in developing new products and
maintaining quality in existing products.
2. How the consumer reacts to a particular food dictates the quality to be produced.
3. Catering supervisors in institutional food service depend on evaluation to
identify changes in menus to make food acceptable.
Studies of platewaste provide valuable information regarding food acceptability.
To assist in determining the shelf life of a product.
To understand how their product performs against competitors products.
NED
Oe To determine whether or not consumers can detect differences between
products due to recipe modification.
METHODS OF EVALUATION
Scientific methods of evaluation of food are gaining importance in assessing the
acceptability of food products. Methods of evaluation can be broadly categorized
into two categories — subjective evaluation and objective evaluation.
Subjective Evaluation
This is carried out by a panel of individuals who are given a scoring system based
on various characteristics that can be judged by using the senses. This evaluation
is also called sensory, organoleptic or psychometric evaluation. In subjective
evaluation, distinctions among foods, i-e., either differences or preferences are
obtained by our senses. Preference testing is valuable in developing new foods and
in evaluating quality. Difference testing can be used to test the sensitivity of judges
and to determine whether an inexpensive ingredient could replace an expensive
ingredient in a recipe, e.g., if saffron essence could replace pure saffron strands in
the sweet ‘Shrikhand’. The type of information which is required should be clear as
this will determine the type of test which needs to be conducted.
Preference tests These tests are designed to provide information on selected

characteristics and to indicate preference or acceptability of products.
Evaluation of food
fo a? Hip oa ee ne A,
Subjective evaluation Objective evaluation
Preference tests Difference tests
t 1 Physical methods | Chemical methods

Discrimination tests Descriptive tests (test for) Y
1, Acceptance 1. Paired comparison _1. Profiling 1. Volume 1. Nutrient analysis
preference test 2. Duo-trio test 2. Score cards 2. Specific gravity 2.pH
2. FACT scale 3. Triangle test 3. Moisture 3. Sugar concentration
4. Dilution test 4. Texture 4. Saltiness
5. Taste threshold 5. Viscosity 5. Flavour
6. Rank order 6. Appearance
7. Colour
8. Cell structure
Fig. 10.1 Classification of methods of evaluation
Acceptance preference test In this method, a single sample or two samples may
be tested. It is used to find out whether a product will be used by consumers and
this also shows their preference for the sample being tested. If a new food is intro-
duced, only one sample is offered to the consumer panel, but if a food is modified
then two samples are offered and their preference is requested.
The consumer panel is made up of untrained, inexperienced judges who repre-
sent a segment of the population for whom the product is being introduced, e.g.,
if the product is ready-to-eat chicken biryani, the panel would consist of housewives
and young working professionals. The size of the panel should be about 50 to 100
people to avoid any experimental error.
The Hedonic scale is most commonly used for evaluation. Hedonic relates to
pleasant and unpleasant states of an organism. In this scale, ratings of preference or
liking and disliking are measured. This scale is generally used with untrained asses-
sors. The Verbal Hedonic Scale consists of a nine point scale with phrases such as
. ‘like extremely’ to ‘dislike extremely’ (Fig. 10.2).
Neither
Dislike :
extremely | very much | moderately | slightly vast slightly |moderately |very much | extremely
Fig. 10.2 Verbal Hedonic Scale
The Facial Hedonic Scale consists of 5, 7, or 9 faces depicting varying degrees of

pleasure and displeasure. It may be used when young children with limited reading
ability form the panelists (Fig.10.3).
OOOOe
Fig. 10.3 Facial hedonic scale
Disadvantages: The Hedonic Scale indicates likes or dislikes for a specific charac-
teristic of food such as colour, flavour, or texture. It does not indicate change in
intensity of that characteristic.
Food action rating scale (FACT scale) The fact test is a more sensitive method
made up of a nine point food action rating scale. The codes used clearly indicate
the action the panelist would take regarding the food being tested, i.e., how often
the subject would like to eat the food.
Table 10.1 Food Attitude Rating Form for FACT Method
Nammegturuitesri
ei ogt Department
Date ese Booth
Code
| would eat this at every opportunity
| would eat this very often
| would frequently eat this
| like this and would eat it now and then
| would eat this if available but would not go out of my way
| do not like it, but would eat it on occasion
| would hardly ever eat this
| would eat this only if there were no other food choices
| would not eat this even if | were forced to
Never tried
Comments:
Code:
In addition, the respondent may indicate that a food was never tried.
Preference frequency scales are of two types. One scale uses verbal categories
of frequencies like the one listed above and the other uses quantitative categories
as listed here.
Table 10.2 Quantitative Categories
Often
Twice a day
(Continued)
MEG GoadSi enca nGNuit On a
Table 10.2 Quantitative Categories (Continued)
Once a day
Every other day
Twice a week
Once a week
Every other week
Once a month
Every 3 months
Once a year
Never
These tests should supplement the Hedonic scale.

Difference testing These tests are designed to determine whether the difference
in two or more food products can be detected. The results of these tests are more
precise and reproducible.
Difference tests are basically of two types — discrimination tests and descriptive tests.
Discrimination tests
Paired comparison In this test, two samples are presented together and one
has to judge the difference in the samples regarding a specific character-
istic and identify the sample with the greater level of characteristic being
measured. For example, a sweeter piece of cake in.comparison with a
standard cake. The judge has a 50% chance of being right.
Duo-trio test In this test, three samples are to be tested of which two are
control samples and one is the variable sample. One of the control sam-
ples is presented first, followed by two other samples, and the judge is
requested to identify which of the two samples is different from the con-
trol. The chances of guessing correctly is 50%.
Variable
Fig. 10.4 Presentation of samples in a duo-trio test

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or
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Fig. 10.5 Presentation of samples in a triangle test
Triangle test Three samples are given, and all the three are presented
together. The judge is asked to identify the odd sample. Chances of guess-
ing correctly is 33%. The judge may be asked to indicate any distin-
guishing feature in the odd sample. Of the three samples two are similar
and one is different.
Dilution test This test is used to measure the quality of an ingredient which
has been substituted. A standard sample is presented to the judges fol-
lowed by other samples which may or may not contain the unknown at
a definite level of dilution, e.g., use of dried egg powder with fresh eggs.
Higher the quality of the dried egg powder, greater will be the difficulty
in detecting it. A poor quality product would be detected at low concen-
tration or high dilution.
Taste threshold test This test determines the lowest concentration of a sub-
stance that can be detected. It also indicates the lowest concentration of
a substance required to be able to identify it. The taste threshold of sweet,
salty, sour, and bitter tastes can be detected.
Rank order In this test a series of samples are ranked in increasing or
decreasing order of intensity for a specific characteristic. This test is done
when several samples need to be evaluated for a single characteristic,
e.g., pineapple flavour in pineapple souffle. Ranking gives the direction
for the difference, but does not measure the degree of difference.
Numerical values may be given to ranks and the highest value indicates
the best product.
Descriptive tests These tests describe the sensory attributes of food in exact words ~
and the judge/evaluator is asked to select the exact word description from the score
card which matches with the sample. These tests are superior to preference tests
which provide information about acceptability of a food sample and discrimination
tests which detect deviations between samples.
Accurate descriptions of each characteristic of the sample to be evaluated by the
judges is described over a range. The score cards need to be carefully designed for
descriptive testing.
There are two types of descriptive tests — profiling and score cards.
Profiling In this method, a panel of experts sit together and formulate a
very detailed word description, generally of flavour, which is used as a
standard for evaluating further products.
Score cards In this method, food samples are individually evaluated by
judges with the help of score cards which have a series of descriptive
terms or levels of a characteristic. Numerical values or scores are
assigned to each descriptive term.
For example, the juiciness of meat which is a textural characteristic is evaluated
on the basis of one of the following terms:
Extremely juicy - 6
Moderately juicy - 5
Slightly juicy - 4
Slightly dry - 3
Moderately dry - 2
Extremely dry - 1
While evaluating the food, the judge should think of the appropriate descriptive
adjective and take a decision and not decide on the basis of the score. It is preferable
not to mention the numerical score on the score card which is given to the evaluator.
Score cards need to be designed for all recipes which use descriptive terms.
The following are the points to be kept in mind while preparing score cards.
(i) Select the different characteristics of a food product which need to be evalu-
ated, e.g., appearance, colour, flavour, and texture.
(ii) Select appropriate descriptive terms pertaining to the characteristics chosen,
and arrange in sequence.
(iii) Give numerical values to the descriptive terms.
(iv) All products which are to be evaluated should be given a code. Codes should
be in the form of geometric shapes, such as A, O, and O, colours, or randomly
selected three digit numbers such as 519, 267, or 483. Avoid codes such as
123 or ABC as they suggest first choice.
(v) Standard specifications for a standard high-quality product should be described.
neI Evaluation of Food
EvaltionvotiFood 149
Gt49
The environment for conducting sensory tests is detailed below:

1. Separate sensory booths should be provided so that judges do not interact
with each other except when preparing profiles because judges work together
to develop vocabulary needed to describe food samples.
2. Controlled air and lighting so that food is correctly visible and booth is
free from odours other than those from the ‘sample. Temperature should be
comfortable and non-smoking zone observed.
3. Small sinks should be provided for spitting out samples or rinsing ones
mouth when meat is to be evaluated for tenderness.
The sample preparation and presentation process is described below:
1. Samples should be of identical size.
They should be identical in shape or from identical portions, e.g., edge of
cake from one sample and centre slice from another sample should not be
taken.
3. It should be served at the customary serving temperature, e.g., a soup should
be served hot.
4. Sample plates should be marked with a wax pencil.
Table 10.3 Score card using descriptive ratings

Product: Cream of tomato Name:
Date:
Presentation/ No garnish Fat floating Well garnished/ Heavy garnish

appearance on surface bite-sized croutons/ large croutons
swirl of cream/
parsley
Texture Croutons Croutons Croutons golden Croutons dark

light in colour soggy brown crisp brown, burnt
Consistency Thin and Curdled Smooth Thick and lumpy

watery thin cream
Flavour Raw flour taste Mild Distinct Strong flavour

tomato flavour tomato flavour
Less seasoning Excess pepper Well seasoned Excess salt
The numerical scores are not mentioned on the score card but have been assigned and are tabulated after evaluation is
over.
Table 10.4 Score card using hedonic ratings

Product: Cream of tomato Name:
Presentation/
appearance
Colour
Texture/consistency
Flavour/taste
5. Plates or containers used should be of identical size, and colour.

6. Necessary cutlery, glass of water at room temperature.
7, Only a limited number of samples should be evaluated at a time to avoid fatigue
and for efficient judging. If possible a control sample should be evaluated.
The requirements of the members of the panel are described below:
1. The judge should neither be too hungry or too well fed.

Smoking, chewing gum, or nibbling snacks 20 minutes prior to the test
should not be permitted.
3. The judges should be healthy and not suffering from a cold as this will affect
their senses of taste and smell.
All score cards should have columns to fill the name of the judge and date of
evaluation, and this should be filled in advance.
Table 10.5 Specifications for a standard product: Cream of Tomato

Appearance Steaming hot garnished with a swirl of cream/croutons/parsley
Colour Light orange red
Texture Croutons crisp and bite size
Consistency Smooth thin cream consistency should lightly coat the back of the
spoon.
Flavour/taste Distinct tomato flavour, well seasoned
(Continued)
Table 10.5 Specifications for a standard product: Cream of Tomato (Continued)
Score cards could be descriptive or they could utilize Hedonic ratings as depicted
in sample score cards in Tables 10.1 and 10.2.
Objective Evaluation
Objective methods of evaluation of food consist of various physical and chemical
tests to measure physical features, such as volume, viscosity, and specific gravity,
and chemical composition such as nutrients present and pH of food. These tests
supplement the data obtained through sensory evaluation. These tests are necessary
because sensory tests rely on panelists who may sometimes present highly variable
Volumeter
Upper
chamber
Column
Calibrated
column
Fig. 10.5 Volumeter

results. Personal problems related to health or emotional upsets may have a major
influence on the individuals ability to evaluate food. To overcome the human error
in evaluation, additional data in the form of objective tests is necessary.
Objective tests are important because of the following:
1. They do not depend on human senses.
2. They are more reliable as they are less subject to error.
3. If the test chosen is appropriate, then results will agree with those of sensory
evaluation.
4, Well-maintained, accurate testing devices are necessary.
Physical methods These methods include the following tests.
Test for volume
Seed displacement Volume of firm food products can be determined by displacement.
The volumeter is used for measuring vclume by seed displacement. In the volumeter,
the volume of seeds in a closed system is determined with and without the sample.
The actual volume of the sample is the difference between the two measurements.
This method is used mainly for baked products such as cakes and bread.
Disadvantage: The test can be conducted only after the product is 24 hours old.
Index to volume Indirect means of comparing volume by measuring the circumfer-
ence of a cross section of the product. It is essential that the slice be taken from
exactly the same portion on each sample. A detailed outline is traced by a pointed
pencil or by making an inkblot or a photocopy of the slice. A planimeter is then
used to trace the enter outline of the sample making sure that all indentations and
protrusions are recorded, and the final measurement on the planimeter represents
the exact circumference of the slice.
iy
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Fig. 10.6 Imprint of the inked sample on paper

The inkblot is made by pressing the food sample onto an inkpad and making the
imprint of the inked sample on paper.
Specific gravity test This test indicates the amount of air incorporated into prod-
ucts such as egg white foam, whipped cream, and cake batters. This test is used for
comparing the lightness of products physically unsuited to volume measurements.
Specific gravity (S. G.) is a measure of the relative density (R. D.) of a food sample
in relation to that of water. The measurement is obtained by weighing a given vol-
ume of the sample and then dividing that weight by the same volume of water. Low
specific gravity and density indicates larger amount of air incorporation and is asso-
ciated with good volume of the product.
Test for Moisture
Press fluids The juiciness and moisture content of a food sample can be judged sub-
jectively and objectively. The juiciness of meat, poultry, and fish is measured by the
succulometer, a machine that applies pressure. The amount of pressure applied and
length of time applied for is measured. The sample is weighed both before and after
pressure has been applied. The greater the weight loss the greater the juiciness of
the sample.
Wettability It is the ability of a cake or other food to absorb moisture during a
controlled period of time (5 seconds). High moisture retention means good
wettability.
Penetrometer
Food sample
Fig. 10.7 Penetrometer

Drying oven Food is gradually dried in an oven till its weight is constant.
initial weight — dried weight Xx 100
Moisture content = ————————————___—— = moisture %
initial weight
This gives percentage of moisture content in the sample.
Texture Texture refers to mechanical properties of tenderness, hardness, cohesive-
ness, adhesiveness, fracturability, viscosity, gumminess, springiness, and chewiness.
Objective methods for determining texture should reflect the action of the mouth
in ingesting the food, action-of tongue and jaw in moving food, action of teeth in
cutting, tearing shearing, grinding, and squeezing food.
Penetrometer It is used to measure tenderness of some foods, e.g., meat. The instru-
ment is provided with a heavy cone, the action of which stimulates the biting action
of the teeth. The force required to shear the meat sample which is cylindrical in
shape is recorded on a scale and this determines the texture. The tenderness of gels
and baked products may also be measured this way.
Tensile strength This is the amount of force required to pull apart a small sample of meat.
The force required to pull apart the meat sample, when the fibres are parallel to
the force gives the strength of the muscle fibre.
Puncture testing This determines the texture of fruits and vegetable, i.e., the firmness
of the tissue. It measures the amount of force required to penetrate a sample to a
specific depth.
Shortometer This determines the texture of a baked product, e.g., cookies, crackers,
and pastries. The pastry or wafer is placed across two horizontal bars. A single hor-
izontal bar is brought down by means of a motor until it breaks the wafer and the
force is recorded. Shortometer values are highly correlated with sensory values for
tenderness.
Shortometer
Food sample
(cookie)
Fig. 10.8 Shortometer

Compressimeter The firmness or softness of a cooked product can be measured by

this instrument. The force required to compress a food sample to a predetermined
amount is measured. The greater the force the firmer is the product.
Shear press This measures the force required to cut through a baked product. It also
measures compressibility and extrusion, and is used for measuring textural charac-
teristics of some fruits and vegetables.
Percent sag It is a test used to measure tenderness of a gel. The greater the percent
sag the more tender is the gel.
depth in container — depth on plate x 100
Percent) 36 =
depth in container
Viscosity
Line spread test This is suitable for foods such as white sauce, starch puddings, and
batters. Food is placed in a hollow cylinder open on both ends in the centre of the
template. When the food has reached the desired temperature, the cylinder is lifted
and the product is allowed to spread for a specific period of time (30 seconds to 2 min-
utes). Consistency is measured in distance (centimetre) spread in a fixed period of
time on all four lines, i.e., at 90° intervals, and the mean of all four values is the line
spread.
Amylograph This is used for determining the viscosity of starch pastes at con-
trolled, selective temperatures.
Farinograph It determines the consistency of a dough, thereby predicting the
quality of the final product.
Viscometer This is a device for measuring viscosity of liquids that flow.
Jelmeter It measures the adequacy of the pectin content of fruit juices used to
make jams and jellies.
Appearance This includes photographs, photocopy, and ink print method.

Photograph These furnish a record of size if scales are included in the pic-
ture. The grain of the baked product is visible if lighting has been carefully
controlled.
(1) Template with hollow cylinder (2) Product spread on template
Fig. 10.9 Line spread test

Fig. 10.10 Photograph
Photocopy This furnishes actual size and shape of a sliced or half baked prod-
uct. It also indicates grain. The sliced samples are arranged on a clear plastic
film placed on the glass plate of the photocopying machine.
Ink print method Refer to the Index to Volume method.
Test for colour The colour of the food sample is tested against a colour sample
to match the colour of the food being identified.
A spectrophotometer and the Hunter colour difference meter is commonly
used to identify food colours.
Test for cell structure The cell structure of baked products:is an important char-
acteristic which can be measured by making photocopies of cross sectional
slices. The uniformity, size, and thickness of cell walls are revealed three
dimensionally.
Chemical methods
Nutrient analysis This is an important measurement of the nutrient content of

food in terms of kilocalories, proteins, fat — saturated, trans fats, cholesterol,
kilocalories from fat; carbohydrates, sugar, fibre, all vitamins, and minerals.
The nutrients in the pack are chemically analysed using specific tests for
each nutrient. The values are mentioned on the label as nutritive value
per serving.
pH pH paper or pH meter shows degree of acidity or alkalinity of the food.
Sugar concentration Light is refracted as it passes through sugar solutions and is
measured in degrees Brix. Refractometers can be used to determine the con-
centration of a sugar solution, which is a useful index while preparing
preserves.
Saltiness This can be analysed by flame photometry to measure sodium content.
Flavour This is identified by measuring numerous volatile & non-volatile sub-
stances by chromatography, i.e., separation of discreet chemical compounds,
although sensory tests are more suitable for flavour evaluation.
Proximate Composition of Food Constituents

Protein, carbohydrate, and fat are sometimes referred to as proximate principles.
They are oxidized in the body to yield energy to meet the body’s need.
For most foods, analytical data for the proximate composition is available, i-e., the
percentage of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water found in a typical food sample.
By knowing these values, one can quickly calculate the energy value of a food.
Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are the only nutrients which yield energy.
Energy value of protein is 4 kcal/g, carbohydrate is 4 kcal/g, and fat is 9 kcal/g.
Together with water, the proximate principles form the bulk of the diet. By
knowing the total carbohydrate, fat, or protein content of the diet, one can determine
the percentage of total calories as well as calories contributed by any one nutrient.
By knowing the sample size and any three of the four variables, the unknown nutrient
can be calculated. The carbohydrate value is often corrected for crude fibre, since
humans cannot digest fibre and do not get energy from it.
Proximate Analysis of Food Constituents

The proximate principles, namely, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are chemically
analysed. The value for fat in a food can be assessed directly by extracting the lipid
chemically in ether, which is a fat solvent. Protein value is estimated by measuring
the nitrogen content and the factor used is 6.25 for all foods as proteins contain 16%
nitrogen. The carbohydrate content given is the difference between 100 and the
sum of moisture, protein, fat, crude fibre, and ash content.
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SUMMARY
The consumer today is more well read and demanding about high-quality food
and looks for products which are not only safe and wholesome but appealing and
attractive. Evaluating foods for its sensory characteristics is of importance to both
food manufacturers and caterers, and food likes and dislikes or preferences of
consumers have to be considered to eliminate the risk of market failure.
Food is evaluated both subjectively as well as objectively. Subjective evalua-
tion is done by a panel of individuals who are given a scoring system based
on various characteristics such as appearance, texture, and flavour which can |
be judged by using the senses. Subjective tests include preference and difference
testing methods. In difference testing methods, the judges are asked to discriminate
between the samples offered or they may be based on a detailed description of

the food being evaluated, and numerical values or scores are awarded to the
descriptions. The environment for conducting these tests as well as selection of
the judges and presentation of the samples should be as per set norms.
Objective tests are often conducted to supplement subjective analysis as they
help in eliminating the human error which may arise in subjective tests. Objective
tests require specialized techniques and equipment for each test. These tests are of
two types namely physical tests that test the volume, texture, viscosity, etc. and
chemical tests that measure nutrient content, sugar concentration, etc. This infor-
mation is necessary for nutrition labelling. Both subjective and objective tests have
their own advantages as far as measuring food quality is concerned. The proximate
principles namely proteins, carbohydrates, and fats along with water form the bulk
of our food. By knowing these values, one can quickly and conveniently calculate
the energy value of any food.
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KEY TERMS
Farinograph An instrument used for measuring interchangeably with the term sensory or subjective
the physical properties of a dough, i.e., time taken evaluation.
to make standard dough, time it can maintain
Profiling Detailed description of characteristics of
consistency, and extent to which it falls on further
food developed by trained panel experts, which is
mixing.
used as a standard for quality product evaluation.
Hedonic Pertaining to pleasure. Hedonic rating Proximate analysis Analysis of protein, fat, and
measures the degree of pleasure provided by the
ash content of food, and calculating carbohydrate
characteristic of food being evaluated.
content by subtracting the value obtained from the
Objective evaluation Evaluation of various charac- total. Carbohydrate value may be corrected for
teristics of food such as texture, viscosity, and crude fibre.
colour by accurate testing devices, often used to
Score card Numerical evaluation of various charac-
supplement sensory evaluation.
teristics of food on cards which are specific for each
Organoleptic Affecting an organ or the senses; used recipe with appropriate descriptive terms for which
to evaluate the taste and aroma of a food. Used numerical scores are assigned.
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UTELLET TLL ETEEMELINE MTSE MS ESS RUPE RUM
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
Why is sensory evaluation of importance to the food industry?
Describe the environment necessary for conducting sensory tests.
What precautions should you take while
i Selecting the panel
ii Preparing and presenting the sample
Differentiate between
Subjective evaluation and objective evaluation
Preference testing and difference testing
Profiling and scoring
Duo-trio test and triangle test
Design a score card for any recipe you have prepared in the food production
practical class.
Which technique would you select for measuring the following
Volume of cake
Tenderness of meat
Crispness of biscuits
Tenderness of lemon souffle
Sugar concentration in jam
Why should objective evaluation of food supplement subjective or sensory
evaluation.
INTRODUCTION
ur eating habits have changed dramatically in the last decade. Food is|
no longer just a source of energy but a sensory, cultural, and social
phenomenon. With the number of working couples on the rise, the
fend to prepare elaborate menus at home is fast fading away. We look for food
which is enjoyable, healthy, tasty, convenient to purchase, and quick to prepare. It}
should be available all year round in the nearest supermarket and reasonably priced. |
Technological developments in the food processing industry and recent research
has made it possible to choose from an enormous variety of high quality food)
products to suit every budget and group or community.
Our lifestyle and eating habits have undergone a radical change creating an
imbalance between calorie intake and physical activity. Medical science is empha-|
sizing the increased risk for chronic illnesses and debilitating diseases particularly!
New Trends in Foods 161
cardiovascular diseases, obesity, osteoporosis, diabetes, and cancer striking at an

earlier age. In this backdrop, the common man has realized the importance of cer-
tain food ingredients in influencing our body functions, and we hear people dis-
cussing things such as cholesterol, whey proteins, omega-3-fatty acids, and fibre.
These discoveries are having an impact on our eating habits, and the trend is
towards health foods and natural foods. Market analysis of consumer demands and
behaviour, forecasts that in the next few years special health-enhancing foods will
form a part of every product group. For example, cooking oil with natural antioxi-
dants such as vitamin A, carotene, and vitamin E, which imparts a natural golden
yellow colour to fried foods and is devoid of trans fats, being 100% natural and
100% vegan. Priced at a much higher rate than cooking oil, it will be used by afflu-
ent societies because it is natural, healthy, environment friendly, and packaged in
an attractive bottle.
Plants with a fat composition beneficial for health are being bred, for example,
rape seed oil with a low erucic acid content. The fatty acid composition of oils can
be selectively modified with health enhancing effects. The health conscious consumer
today demands lighter dishes, less fat, sugar, and salt. Food additives, especially
added colours and flavours, are viewed suspiciously and natural foods are chosen.
There is also an increasing trend towards vegetarianism.
SOYA FOODS
Soya bean, the golden bean, is used to prepare soya milk, soya paneer or tofu,
herbal tofu, shrikhand, amrakhand, patties, kababs, cheese spread, and textured
vegetable protein (refer Chapter 4 on proteins). With extrusion techniques good
quality meat analogues can be produced from textured vegetable protein. Soya milk
is the basis for manufacturing the wide range of dairy products mentioned previ-
ously. Soya milk is extracted from soya beans by processing in an equipment called
soya Cow.
Benefits of consuming soya products
1. Soya milk is lactose free and can be digested by people who are lactose intol-
erant.
2. Soya milk has twice the protein of cow’s milk and half the fat content.
3. Soya milk is cholesterol free.
4. It contains isoflavones which provide the following benefits.
(a) It facilitates absorption of calcium and prevents osteoporosis.

(b) Isoflavones retard the aging process.
(c) They raise HDL cholesterol and reduce LDL cholesterol levels.
(d) They protect the heart.
(e) They provide protection against growth of cancer cells.
Soya milk can replace whole milk in preparations such as curds, raita, lassi, or
kadhi. The meal left after extraction of soya milk can be used in cutlets, koftas, etc.
Soya beans should always be processed prior to use to destroy the trypsin inhibitor
present in the raw bean. The beans may be boiled whole in their green pod, or
sprouted and used in dishes. Soya beans are classified as oilseeds as they contain
approximately 20% oil.
Lecithin, a phospholipid and an emulsifying agent, is extracted from soya bean
and used as a thickening agent in yoghurt and as an emulsifier in mayonnaise. It has
many applications in the food industry.
FOOD FADS
The consumer today is more health conscious and aware of the consequences of
eating junk food, and does not mind spending more for foods available in special
stores in posh shopping malls which make tall claims in curing diseases and main-
taining vigour and vitality.
Millions of people around the globe fall prey to food faddists and quacks who
ascribe special curative properties to foods. Foods such as raw milk, yoghurt, stone-
ground wheat flour, wheat germ, seasalt, and vegetable juices are said to have
miraculous properties for promoting good health. The food faddist criticizes the
food available in the market as being inferior in nutritive value because of being —
subjected to chemical fertilizers, pesticides, different processing methods, and added
chemicals in the form of additives. The use of health foods, live foods, natural foods,
and organic foods available at an added premium is being widely promoted. If we
compare the nutritive value and shelf life of pasteurized milk vis-a-vis unpasteurized
raw milk, the former will be superior. Similarly, stone-ground wheat flour and
whole meal flour milled with 100% extraction would be comparable; the latter
being readily available to the consumer.
The foods with exaggerated claims which are available in the market today are
organic foods, health foods, natural foods, and live foods.
ORGANIC FOODS
Organic foods in Europe are those foods which are produced in accordance with
legally regulated standards. For plant foods, it means crops grown on soils that have
been treated only with organic matter, ie., manures and plant compost. It also
means that no conventional pesticides, artificial fertilizers, or sewage sludge has
been used, and that they have been processed without ionizing radiations or food
additives.
For animal food, it means milk or meat obtained from animals that have been fed
no antibiotics or hormones.
Organic food initially was the produce obtained from small family run farms and
was available only in the farmers’ markets. Now special stores in supermarkets and
malls sell organic foods to the health conscious affluent consumer at higher prices
as compared to the conventional fare. The sales at the organic food store is grow-
ing rapidly every year.
Consumers are gradually turning towards organic foods because they are envi-
ronment friendly. Apart form health concerns it is also a social priority. The organic
foods market lacks a good distribution network, the quality of organic produce is
variable, and the cost of organic food is high, which make it difficult for the caterer
to incorporate these products in their day-to-day menus.
The consumer selects organic produce because it contains fewer contaminants and
not for its nutritional value. A better approach for the future would be towards envi-
ronment friendly food products and processes rather than emphasizing on organic
foods, live foods, or health foods. Environment friendly practices would include:
1. Converting biodegradable waste into vermicompost by vermiculture
2. Limiting the use of fertilizers and pesticide sprays
3. Using environment friendly packaging material
4. Using processes which save electricity and water.
Health Foods
Health foods are defined as foods which are believed to be highly beneficial to
health, especially foods grown organically and free from chemical additives.
Natural Foods
Natural foods are those foods which have come straight from the farm. They have
not been processed or refined in any way and contain no additives. They may or
may not have been organically grown. They are similar to live foods.
Live Foods
Live foods are raw foods which have not been heated above a certain temperature
and include raw fruits, vegetables, seeds, unpasteurized dairy products, eggs, meat,
and honey. These foods contain enzymes which are released in the mouth when
vegetables are chewed. These enzymes along with the enzymes from our digestive
system enhance the process of digestion.
Fruits and vegetables are physiologically active even after they are harvested.
Enzymatic and respiratory processes continue to take place. This can be seen by the
ripening of green fruits and the moisture which collects if vegetables are stored in
. unperforated plastic bags. This loss of moisture from fruits and vegetables is called
transpiration. Whole grains and seeds are also living. When they are soaked in
water and sprouted, we see signs of life in them.
The caterer should understand that the additional virtues ascribed to these foods
does not justify the additional price which one has to pay to obtain these foods.
Modern techniques of food processing retain most of the nutritive value of food and
restore the losses of vitamins due to processing. Food substitutes like margarine
instead of butter is fortified with vitamins A and D. Modern processing techniques
increase the safety of food, for example, pasteurization of milk and other dairy
products destroys pathogenic bacteria and increases the shelf life of milk. Processing
prevents wastage of food by preserving excess for later use.
Good nutrition and balanced meals which include a variety of foodstuff is a better
and economical option for all caterers.
NEW TRENDS IN PACKAGING

Safe and attractive packaging today is as important as the contents of the pack. Along
with advances in the field of food processing, new convenient methods of packaging
are available which meet all the criteria of a package, namely, to contain, preserve,
protect, present, and dispense the product while maintaining quality, and being easy
to transport and store. The consumer today is looking for an elegant pack which is
light in weight, unbreakable, easy to store or transfer contents from, maintains fresh-
ness, and has a good shelf life. The desirable attributes of a package are:
It should be attractive
It should be easy to open and close without requiring an additional opener
It should have a tamper-proof seal
It should be easy to dispense
Instructions for use should be clearly spelt out
Warnings, ingredients, and preservatives, if any, should be clearly mentioned
he Nutritive value of the contents should be listed with number of servings and
BS
ee
serving size
8. Percentage recommended dietary allowances provided by a serving is a |
desirable feature
9. The package should be recyclable
10. The package should be convenient to carry.
Aseptic Packaging
This is the most popular form of packaging used today. In this process, the food to
be packed is sterilized and then packed in a sterile container. Such packages can be
stored without refrigeration for one to three months. This method is superior to
canning because of the following reasons:
1. Natural flavour and nutrients are better retained as heat treatment Pees is
much lesser.
2. Cost of the container, i.e., foil lined cartons, plastic cups, and plastic bags is less.
3. Weight of the pack is also less.

4. It is cheaper than canning.
5. Convenience in storage and opening the pack.
The food to be packaged is subjected to rapid heating in a heat exchanger. Fluid
products are pumped continuously through heat exchangers so that the desired
temperature is reached very quickly. The liquid food is held at the temperature rec-
ommended for commercial sterilization for a prescribed time and cooled rapidly. It
is immediately filled into sterile containers in an aseptic filling zone.
The foods are sold in modern flexible and semirigid packaging made of plas-
tic paper board, and aluminium foil. Milk and fruit juices packaged by this tech-
nology are available in tetrapack containers which have an ambient shelf life of
three months. Once opened, the pack must be refrigerated and used within 5
days. The most recent additions are homogenous and particle containing
desserts, several brands of soups, sauces, and ready meals containing meat and
vegetables.
If aseptic conditions are not maintained, the major potential hazard for acidic
food is spoilage by yeast and mould, and for low acid foods, Clostridium botulinum
could grow causing botulism food poisoning.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

Modified atmosphere packaging is defined as ‘the replacement of air in a pack by a
mixture of different gases’ such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, whose
proportion is fixed when introduced but no further measures are taken to control
the percentage during storage.
Originally known as controlled atmosphere packaging, it is used to extend the
shelf life of fresh food by 2 to 3 times. In this method, the atmosphere within food
packages is replaced by a gas or a specific mixture of gases to inhibit the growth
of harmful micro-organisms. Mixtures of purified carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and
oxygen are used to extend the length of refrigerated storage time. The percentage
of various gases depends on the food being preserved.
Carbon dioxide inhibits the growth of pathogenic bacteria if stored at temperatures
below 8°C. It is used for bakery products as it prevents the product from drying up
and spoilage by mould.
Nitrogen gas is used in 100% strength in packages containing dairy products.
Oxygen is used to prevent growth of anaerobic bacteria.
Because of increased consumer demand for fresh and chilled convenience foods
with fewer preservatives, there has been a significant increase in the range of
products packaged in modified atmospheres. These include raw and cooked foods
such as red meat, fish, poultry, bacon, cheese, bakery products, fresh pasta, potato
crisps, tea, and coffee.
166
e
BGG, Food Science
AROCU and ONUUON
SCCMEEANO Nutrition e
The advantages of MAP are as below:
1 Enhanced shelf life -
2. Economic losses are minimized
3. Chemical preservatives need not be added or are used in small amounts
4, Improved presentation — customer has a clear view of product
5. High quality product is available.
The further developments in MAP are as below:
1.Development of smart films which have the ability to absorb or emit gases
and vapour
2. Combination of other preservation methods along with MAP
3. Designing retail packs which are resealable and microwave proof
4. Use of indicators which change colour to indicate if package has been opened
or damaged.
EDIBLE FILMS
Food materials need to be protected from loss of volatile flavour and reaction with
other food ingredients, moisture, and oxygen when they are stored in intimate mix-
tures. Edible film forms a protective package or coating around the food particle or
piece. It forms a primary package or part of the food itself.
The film could be in the form of a thin layer of maize protein zein, starch, gel-
atin, or gum arabic which is flavoured, or in the form of confectionery glaze used
on desserts or coating nuts with monoglyceride derivatives to prevent oxidative
rancidity.
Edible films have a wide variety of applications. The films may be cast into small
packets which can hold ingredients and which dissolve on addition of water to
release the ingredients. Edible films require an outer wrapper to protect it from
contamination.
SUMMARY
The food processing industry is growing at a rapid pace to provide meals to the
millions in a variety of packages available off the shelf. With food products being
available all year round because of innovative processing and packaging techniques
the health conscious consumer is offered an array of health foods, organic foods,
natural foods, or live foods. These foods are claimed to have curative properties and
special health benefits. Most of these are natural, with minimum processing and use
of pesticides or chemical additives. The consumer does not mind paying an addi-
tional price for the benefits it claims to offer. However, the educated consumer should
be able to select cost-effective foods as these special foods do not have added nutritive
value but reduced contaminants. By selecting a meal wisely and ensuring variety in
selection, a balanced wholesome meal can be planned without spending extra on
organic or natural foods purchased from select stores.
In the packaging industry there has been a revolution. It is now possible to store
perishables such as whole milk at room temperature safely for a month. By modi-
fying the atmosphere inside the food package, it is possible to extend the shelf life
2 to 3 times. Edible films are extensively being used to retain flavour, moisture, and
crispness in ready-to-eat foods.
SSS
SSS SSS SSS RRR
KEY TERMS
Aseptic packaging Filling aseptic packages with Trans fat A fat having a higher melting point than its
commercially sterilized food under aseptic conditions cis form because hydrogen is attached to the carbon
which can be stored at ambient temperature. atoms on either end of the double bond from oppo-
Edible film A thin protective coating around food site directions.
particles or small pieces which keep the packed (¢ H
contents intact when food is stored in intimate ne Hh
C=C
mixtures. H” Xe
Food fad_ A style of eating which remains in vogue
for a short time. Vegans Strict vegetarian diet which includes only
MAP Modified atmosphere packaging in which air in plant foods.
the package is replaced by a mixture of purified gases Vermiculture Conversion of organic waste into a
to prevent microbial spoilage and extend shelf life. highly enriched biofertilizer by bacteria in the gut of
Pathogen Disease producing micro-organism. special species of earthworm.
(RSIS TTS ET MTA LTH LLL ET IETS ETE ELIE TALES LLL EY TLL ELEM TELE TELET POE ETS LTT LIOR TTS PT PSS LL LAS LUT SET TES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Why are soya-based products recommended in our diet? List the different
products available to the consumer.
Why do you think food fads occur? What are the present fads among the
affluent?
Discuss the concept of modified atmosphere packaging.
Why does a tetrapack carton of juice not spoil at room temperature?
Edible films are used in a vast variety of products. Name any four products
you have tasted which use this technology.
Q6_ Define the following terms
i Live food
ii Organic food
iii Health food
NUTRITION}
Introduction to Nutrition
- Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you ae be able to:
_ © understand the significance of food in our daily life
e distinguish between the functions of food and various nutrients
_e define the terms food, health, nutrition, malnutrition, and nutritional status
Classify the various nutrients into six major categories
© appreciate the need for Recommended Dietary Allowances —
-eunderstand the relationship between good nutrition and health —
. ‘identify the various processes by which food is broken down for body use, and k
ee steps are a ees
INTRODUCTION
“ood is a basic need for all living beings. Just as we cannot live without air and|
water, we cannot live without food. Food gives us energy to carry out our
day-to-day activities and keeps all the systems in our body functioning well.
Food supplies the nourishing substances needed by our body to build and repair)
tissues and to regulate various functions. |
Since food has so many functions to perform to keep us in good health, a study|
of the composition of various foods and the functions performed by these compo-|
nents is essential if one has to enjoy good health. |
Introduction to Nutrition 169
Food does much more than keeping us alive and healthy. It adds pleasure to life.
We enjoy the flavours, aromas, colours, and textures of different cuisines. We use
food as a way to celebrate special events and festivals with family and friends. The
main functions of food are listed here.
1. Physiological functions
2. Psychological function
3. Social function.
Some Important Definitions

Food Food can be defined as any substance which nourishes the body and is fit to
eat. It may be solid or liquid.
Food provides the body with materials for providing energy, growth and main-
tenance, and regulating various processes in the body. These materials of which
food is made up of are termed nutrients.
Six nutrients are of importance in nutrition. They are:
1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3) Fats
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water.
Different foods contain different amounts of nutrients, hence no two foods have
identical nutritive value. Some foods contain only one nutrient, for example, sugar
contains the nutrient carbohydrate.
Nutrients Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food, which the body
needs to carry out its functions. Food is the source of all nutrients except vitamin D.
There are six major groups of nutrients, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vita-
mins, minerals, and water. Each group has several nutrients in it, and each nutrient
has specific functions in the body.
Nutrition is the science of nourishing the body. It includes much more than just
consuming a balanced diet. Nutrition is a study of various nutrients, their character-
istics, functions, requirements, and sources. The effect of deficiency, excessive intake,
digestion, absorption, and utilization in the body as well as the interrelationships that
occur among some nutrients is an important part of nutrition.
Nutrition It is a combination of processes by which the human body receives and

utilizes nutrients which are necessary for carrying out various functions and for the
growth and renewal of its components.
Thus, nutrition refers to the various processes in the body for making use of food.
It includes eating the right kind and amount of food, absorption of nutrients into the
blood stream, use of individual nutrients by the cells in the body, maintenance and
growth of cells, tissues, and organs, and elimination of wastes.
RELATION OF FOOD AND HEALTH

When the diet does not supply all nutrients in required amounts, it results in ill-
health or malnutrition.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition (mal means faulty) is an impairment of health resulting from a defi-
ciency, excess, or imbalance of nutrients in the diet. It includes both undernutrition
or deficiency and overnutrition or excessive consumption.
Undernutrition
It refers to a deficiency of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An
undernourished person is underweight.
Overnutrition
It refers to an excess of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An exces-
sive intake of calories results in overweight which can lead to obesity. An excessive
intake of fat-soluble vitamins can cause hypervitaminosis or vitamin toxicity.
Diet
A diet means the kinds and amounts of food and beverage consumed every day. A
diet may be a normal diet or it may be a modified diet which is used in the treat-
ment of a specific disease or condition.
Kilocalorie (kcal)
It is the unit for measuring the energy value of foods or the energy needs of the body.
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1,000 gm water by 1°C.
1 kcal = 4.184 kilojoules (kJ)
Health
The World Health Organization defines health as a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Health is a positive state of complete well-being and not just the absence of
disease. When we are tired or exhausted, we cannot concentrate on our work. To
remain healthy a balance between work and rest or recreation is necessary. This
improves our work efficiency.
A person must look healthy, feel healthy, and have a balanced mind and be a
socially responsible individual.
Nutritional Status
The nutritional status of an individual is defined as the condition of health as influ-
enced by the utilization of nutrients in the body.
The nutritional status of an individual or a community can be assessed by sur-
veying the kind and amount of food being consumed, signs of ill-health or defi-
ciency symptoms if present, height, weight, and other measurements as well as level
of nutrients in the blood and excreted in the urine.
Good nutrition and health are closely interlinked. Clean, wholesome, and nutri-
tious food promotes health and keeps away disease.
A balanced diet is one of the essential factors in ensuring good health. The other
factors are the wholesomeness of food and a clean environment in which it is pre-
pared and eaten. The food handler should maintain high standards of personal,
food, and environmental hygiene to prevent transmission of food-borne disease.
To ensure that the consumer obtains the maximum health benefits from the food
that is served, all food handless concerned with purchasing, storing, cooking and serv-
ing food, and planning meals should have a basic knowledge of nutrition and hygiene.
FOOD AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Physiological Functions
Each nutrient in food has specific functions to perform in the body. The physiological
functions performed by food are as follows.
Providing energy The body needs energy to carry-out voluntary and involuntary
work. Involuntary work includes all processes which are not under the control of our
will such as digestion, respiration, and circulation and go on continuously irrespective
of whether we are asleep or awake. Voluntary activities or activities which we wish to
do such as walking, playing games, and working require energy, and the amount of
energy required will depend on the nature of activity. The energy needed for these
activities is supplied by oxidation of the foods we eat mainly carbohydrates and fats.
Body building or growth It is one of the most important functions of food. An
infant grows into a healthy adult by consuming the right kinds and amounts of food
year after year. Our body is made up of millions of cells and when growth takes
place, new cells are added to the existing cells and cells increase in size.
Maintenance or repair In the adult body, worn out cells are continuously being
replaced by new ones. The daily wear and tear of cells need to be maintained.
Proteins, minerals, and water are the main nutrients required for growth as well as
maintenance of all cells and tissues in the body.
Regulation of body processes Food also regulates numerous activities in the body
such as the beating of the heart, maintenance of body temperature, clotting of blood,
and excretion of wastes. Each of these processes is controlled and carried out by spe-
cific nutrients, for example, vitamin K and calcium are necessary for clotting of blood.
Protective function Nutrients keep body cells in a healthy condition to ward off
infection. They help in building up the body’s resistance to disease and help the
body recover rapidly from any infection. These functions are performed by vita-
mins and proteins.
Psychological Function
We all have emotional needs such as need for love, attention, and security. Food can
play an important role in fulfilling these needs. A mother can express her love for her
child by preparing the child’s favourite meal. Food can be given as a reward for good
behaviour or deprived as a punishment for bad behaviour.
People feel comfortable and secure when they are served food they have been
used to consuming. Many people eat to relieve anxiety and frustration, while some
may eat less or refuse food when they are depressed and lonely.
Certain foods may be associated with sickness, e.g., sago kheer and khichdi while
others such as pedha are associated with good tidings. Food is therefore strongly
associated with one’s emotions and feelings.
Social Function
Food carries a lot of social significance. Warmth and friendship are expressed
through sharing one’s food or inviting people to dine. Preparing special foods or
one’s favourite food is a way of showing respect or affection.
Functions of food
Psychological Physiological Social

YG
WSsaGies a
poy Growth Repair Protective Regulatory
| | | |
Carbohydrates Proteins Proteins Vitamins Minerals
Fats Minerals Minerals (Proteins) Vitamins
(Proteins) Water Water Water
(Carbohydrates) (Carbohydrates) Fibres
(Fats) (Fats)
(Vitamins) (Vitamins) |
— Main function
(_ ) Additional function
Fig. 12.1 Functions of food

Food is a significant part of celebrations for occassions such as birthdays, wed-

dings, and other joyous occassions. Festivals such as Diwali, Dussehra, Christmas,
and Id have special menus prescribed for the occassions.
Food also has religious significance. Some foods can be offered to God, while oth-
ers are avoided on certain days for religious reasons. The type of food prepared and
served is a status symbol. Even today, in some communities, adult males are given
more and better quality food than females because of their higher social status.
CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS
Nutrients are the essential constituents of food that are required by the body in
suitable amounts. There are approximately fifty nutrients which are placed in six
categories, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
Based on their requirement in the body, nutrients are divided into two major
groups — the macronutrients and the micronutrients. Most of the weight of the food
we eat is that of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and water. These are the macronutrients.
Vitamins and minerals are required in minute amounts and are also present in food
in very small quantities. They are classified as micronutrients. Both macronutrients
and micronutrients are equally important for good health, and one cannot enjoy
good health without including all nutrients in the diet.
The requirement for macronutrients is in grams, while the requirement for
micronutrients is in milligrams and micrograms.
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES (RDA)

The amount of food needed to ensure good health will vary from one individual to
another. All people do not require the same amounts of nutrients. Requirements
vary depending upon age, sex, body size, activity, state of health, etc. For example,
a person doing a sedentary job will require lesser energy giving foods as compared
to a farm labourer doing heavy manual work.
The Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) has prepared Recommen-
ded Dietary Allowances for Indians. These recommendations are revised and
updated at regular intervals based on suggestions from experts. This guide tells us
the amounts of different nutrients we should consume daily. The allowances are
Nutrients
Te eae
Macronutrients Micronutrients
ar
caesWater
Proteins Vitamins
Carbohydrates Fats Minerals
Fig. 12.2 Classification of nutrients

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calculated for different age groups for males and females based on activity levels
and ensure that good health will be maintained. These tables are based on scientif-
ic knowledge and accordingly nutrient intake is recommended for infants, pre-
school and school children, adolescents, and adults. Additional allowances for some
nutrients are included for periods of physiological stress such as pregnancy and
lactation.
No two individuals of similar height, weight, and age have the same nutritional
requirements as the actual requirement is influenced by many factors. The
Recommended Dietary Allowances are not actual requirements but allowances that
are high enough to take care of almost everyone in that particular group (refer
Table 12.1).
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND METABOLISM OF FOOD

The food we eat needs to be broken down into simpler substances which the body
can utilize. This is accomplished by the process of digestion. Complex substances
such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are broken down into simpler forms by
the mechanical action of the teeth and chemical action of various enzymes in the
digestive system. Water, minerals, and vitamins can be absorbed directly without
undergoing any change. Glucose needs no further breakdown and is immediately
absorbed giving instant energy. Both digestion and absorption take place in the
digestive tract in the body.
The digestive tract or alimentary canal in humans comprises the
Mouth
Oesophagus
Stomach
Duodenum
Jejunum Small intestine
Tleum
| Caecum,
: Colon
Rectum Large intestine
Anus
The liver and pancreas are not a part of the digestive tract, but provide vital
secretions, namely, bile and pancreatic juice respectively which aid in the digestion
of food. Digestive juices are also secreted by all parts of the digestive tract except
the oesophagus, rectum, and anus. These juices contain chemical substances called
enzymes, which act as catalysts in the breakdown of nutrients.
Digestion of Food
Mouth The process of digestion begins in the mouth. Food is mechanically broken
down by the teeth by chewing and is moistened with saliva produced by the sali-
vary glands in the mouth. Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase or
ptyalin which acts on cooked carbohydrates and partially digests them into smaller
units. If food remains in the mouth for sometime, carbohydrates are further broken
down into maltose by the action of salivary amylase giving food a sweetish taste.
Oesophagus Food passes from the mouth into the stomach through a tube called
the oesophagus or food pipe. No digestion takes place in the oesophagus.
Stomach In the stomach the food is mixed with gastric juice. Gastric juice is
composed of hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and water. The stomach muscles contract
and churn the food to a liquid consistency called chyme. Gastric juice has many
important functions. The acidic nature of gastric juice:
1. Destroys harmful bacteria which may be present in food
2. Activates enzyme pepsin
3. Swells proteins so that enzymes can easily act on them
4. Aids in the absorption of calcium and iron.
The enzyme pepsin acts on proteins and enzyme lipase has some effect on
emulsified fats.
Small intestine Maximum digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats takes

place in the small intestine. The small intestine includes the duodenum which is the
first portion, the jejunum, and the ileum. Bile which is produced by the liver and
stored in the gall bladder is needed for digestion of fat. Bile is released in the duo-
denum and it emulsifies fats so that they can be easily attacked by enzymes. Bile is
highly alkaline and helps in neutralizing the acidic chyme so that other intestinal
enzymes can act. The small intestine secretes intestinal enzymes and the pancreas
secretes pancreatic juice and completes the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats into amino acids, monosaccharides, and glycerol and fatty acids respec-
tively. These simple substances are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine
into the bloodstream.
Large intestine The large intestine includes the caecum, colon, rectum, and anus.
The food which is not absorbed in the small intestine passes into the large intestine.
Water and digestive juices are reabsorbed in the large intestine giving the intestinal
contents a solid consistency. The unabsorbed material is called faeces, and it con-
tains small amounts of undigested food mainly fibre, bile salts, cholesterol, mucous,
bacteria, and broken down cells. It is excreted via the anus.
(=D Saliva
~~ Polemarel ry
SS land:
Mouth 4.—\ Tne
SS
Oesophagus
Liver
ie a Fundus of
Gall bladder stomach
Pylorus of
stomach
Duodenum sy
Transverse
= ar ep colon
Pancreas ~~)
¢( Small
PY intestine
Ascending
colon Descending
colon
Rectum
Sigmoid
Anus colon
Large intestine
(Caecum)
Fig. 12.3 The digestive system
Factors that affect Digestion

Consistency, division, and type of food Foods that are of liquid consistency are
more easily digested than food pieces which are solid and big in size. Food which
is chewed well is easily acted on by digestive enzymes.
Bacterial action The normal bacterial flora helps in breaking down food and is
desirable.
Chemical factors Strong acids, spices, caffeine, and meat extracts stimulate the
flow of gastric juice. Fats slow down the flow of gastric juice.
Psychological factors Anger, fright, and worry slow down the secretion of gastric juices.
The sight, smell, and aroma of food increases the secretion of saliva and
gastric juices. Of all the nutrients, carbohydrates are digested fastest. Glucose
needs no further breakdown and is immediately absorbed giving instant
energy. A mixture of carbohydrate, protein, and fat gives satiety and remains
in the digestive system for a longer time.
Absorption
Absorption is the process in which the end products of digestion of nutrients are
transferred from the intestine into the blood and lymph circulation.
The wall of the small intestine is made up of 4 to 5 million folds or finger-like
projections called villi. Each villus has blood vessels and lymph vessels. The pres-
ence of villi increases the total area from which absorption can take place. Most
nutrients are absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum, and remaining in the ileum.
Nutrients are absorbed across the epithelial cell walls lining each villi by two
methods:
1. Passive diffusions, i.e., movement of water and minerals from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Sometimes a carrier
is required to help ferry water soluble nutrients across a cell membrane with
fat-like material.
2. Most nutrients are absorbed by active transport from an area of lower
concentration to an area of higher concentration. Active transport requires
energy for transportation. The nutrients absorbed into the lymph are fatty
acids, some molecules of fat, and fat-soluble vitamins. Glucose, amino acids,
water-soluble vitamins, and minerals are transported by the portal circulation
to the liver.
Metabolism
From the blood stream, nutrients are supplied to all the cells in the body where each
nutrient performs its specific functions. It is either oxidized'to release energy (cata-
bolism), or it is used in the synthesis of complex substances (anabolism).
Anabolism is the term used for all chemical reactions in which simple substances
are used to synthesize more complex substances, e.g., amino acids are used for
specific protein synthesis.
Catabolism is the term used for all chemical reactions in which complex
substances are further broken down to simpler compounds, e.g., glucose is oxidized
to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Glucose and fats are stored as potential energy in the form of adipose tissue. Glucose
is also stored as glycogen in the liver. Amino acids are used for synthesis of new cells,
enzymes, or hormones. Minerals and vitamins carry out regulatory functions.
The waste products of digestion, absorption, and metabolism are excreted by the
bowels, kidneys, skin, and lungs.
SSSSSS
SSS SSS SS SSSI FE BETTY UTRUTTER UME RAST PU ESE EH SU
SUMMARY
Food is our basic need which we cannot live without. Food gives us energy, builds
and maintains our body, and regulates the innumerable functions which take place
in our body. Apart from the physiological function, food adds pleasure to our life
and helps fulfil our emotional and social needs. There are six groups of nutrients
present in food, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and
water. Different foods contain different proportions of nutrients and no two foods
are alike in their composition. ,
Nutrition does not only mean consuming a balanced diet, but it is also concerned
with the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of various nutrients. The nutrients,
we consume, should be utilized by the body and this is reflected in our nutritional
status. How much of each nutrient should be consumed everyday varies from
person to person. The RDA table gives allowances that are adequate for almost
everyone in a particular age group.
The food we consume needs to be broken down into simpler substances which
the body can absorb and utilize. The digestive tract is made up of the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. The digested food is absorbed in
the small intestine and sent to the blood circulation via the liver. The cells and
tissues in the body are provided nutrients by the blood. Both anabolism and
catabolism take place in the body, and waste products of metabolism are excreted
via the bowels, kidneys, skin, and lungs.
ete m2 Pa HAR etc eAeR ES
_KEY TERMS
-Anabolism The process in which complex body sub- Enzyme Enzymes are made up of proteins and act as
stances are synthesizéd from simpler ones in living catalysts for chemical reactions in the body.
organisms such as building of body tissues. Growth Ahn increase in the size and number of cells.
Catabolism The process in which complex sub- Hormone A secrection of ductless glands into the
stances are progressively broken down into simpler blood stream which have specific effects on specific
substances generally accompanied by release of organs.
energy (opposite of anabolism). Impairment Appearance of weakness or damage
Celi The smallest unit of life which is capable of causing health to deteriorate in quality or lessen in
functioning independently. strength.
Deficiency A state or condition caused due to inade- Infirmity Physical or mental weakness.
quate dietary intake of one or more nutrients in the diet. Kilocalorie The unit of measuring energy in nutri-
Duodenum The first portion of the small intestine tion, i.e., energy value of food or energy needs of the
immediately after the stomach. body. It is 1,000 times larger than the physics calorie,
and is defined as the amount of heat required to raise Overweight A condition in which weight is 10-19%
the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. more than desirable weight.
1 kcal = 4.184 kJ Tissue A group of similar cells.
Obesity A condition of overweight in which body Underweight A condition in which weight is
weight is 20% or more than desirable weight. 10-20% less than desirable weight.
SUNT TURES URL LETS TEBE EM LESION
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql What are the functions of food?
Q2 Classify nutrients into two major categories.
Q3 Define the following
i Food
ii Nutrient
iii Malnutrition
iv Kilocalorie
Q4 What does RDA stand for? and why is it important?
Q5 List the organs in the digestive tract and state the main function of each.
Q6_ Briefly explain absorption and metabolism of nutrients in the body.
°= sugarsubstitutes available and theirenergy value
INTRODUCTION
P
arbohydrates are a major source of energy for humans, providing approx-

imately 45% to 80% of the total caloric intake in different income groups.
Since they are a relatively inexpensive source of energy compared to fats
and proteins, they form the bulk of the diet of humans throughout the world.
They are mainly present in food in the form of sugars, starches, and fibres.
A study of the various types of carbohydrates is necessary because the kind and pro- .-
portion of different forms of carbohydrate present in food have a direct bearing on
our health.
e
4g2 FoodStance andNuwition 0) e
In Chapter 4 on carbohydrates we have already studied the definition and
general classification of carbohydrates. Three groups of carbohydrates are of impor-
tance in our diet from the nutritional point of view, namely, sugars, starches, and
fibres. The sugar and starch that we consume is ultimately broken down to glucose in
the digestive tract and absorbed into the blood circulation. In the human body, glu-
cose is removed from blood by the tissue cells and used as a source of energy. Some
glucose is converted to glycogen, also called animal starch, and stored in the mus-
cle and liver as a reserve store of energy.
Glucose aus Energy + CO, hy H,O

tissues Hs
waste products
of metabolism
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates which are of importance in the diet are classified on the basis of the
number of sugar units present in them (Fig. 13.1, Table 13.1). They may also be classified
as:
Availabte carbohydrates Carbohydrates which can be digested in the human body
and yield energy when they are oxidized in the body.
Unavailable carbohydrates Carbohydrates which cannot be digested because the
human body does not contain the enzymes necessary for their breakdown.
Unavailable carbohydrates do not provide any energy to the body but are neces-
sary as they perform some important functions in the body such as regular elimina-
tion of faecal waste.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND METABOLISM

Complex carbohydrates and sugars are too large to be absorbed through the intes-
tinal wall. They need to be broken down into their constituent monosaccharides so
that they can be absorbed. Only monosaccharides can be absorbed into the blood
stream. The mechanical and chemical digestion of starch begins in the mouth.
Dietary carbohydrates
Available Unavailable
Sugars Starches Dietary fibre

|
Dextrins
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Water Water
soluble insoluble
Fig. 13.1 Classification of dietary carbohydrates
Carbohydrates 183
Table 13.1 Classification of carbohydrates
(a) Monosaccharides Glucose (dextrose) Fruits, vegetables, honey

| (single sugar unit) Fructose (levulose)
Galactose On hydrolysis of lactose
(b) Disaccharides Sucrose (glucose + fructose) Sugar cane, sugar beet
| (two sugar units) Maltose (glucose + glucose) Sprouted and malted grains,
acid hydrolysis of starch
: Lactose (glucose + galactose) Milk is the only source
2. Complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides

(a) Available Starch - Cereals, pulses, roots, tubers,
vegetables, and under-ripe
fruits
Glycogen (animal starch) Liver and muscle of
freshly slaughtered animals
Dextrin Partial breakdown of starch
by dry heat or digestion
(b) Unavailable or dietary fibres

te Water insoluble Cellulose Structural fibre in whole
Hemicellulose grain cereals, nuts, wheat
*Lignin bran, figs, vegetables, etc.
2s Water soluble Pectins Non-structural fibres in
Gums apples, citrus fruits, guava,
Mucilages oats, barley, pulses,
seaweeds, etc.
*Lignin is not a carbohydrate
Ptyalin or salivary amylase in saliva acts on cooked starch and partially breaks it
| down into dextrin. If ptyalin acts on starch long enough, i.e., if food is chewed well,
: some maltose may be formed. The stomach does not secrete any starch-splitting
: enzyme, hence no digestion takes place in the stomach. In the small intestine, pan-
creatic amylase acts on starch and dextrin breaking it down into maltose.
The intestinal wall secretes maltase, lactase, and sucrase which acts on maltose,
lactose, and sucrose, reducing them to their respective monosaccharides. Some fruc-
tose may be converted to glucose. The monosaccharides are absorbed into the blood
vessels lining the small intestine and carried to the liver for their further metabolism.
The absorbed monosaccharides, i.e., glucose, fructose, and galactose may be con-
: verted into glycogen and stored in the liver, or converted into glucose and released
: into the blood stream to be oxidized as a source of energy for various tissue cells.
84
41
Salivary
Mouth glands
Mechanical Q
digestion of Some starch broken by
starch
j= salivary amylase to maltose
Oesophagus : =
Ja No chemical action
Some glucose
converted to
glycogen and
stored in liver
bladder
Pancreatic amylase breaks

Duodenum starch and dextrin into maltose
Absorption of Enzymes of small intestine break

glucose, fructose down sucrose, maltose, and lactose
and galactose into glucose, fructose, and galactose
into blood to
be taken to liver Some gas produced by bacteria
acting on non-digested food
Appendix \
Most fibres
excreted in
faeces
Fig. 13.2 Digestion and absorption of carbohydrate
In human metabolism, all sugars are converted into glucose. In the muscle cells, some
glucose may be stored as glycogen. The fasting level of glucose in blood is maintained
at 70-100 mg/100 ml blood. After consuming a meal rich in carbohydrates, it
increases to 140-150 mg/100 ml blood. Glucose is taken up from blood by the body
cells and oxidized as a source of energy.
In the cells, glucose is first oxidized to-form pyruvic acid, and ultimately through
the various metabolic cycles, energy is released in the form of adenosine triphos-
phate (ATP). The waste products of carbohydrate metabolism, i.e., carbon dioxide
and water are released from the cell and excreted by the body. The energy released
is used by the body for its various voluntary and involuntary processes and to main-
tain body temperature (Fig. 13.2).
Carbohydrates 185
Glucose level is increased by Glucose level is reduced by
Carbohydrates in the Oxidation in the cells to provide

diet-sugars and starches energy
Breakdown of
ened aarhalauteate Synthesis of glycogen (glycogene
glycogen to glucose :
(glycogenolysis) Synthesis of fat
Blood
Synthesis of other carbohydrate
ipa .oe glucose compounds, e.g., chondroitin sulf:
ow in bones and cartilage, DNA and
RNA, etc.
Conversion of amino
acids into glucose
; Excretion in urine if renal thresho
(gluconeogenesis) is exceeded
Fig. 13.3 How the body maintains blood glucose levels
If the level exceeds 170 mg glucose/100 ml blood, it crosses the renal threshold and
glucose is excreted in the urine. This condition is observed in diabetic patients. A fast-
ing blood glucose level above 140 mg is called hyperglycaemia and below 70 mg is
called hypoglycaemia. The body tries to maintain the normal fasting level-by remov-
ing glucose from blood when the level is high and adding glucose to blood when the
level falls, e.g., when a person is fasting. The hormone insulin, secreted by the cells of
the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, helps in regulating the blood glucose level.
Insulin is required for glucose utilization by the cells and synthesis of glycogen from
glucose. If insulin is deficient, glucose is not utilized by the cells and blood level of
glucose increases. Insulin is the only hormone which lowers blood sugar levels, other
hormones, such as the thyroid hormone, increase blood sugar levels (Fig. 13.3).
SOURCES
Daily diet should provide up to 50-70% kcal of energy from carbohydrate, which
means that the diet of an individual who needs 2,400 kcal should consume 60% of
2,400, i.e., 1,440 kcal or 360 g of carbohydrates/day. Carbohydrates are not only an
economical source of energy but are also readily available and easy to store as they
have a long shelf life.
All foods of plant origin contain carbohydrates in varying amounts. With the
exception of milk, animal foods do not contain carbohydrate. Although milk is not
consumed as a source of carbohydrate, some milk products, such as khoa and milk
powder, contain significant amount of carbohydrate lactose.
The important sources of carbohydrates in the diets of Indians are cereals and
millets, roots, tubers, pulses, sugar, and jaggery (Table 13.2).
All sugars provide 4 kcal/g of energy. The carbohydrate and calorie content of a
food can be reduced by using sugars which are sweeter than sucrose so that the
quantity of sugar required will be less.
Table 13.2 Some rich sources of carbohydrates
Cereals. __| Fruits and vegetables | Nuts and oilseeds | Miscellaneou

All whole grain and Mango Cashew nuts Sugar
dehusked pulses and Chikoo Coconut (dry) Jaggery
their by-products, Jack fruit Ground nuts Honey
e.g., rajmah, bengal
Custard apple Garden cress Sago
gram, whole green
gram, lentils, and Banana seeds Tapioca
besan Green peas Niger seeds Dates
Beans Gingelly Raisins
Potato seeds Skimmed milk
Yam powder
Colocasia
FUNCTIONS
Carbohydrates have many functions in the human body.
I. The chief function of carbohydrate is to provide energy to the body so that it
can carry out day-to-day work and maintain body temperature. All carbohy-
drates except fibre provide 4 kcal/g of energy. It is the cheapest source of
energy available.
Glucose is the only form of energy used by the central nervous system. When
blood glucose levels fall, the brain does not receive energy and convulsions
may occur.
Carbohydrates spare proteins from being broken down for energy and are
used for bodybuilding and repair. In carbohydrate deficient diets, proteins
meant for bodybuilding and repair are oxidized to meet the most important
and first need of the body, i.e., energy.
They are required for complete oxidation of fat. In a deficiency, fats are bro-
ken down rapidly for energy and intermediate products such as ketones are
formed in large amounts resulting in a condition called ketosis.
Carbohydrates can be converted into non-essential amino acids, provided a
source of nitrogen is available.
The sugar lactose helps in the absorption of the minerals calcium and phos-
phorus.
Lactose helps certain bacteria to grow in the intestine. This bacterial flora is
capable of synthesizing B-complex vitamins in the gut.
Dietary fibre plays an important role of increasing faecal mass by absorb-
ing and holding water, stimulating peristalsis, and eliminating faecal waste.
Carbohydrates 187
9. Fibre also helps in lowering blood cholesterol levels by binding bile acids and
cholesterol.
Deficiency
The daily diet should not contain less than 100 g of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate
deficiency is uncommon in our country as diets are cereal based. A deficiency of
carbohydrate in the diet results in utilization of fat for energy. In severe deficiency,
incomplete oxidation of fats causes ketone bodies to accumulate in the blood.
Excess Carbohydrates
1. Excessive consumption of refined sugars could be one of the causes of den-
tal caries or tooth decay.
2. Excessive sugar depresses the appetite, provides hollow calories, and could
result in malnutrition.
3. High intake of sugar and refined carbohydrates increase the blood triglyc-
eride levels leading to heart diseases.
4. When excessive carbohydrates are consumed they are converted into fat and
deposited in the adipose tissue, which could lead to obesity, i.e., body weight
of 20% or more than desirable weight.
5. Excessive fibre could irritate the intestinal lining causing cramps or bloating
due to gas formation.
6. Excessive fibre interferes with the absorption and availability of mineral ele-
ments such as iron and calcium.
Role of Dietary Fibre in Prevention and Treatment of Disease

Dietary fibre refers to the total amount of naturally occurring material in plant
foods, which is not digested. The terms roughage, bulk, and unavailable polysac-
charides are synonymous with fibre. Fibres cannot be digested by human
enzymes.
Dietary fibre or roughage does not provide humans with energy but performs
many important functions in the body (Table 13.3). Fibre can absorb and hold water
thereby increasing faecal bulk. This acts as a laxative and reduces intraluminal
pressure in the colon preventing diverticulosis. Insoluble fibre prevents constipa-
tion by stimulating peristalsis in the large intestine. The contraction of muscular
walls of the digestive tract is stimulated by fibre. Fibre increases water absorp-
tion, forming a larger, softer stool that rapidly passes through the colon. Soluble
fibre binds bile acids and cholesterol and is beneficial to people suffering from
coronary heart disease. Fibre reduces the triglyceride and cholesterol levels in
blood.
Table 13.3 Functions and sources of dietary fibre
Insoluble fibres
ile Cellulose 1. Insoluble fibre Bran, whole grain cereals,
2. Holds water specially wheat, rye, apples,
pears, tomatoes,
3. Increases stool bulk
cabbage, beans
4. Reduces intraluminal colonic
2. Hemicellulose Boa ce Bran, whole grain cereals,
5. Prevents constipation
specially millets — jowar, bajra, ragi
6. Binds minerals such as Ca
3. Lignin (non- and Fe Whole grain cereals pears,
carbohydrate source) | 7. Binds bile acids peaches, plums, mature vegetables
8. Reduces transit time
Soluble fibres
aks Pectins 1. Soluble fibre Guava, apple, citrus fruits,
2. Binds cholesterol and bile wood apple, berries,
acids carrots, and green beans
Di Gums 3. Holds water Oatmeal, pulses and beans,
aI 4. Fermented in the colon to dinkache ladoo, processed foods
3 iueeiecs seaweeds, | volatile fatty acids and gas by
Thickener in food products,
and algae the normal bacteria flora of
stabilizer, gelling agent in puddings
the colon
Fibre is beneficial to people on weight reduction regime. It provides satiety value

to the meal because of more chewing required and at the same time does not add
to the calorific value of the meal.
It helps in lowering blood sugar levels in diabetic individuals by slowing down
carbohydrate absorption and lowers the insulin requirement. Regular intake of fibre
may prevent cancers of the colon and rectum.
Although fibre is not a true nutrient, because it cannot be digested by humans, it
is nutritionally important. Foods such as whole grain cereals, fruits, and vegetables,
specially when the peel and seeds are edible, are rich sources of fibre.
The fibre content of the daily diet should be approximately 30-40 g/day (Table 13.4).
Recommended Dietary Intake for Adults

Fibre — 40 g/day is desirable
Carbohydrates
Minimum — 100 g
Maximum — less than 70% of total calories from carbohydrates
Carbohydrates 189
Table 13.4 Fibre and carbohydrate content of food (values in g/100 g)
Rice
Wheat
aera gram whole

Moong dal
(continued )
Table 13.4 Fibre and carbohydrate content of food (continued)
Apple |1.0 13.4

Banana 0.4 Doo)
Dates (fresh) 317
Guava 2 112
Orange 0.3 10.9
10.9 eA
Coconut dry aN
NO
=
Miscellaneous
Sugar | Ne)A©
|
Honey
|
Jaggery |©1
|
|}
KO)
eS
Sago
Sugar cane
Skimmed milk powder

Garden cress seeds 7.6 (Op
|e
ea
(al
ill ili
Carbohydrates 191
MARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
These are also known as non-nutritive sweeteners. Artificial sweeteners are
100-350 times as sweet as sucrose and provide no or very negligible calories. A wide
variety of sweetening agents are available in the market and are used for low-calorie
products such as diet coke. These processed products are specially manufactured
for obese individuals, weight watchers, and diabetic patients. They are used quite
successfully in bakery items such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, Indian sweetmeats,
confectionery products, beverages, puddings, and chewing gum. Saccharin, aspar-
tame, sodium cyclamate, and stugar are some of the commonly used substitutes
for sugar. Their use is not recommended in soft drinks and other food consumed
: by children as these foods may be a substitute for essential nutrients.
ALCOHOL
Ethyl alcohol is produced by yeast fermentation of carbohydrates under anaerobic
conditions. Different carbohydrates are used to manufacture alcoholic beverages.
Alcoholic beverages do not supply necessary nutrients but contribute significant
amount of energy (Table 13.5). Alcohol contributes 7 kcal/g or 5.6 kcal/ml and in people
who consume alcoholic beverages, up to 10% of total energy needs may be derived
from alcohol. Some chronic alcoholics may consume insufficient food and suffer from
malnutrition while the reverse may be observed in the case of social drinkers whu
consume large amount of high-calorie foods such as starters, nuts, and wafers along
with their drinks. These high-calorie snacks are rich in carbohydrate, fat, and sodium.
Alcohol is absorbed rapidly, directly into the blood stream. Drinking on an empty
stomach increases the alcohol level in blood twice as fast as on a full stomach. It is a
good rule to have some light snacks along with alcoholic beverages.
C5Hj206 ae 2C,H50H + 2C0,4

(sugar) anaetobically (ethyl alcohol)
Percentage of alcohol is proof divided by 2

86 proof whiskey = 43% alcohol ‘aso noMess
caloric content of one peg or 30 ml of whiskey To iia ates
= 78 kcal
If alcohol is taken along with antidepressants or tranquilizers, it prolongs the

sedative effect of these medicines.
Excessive consumption of alcohol accompanied by decreased intake of other
nutrients can lead to malnutrition and serious liver disorders such as cirrhosis of
the liver.
Table 13.5 Calories supplied by alcohol
Won ede eee ee eta aed se Aeterna

ae OA eee
SUMMARY
- Carbohydrates are nutrients which,form the bulk of our diet. They include sugars,
starch and fibre and occur abundantly in the plant kingdom. They are made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Sugars and starches are available carbohydrates and provide 4 kcal/g of energy
on oxidation. Sugars are classified as monosaccharides and disaccharides of which
glucose is the sugar present in blood, and sucrose or table sugar is consumed in
large quantities compared to other sugars. Polysaccharides include starch, the form
in which carbohydrate is stored in plants, glycogen or animal starch stored in the
muscles and liver and dextrins, which are formed on partial breakdown of starch.
These polysaccharides are made up of glucose units and after digestion and absorp-
tion all available polysaccharides are converted to glucosé and used as a source of
energy by all body cells via the liver and blood. Unavailable polysaccharides play
an important role in our diet by regular elimination of faecal matter and regulating
the levels of bile acids and cholesterol.
Carbohydrates are an essential nutrient and a minimum quantity should be con-
~ sumed daily. They perform many important functions in the body. The diet should
not provide more than 70% energy from carbohydrates and at least 25-30 g fibre
should be consumed daily. An excessive intake of sugar and starch may lead to
obesity and dental caries, while excessive fibre may cause gastric irritability and
malabsorption of minerals.
Carbohydrates 193
Today, sugar is being replaced by artificial sweeteners, which are many hun-
dred times sweeter than sugar and provide no calories. In people who consume
alcoholic beverages, the intake of calories from alcohol need to be considered
because alcohol does not provide any nutrients other than energy. Many bever-
ages and fast foods contain large quantities of refined sugars and starches, which
could be detrimental to health if they are not combined with nutrient-dense
foods.
SSSQaSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSS SESS SSSSSPELYST ELUTED NEL EEE LEM PETTERS FAUST
GWA il EULESS
PLE SAE
KEY TERMS
‘Agar Unavailable polysaccharide made up of galac- Glycogenolysis Breakdown of glycogen to glucose
tose
}
units and obtained from a seaweed (algae). when energy is required.
‘Bran The outer layers of cereal grain, which are Hollow calories or empty calories Term used to
largely removed when the grain is milled. describe foods which only supply energy and have
Dietary fibre Term used to describe the unavailable very few or no nutrients.
polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, Insulin A hormone secreted by the pancreas, which
pectin, gums, mucilages, seaweeds, and lignin regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
(a non-carbohydrate), which are not digested by Invert sugar Mixture of glucose and fructose, sweeter
humans but are necessary in the diet. than sucrose, produced by hydrolysis of sucrose and
Gluconeogenesis Formation of glucose and glyco- prevents crystallization in confectionery items.
gen from non-carbohydrate substances such as glyc- Lignin A substance which is not a carbohydrate but
erol and amino acids. present along with carbohydrates in the cell wall of
Glycemic index The rise in blood glucose produced plants and forms part of dietary fibre.
by the carbohydrate present in a given food as com- Renal threshold Blood level of a substance at which
pared with the rise by an equal amount of glucose. it cannot be further reabsorbed by the kidneys and is
Glycogenesis Synthesis of glycogen from glucose excreted in the urine, e.g., renal threshold of glucose
when excess glucose is present in blood. _is 170mg/100 mi.
YDS
LLG LAI) LP ELAN LTT SPELEER REMAN SAU cee Oe UMPIRE RAUL EROS RPSL OPIS UES UN SS LE EH TTT LTE TUSSLE
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1 Describe the important functions performed by carbohydrates.
Q2 Classify carbohydrates of importance in human nutrition and give one rich
food source for each category.
Q3 List ten rich sources of carbohydrate and fibre in your daily diet. -
O4 List ten preparations rich in fibre from the menu card of a typical Indian
restaurant.
Q5 What are hollow calorie foods? Name any five such foods, which are pop-
ular amongst teenagers. Suggest alternate nutrient-dense substitutes for
the same.
Q6 What are the beneficial effects of fibre in the diet of an adult man sedentary
worker? How much fibre should be consumed daily?
Q7 How many calories would the following items provide

a peg of whiskey
a table spoon of sugar
i a glass of beer
artificial sweetener aspartame
Briefly describe how the human body utilizes carbohydrates from the diet.
How does body regulate the fasting blood glucose level? Explain briefly.
What are the negative effects of excessive carbohydrate consumption? How
many calories should carbohydrates provide in our diet?
Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
Dietary fibre provides kcal/g of energy.
The human body stores carbohydrate in the form of in the
muscles and liver.
i The water soluble fibre is used for setting jams and jellies.
The sugar is present in the blood stream.
The hormone secreted by the regulates blood
sugar levels.
Give one word for the following
Disease caused due to insufficient insulin

Elevated blood glucose levels
i Disaccharide made up of glucose and galactose
Dietary fibre that is not a carbohydrate
Blood level of a substance at which it cannot be reabsorbed by the kidneys.
Proteins
Learning Objectives.
_ After reading this chapter, |
you‘should be able
© appreciate the importance of proteins in our daily diet
e describe the chemical nature of proteins— ! i...
¢ understand the difference between complete and nee proteins oS 2
_ © understand the importance of ee es of Loe pepe value inourirmeals
_ © list rich sources of protein. —
_ improve the protein quality of meals servedin catering eo eee —
: gain knowledge about novel sources$ ofprotein available |
inthemarket oo ,
INTRODUCTION
rotein is the basic material of every living cell and is the most important of
all known substances in the organic kingdom. It is the only nutrient that can
make new cells and rebuild tissues. Therefore, an adequate amount of protein
in the diet is essential for normal growth and development and for the maintenance
of health.
Definition
Proteins are large, complex, organic compounds made up of carbon, hydragen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. The presence of nitrogen distinguishes proteins from
196
TIG™ Food
FOOR' Science
SCIENCE: and Nutrition
ANG INUTTOR
carbohydrates and fats. Apart from nitrogen, elements such as sulphur, phosphorus,
copper, and iron are also found in some proteins.
The basic units from which proteins are built are the dmino acids. Each amino
acid contains a carboxyl group (COOH) or acid group and an amino group (NH))
or basic group.
NH, (amino group)

Re f—COOH (carboxyl group)
H
R — Various groupings because of which amino acids differ from one another
Fig. 14.1 An amino acid
Proteins consist of chains of amino acids that are linked to each other by a pep-
tide linkage (-CO—-NH-.).
H
|
H N. R COOH fe
ian een v/a a | |
C OH : is oth ene
aoe eZ
Sqeiebet eas mone |
+ H HN R : : +H,O
O O H
Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide Water
Fig. 14.2 A protein ;
Twenty-two different amino acids are widely distributed in nature. However, the
proteins obtained from plants and animals are quite different both in amounts present
and in quality. The proteins that make up the skin, bones, muscles, hair, and nails
in the body are obviously very ditferent from each other. Egg, milk, meat, and pulse
proteins also differ both in quality and in quantity. This is because the amino acids
present in each of these proteins are in different permutations and combinations.
Thousands of different proteins exist in nature and vary widely from one another
in quality. No two proteins will have an identical amino acid content.
The protein content of any food can be estimated by measuring the nitrogen
content of the food. Since proteins contain 16% nitrogen, each gram of nitrogen
measured is equal to 6.25 g of protein.
Essential Amino Acids

Those amino acids which cannot be synthesized in sufficient amounts by the body
and must be provided by the diet are called essential amino acids. The human adult
requires eight essential amino acids, while growing children require ten essential
amino acids. Essential amino acids are indispensable to life.
aNe a ee ea aA Proteins
melded 197
rd
Table 14.1 Classification of amino acids
eee: Alanine
sealehis
“nefe eeres Asparagine
ae Aspartic acid
Neate Aeécapinte protein Cysteine (cystine)
to
*Recent studies indicate that histidine may be essential for adults as well
Non-essential Amino Acids

All amino acids are required by the body for tissue synthesis and repair. Non-essential
amino acids does not mean that these amino acids are not required by the body.
They are termed non-essential because they are not dietary essentials. If they are
lacking in the diet, they can be synthesized by the body from other amino acids.
The twenty-two amino acids present in proteins could be compared with the
letters of the Roman alphabet and the innumerable words present in our dictionary.
Similarly, innumerable proteins can be formed by using the twenty-two amino acids
in varying sequences and quantities.
PROTEIN QUALITY
No two food proteins are identical in their quality, i.e., with the efficiency with
which they can be used in the body. The quality of protein depends upon the kind
and amount of amino acids present in them in relation to the body needs. Protein
quality is an important criterion for tissue synthesis. Each body protein performs a
specific function and cannot be replaced by another protein. When a new protein has
to be synthesized, all the amino acids, which make up the protein, must be available
Table 14.2 Biological value of some common foods
85 Wheat
83 Groundnuts
|Meat 75 Gelatin
at the same time and in sufficient quantity. Even if one amino acid is missing or
deficient, protein cannot be synthesized just like a word cannot be made if even one
of the alphabets of which it is made up of is missing.
Biological Value
It is an index of protein quality. It is defined as the amount of absorbed nitrogen
retained in the body. The digestibility factor is not taken into account. Biological
value (BV) is a quantitative measure of the nutritive value of a protein food. A pro-
tein of high BV will retain more nitrogen than a protein of low BV.
Cereals and pulses consumed together will have a higher BV than the average
value of the individual cereal or pulse. This is because of the complementary nature
of proteins. Amino acids deficient in cereals will be compensated by the amino
acids present in pulses. }
The perfect protein has a BV of 100.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins may be classified on (1) the basis of their structure or on (2) the basis of
their quality, i.e., the amino acids present in them.
Classification by Structure
Simple proteins These proteins are made up of amino acids only, e.g., zein in
corn, albumin in egg white, and gliadin in wheat consist of amino acids only.
Conjugated proteins These proteins have a non-protein molecule attached to the
protein, e.g., blood protein haemoglobin, which contains a haeme (iron) group
attached to protein and milk protein casein, which has a phosphate group attached.
Derived proteins These result from a partial breakdown of a native
protein.
Proteoses, peptones, and polypeptides are formed when digestive enzyme
s begin
their action on proteins.
Proteins 199
From the nutritional point of view, classification of proteins on the basis of their
quality is more relevant than classification by structure and is explained in the next
section.
Classification by Quality
Proteins are classified into three groups on the basis of their quality.
Complete proteins These proteins contain all essential amino acids in sufficient
proportions and amounts to meet the body’s need for growth and repair of tissue
cells. A complete protein food has a high BV. Eggs, milk, meat, fish, and poultry are
complete protein foods. They are found in animal foods.
Partially complete proteins These are proteins in which one or more essential
amino acids are present in inadequate amounts. They cannot synthesize tissues
without the help of other proteins. The value of each is increased when it is
consumed in combination with another incomplete protein at the same meal.
They can maintain life. They are found in plant foods. Cereals, pulses, nuts, and
oilseeds are partially complete protein foods. Cereals contain inadequate amounts
of essential amino acid lysine, and pulses are deficient in essential amino acid
methionine.
Incomplete proteins These proteins are incapable of growth and repair of
body cells. They cannot maintain life. One or more essential amino acids
may be completely lacking in these proteins, e.g., gelatin and zein in corn.
Gelatin lacks three essential amino acids and is the only animal protein which is
incomplete.
FUNCTIONS IN THE HUMAN BODY

Proteins perform three main functions — structural function, regulatory function,
and energy.
Structural Function
Growth The primary function of food protein is the synthesis of body cells.
All body tissues and fluids except urine and bile are made up of protein.
Proteins are the major constituent of muscles, organs, endocrine glands, and
collagen. Collagen is the main structural protein of bones, tendons, ligaments,
skin, blood vessels, and connective tissue. All enzymes and some hormones,
e.g., insulin are made up of proteins. Proteins are required for the formation
and growth of all these substances. During periods of rapid growth, additional
proteins are needed for synthesis of body components.
ROO EoweisclenceandsNGbitimi ee
Maintenance or wear and tear Protein is required by all age groups

for continuous maintenance of all the cells in the body. Cells have a varying lifes-
pan and proteins are needed to replace the old or worn out cells.
Regulatory Functions
All amino acids from food protein are used for growth and maintenance. Certain
amino acids and proteins have highly specialized functions in the regulation of body
processes and protection against disease. Some of the regulatory functions are as
follows.
1. Haemoglobin, an iron containing protein in the red blood cells, performs an
important role by transporting oxygen to the tissue cells.
2. Plasma proteins maintain water balance and regulate the osmotic pressure in
the body.
3. Antibodies that are protein in nature perform a protective function by
increasing the body’s resistance to disease.
4. All enzymes and some hormones, e.g., insulin are made up of protein. The
hormone insulin regulates blood sugar levels. Enzymes act as specific cata-
lysts to metabolic processes in the body.
5. Some amino acids have specific functions, e.g., tryptophan serves as a precur-
sor for niacin, a B-complex vitamin. The amino acid tyrosine in combination
with iodine forms the hormone thyroxine.
Energy
Like carbohydrates, proteins too provide 4 kcal/g when broken down in the body.
The basic need of the body is energy and this takes priority over protein synthesis.
If the diet does not supply adequate calories from carbohydrates and fats, the
proteins from the diet will be oxidized to meet the energy needs of the body.
If the diet is deficient in calories, the body uses up its protein and fat stores. Using
protein as a source of energy is not advisable as it puts an extra burden on the body
and the pocket. Protein is used by the body as a source of energy only when no
other source of energy is available.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND METABOLISM

To enable proteins to perform their various functions, dietary protein needs to be
broken down into its constituent amino acids.
The mechanical digestion of protein begins in the mouth, where the teeth grind
the food into small pieces. The mouth does not produce any enzyme to digest
proteins. Chemical digestion begins in the stomach. The hydrochloric acid (HCl) in
the gastric juice activates the enzyme pepsin, which acts on proteins and reduces
Proteins 201
them to polypeptides. After the partially digested proteins reach the small intestine,
three pancreatic enzymes — trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase — continue
the process of chemical digestion. The peptidases secreted by the intestine finally
reduce the smaller peptides and dipeptides into amino acids, which are the end prod-
uct of protein digestion.
Table 14.3 Digestion and metabolism of protein
Food protein Mechanical digestion
Proteoses Chemical digestion

Peptones ‘| Enzyme pepsin — gastric
Polypeptides juice
Small intestine Small chain Pancreatic enzymes

Polypeptides Intestinal juices
Dipeptides
Amino acids
Amino acids Absorbed into blood

circulation
Undigested proteins Excretion of unabsorbed

proteins
Amino group Deamination
Nitrogen-free Gluconeogenesis
residue
Aa
Glycogen Fatty acids
Body cells 1. Protein — oth ae Protein synthesis
2. Adipose tissue Storage of fat
Glycogen Oxidation
(energy)
Kidneys Carbon dioxide Excretion

+
Water
After digestion, the amino acids in the small intestine are absorbed by the blood
and carried to the liver and all body tissues where they are metabolized.
The body needs varying compositions of amino acids to build and repair the
different tissues of the body. All essential amino acids must be present if body cells
have to be built or repaired. Surplus amino acids are sent back to the liver where
they are deaminated by splitting off the amino group. The remaining part of the
protein is vsed for energy or stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles or as fat in
the adipose tissue. The end products of the metabolism of amino acids are carbon
dioxide, water, and nitrogen. Some of the nitrogen is excreted as urea by the kidneys.
Some nitrogen may be retained and used again to synthesize non-essential amino
acids as and when required by the body.
Mouth =
7 = Salivary
glands
Oesophagus
Deamination and
gluconeogenesis ;
8 Liver Partial protein digestion by
enzyme pepsin to proteoses,
Gall bladder ia peptones, polypeptides
Us ‘Pancreatic enzymes continue

Duodenum digestion to dipeptides
Amino acids absorbed

into blood to be taken eS Large intestine
to the liver
| Final conversion to
amino acids
Appendix < \
Little undigested
protein in faeces
Fig. 14.3 Digestion and absorption of protein

Proteins 203
METHODS OF IMPROVING PROTEIN QUALITY

Animal proteins contain all essential amino acids in correct proportions and
amounts and are good quality proteins. Four essential amino acids are in short
supply in plant proteins. They are lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan.
Proteins in plant foods are generally deficient in one or two essential amino acids.
Cereals are poor in lysine and pulses are poor in methionine. Egg protein has a BV
of 100 and is the reference protein as its amino acid composition corresponds most
closely to human requirements. Eggs sold in the market are unfertilized and could
be included in a vegetarian diet, if acceptable.
We have already read that protein will be synthesized only when all amino acids,
which form the protein, are present simultaneously. We have also read that vegetable
proteins are partially complete proteins. These two points should be kept in mind
while improving the protein quality of a meal.
The protein quality of a mainly vegetarian diet can be improved in the following
ways.
1. By including a small quantity of complete protein food in every meal.
Complete protein foods such as milk, curds, paneer, cheese, buttermilk, and
eggs could be used in small quantities in various preparations instead of
including it in one meal only, e.g., cereal and milk, egg or cheese sandwiches,
French toast, raita, curd rice, or buttermilk at all meals in place of a bowl of
curd in one meal.
2. Correct mixtures of plant foods could provide all essential amino acids in
suitable proportions and amounts. Cereal and pulse combinations will com-
plement each other as cereals provide methionine, which is lacking in pulses,
and pulses provide lysine, which is lacking in cereals, when cereal and puls-
es are consumed together in the same meal, e.g., Missi roti, thalipeeth, puran
poli, idli, and rajmah chawal. This is possible because the same amino acids
are not missing from all plant foods.
CEREAL + PULSE + GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLE = FLESH FOODS

Fig. 14.4 Mixtures of several plant foods yield high-quality proteins
3. Synthetic amino acids may be added to processed foods to compensate

for the amino acid deficient in them, e.g., lysine-enriched bread. Textured
vegetable proteins are used successfully to improve the protein quality and
reduce the cost of protein-rich foods.
Plant proteins are being used successfully to stretch the supply of expensive
animal proteins. When plant proteins are consumed with a small quantity of animal
protein, the quality of the mixture is likely to be as effective as if only animal protein
Table 14.4. Recommended protein allowances for Indians
Pregnancy
Lactation (0-6 months)
(6-12 months)
Infants 0-6 months ).4 2.05 g/kg

6-12 months 1.65 g/kg
Children 1-3 years

4-6 years
7-9 years
Boys 10-12 years

13-15 years
16-18 years
Girls 10-12 years

13-15 years
16-18 years
i
Dietary Stomach i
Polypeptides i
Intestine i
Amino Bl pod Body
protein Dipeptides acids = ~<e+++++ Sema des proteins
(breakdown) Liver: (synthesis)
tissue cell; ex:
pees CO, + H,O + Energy
tig. Fats and
Deamination Stored Carbohydrates
(-NH))
ri anee cae Urea
Fig. 14.5 How the body utilizes protein |
has been consumed. A good rule while planning menus would be to include some
animal protein at each meal instead of concentrating it all in one meal.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS

Many factors affect the protein requirement of an individual such as:
1. Body weight
2. Special physiological needs during
Proteins 205
( Growth
(
(c) Convalescence
(d) Infection and fever
(e) Injury or surgery
3. Adequacy of calorie intake
4. Quality of protein and efficiency of digestion
5. Previous state of nutrition
Body weight The protein requirement is based on a persons ideal body weight.
| Adults require 1 g protein/kg body weight from a mixed diet. The Indian reference
man weighs 60 kg and requires 60 g protein/day and the reference woman weighs ~
50 kg and requires 50 g protein/day from a mixed diet.
Special physiological needs Infants and growing children require additional
protein for synthesis of new cells as compared to adults. They need 1.6-2 g pro-
tein/kg body weight. Whenever new tissue or protein needs to be synthesized, addi-
tional protein greater than the amount needed for maintenance should be
included in the diet. Protein requirement increases during illness or disease as pro-
tein is needed for rebuilding new tissue. In traumatic injury, surgery, burns, and
fever, there is breakdown of tissues, which need to be repaired. Extra physical activ-
ity does not require any additional intake of protein.
Adequacy of calorie intake The diet should contain adequate carbohydrates and
fats to have a protein sparing effect.
Quality of protein and efficiency of digestion The quantity of protein required
will be more if the protein quality is poor. Plant proteins have a lower digestibility.
The method of cooking also affects the availability of protein. Overcooking and
toughening of animal proteins affects digestibility.
Previous state of nutrition Malnourished and underweight individuals require
more protein as compared to healthy individuals.
DIETARY SOURCES
Proteins are present in both plant and animal foods. Animal food sources provide the
highest quality or complete proteins such as eggs, milk and milk products — cheese,
paneer, mawa, milk powder, curds, condensed milk - meat, fish, shell fish, poultry
and organ meats.
Plant Food Sources

Pulses, especially soya bean (43% protein) and its products such as soya milk, tofu,
textured vegetable proteins; nuts, and oilseeds — groundnut and gingelly seeds are
2 06 Food
206 Food science
Science and
and Nutrition
Nutrition
100 5
90 +
80 + ] B p
Complete
: | @ Partially
ad complete
BN [-] Incomplete
(g)
Protein
content
4
| romther
5B othr)
=| Mier
ae) i
£ iceiotes’
2 oO P| rising
az) GIT
S Stipe=]
S 5 aa) = al =} 3 = Fe ae) 3 i)
By
oO BS = Ax 3
S |
5 oO
°
ajo} )=
bo
4
nN
Food stuff
Fig. 14.6 Protein quality and content of some commonly consumed foodstuffs in g/100g edible portion
important sources of protein in the Indian diet. Cereals contain 6-12% partially
complete proteins and as they form the bulk of the diet, they contribute significantly
to the protein content. Vegetables, with the exception of peas and beans, are poor
sources of proteins. Green leafy vegetables contain a small percentage of good
quality protein (approximately 1-3%). Fruits do not contribute towards the protein
content of the diet. A
EFFECT OF DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS

A reduced protein intake over a prolonged period of time leads to loss of weight,
fatigue, anaemia, nutritional oedema, lowered resistance to infection, and poor
healing of wounds. Protein deficiency is more marked during periods when protein
needs are more, e.g., during infancy, childhood, pregnancy, and lactation. The defi-
ciency occurs when an individual does not eat enough proteins or obtains insuffi-
cient calories. Protein calorie malnutrition (PCM) is common in pre-school children
in developing countries and manifests itself in the form of kwashiorkor, a deficiency
of protein or marasmus, a deficiency of calories as well as proteins, which is equiv-
alent to starvation in adults.
Protein deficiency is also seen in people who follow a crash diet for weight loss.
It can be prevented by including correct mixture of inexpensive protein-rich foods
in the diet.
An excessive intake of protein is not beneficial to health. When the diet provides
more protein than what is necessary for body building, repair, and regulatory
functions, the excess protein is used as energy or converted to fat and stored in the
adipose tissue in the body.
Proteins 207
A high protein intake has many disadvantages.

1. Once the body needs have been taken care of, the excess protein is deami-
nated by the liver and urea is synthesized. The kidneys have to work more to
excrete the additional amount of urea. A high protein intake is an unneces-
sary burden on two vital organs, i.e., the liver and the kidneys. If these organs
are diseased, toxic wastes tend to accumulate in the body.
2. When animal proteins such as meat, poultry, and whole milk products form
a substantial part of the high-protein diet, there is a risk of high blood levels
of cholesterol.
3. A high intake of protein increases the loss of calcium through the urine.
4. Protein-rich foods are much costlier, are in short supply, and are not an econo-
mical source of energy.
SSS
SSS SSS SSF
SUMMARY
Proteins are important constituents of all living cells and are made up of units called
amino acids. Proteins differ from one another because of the different kinds and
amounts of amino acids of which they are composed. Amino acids are classified as
essential and non-essential. Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the
body in required amounts. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body
and must be included in the diet. The quality of any protein depends upon the
essential amino acids present. On the basis of quality, proteins are classified as com-
plete, partially complete, and incomplete. Animal proteins except gelatin are com-
plete proteins while plant proteins are partially complete proteins. The quality of
plant proteins can be improved when several plant foods are combined together or
small quantities of animal proteins are included in each meal. For tissue synthesis to
take place all essential amino acids should be present at the same time.
Proteins perform three basic functions, namely the structural function of body
building and repair, the regulatory and protective function, and as a source of energy
when no other source is available.
The chemical digestion of protein begins in the stomach where protein is broken
down to polypeptides. In the intestine, polypeptides are further broken down into
dipeptides and amino acids, which are absorbed into the blood stream and sent to
various tissue cells via the liver.
Proteins are present in abundance both in animal and plant foods such as eggs,
milk, meat, pulses, especially soya beans, groundnuts, and textured vegetable proteins.
Most vegetables and all fruits are poor sources of protein. How much protein an
individual will require depends on many factors such as age, body weight, special
physiological needs, adequacy of calorie intake, quality of protein, and previous
state of nutrition.
An excessive intcke of protein is not beneficial as it increases the burden on two

vital organs, namely the liver and kidneys to metabolize and excrete the wastes aris-
ing from amino acid breakdown. Protein-rich foods are costlier than carbohydrates,
which provide the same number of calories per gram. When the protein intake is
inadequate, protein cannot perform the required functions in the body and a defi-
ciency results. Deficiency symptoms are common in the vulnerable age group in
developing countries. Protein deficiency can be prevented by proper menu planning
and including low-cost plant proteins such as textured vegetable proteins in the diet.
il a UE GALES LUO MP RSE ea AS RS TAS UE SRM LEER TUTE LT STE RTS TES ELE
KEY TERMS
Amino acids They are organic acids that contain an Essential amino acid An amino acid that cannot be
amino group (NH2) and an acid or carboxyl synthesized by our body and needs to be supplied by
group (COOH) attached to the same carbon atom. our diet.
They are the basic units from which proteins are Non-essential amino acid An amino acid that can
built. be synthesized in the body and need not be present
Biological value The percentage of absorbed nitro- in the diet.
gen retained by the body. Peptidases Enzymes that breakdown short polypep-
Collagen The intercellular cementing protein/ tides and dipeptides into amino acids.
structural protein in bone, cartilage, connective tissue, Peptide linkage The linkage between the amino
etc. group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
Deamination The removal of the amino group from another amino acid.
the amino acid by the liver. Proteolytic enzymes Protein-splitting enzymes that
Digestibility The percentage of protein that is reduce proteins to shorter chain polypetides and
dipeptides.
ETRE RS STL SY PEI ES EI H,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql List five cereal pulse combinations, which are popular items in a fast food
restaurant.
How can the protein quality of a vegetarian diet be improved?
List the names of amino acids essential for children. What is the difference
between essential and non-essential amino acids?
Classify proteins on the basis of their quality.
Define the following terms
i Essential amino acid
ii Biological value
List and briefly explain the functions performed by proteins.
List the symptoms of protein deficiency in adults.
Why are proteins called an uneconomical source of energy?
Recollect and list the sources of animal and vegetable proteins, which you
have consumed in your diet yesterday.
Proteins 209
Fill in the blanks

The basic building blocks of proteins are called
Cereals are deficient in amino acid and pulses are deficient in
amino acid
In a protein, the amino acids are linked together by linkages.
The essential amino acid is converted to niacin in the human
body.
The quality of protein depends upon the and _ of amino acids
present in them.
_ Give Scientific Reasons for the Following:

i. Rajmah, kabuli channa, and urad dal are partially complete proteins.
The biological value of dal and rice increases when it is consumed together.
An excessive intake of protein is not beneficial to health.
Even though gelatin is an animal protein, it does not promote growth.
Se An additional intake of protein is required during pregnancy.
° ‘determine how mech anewhet — of fats coneaincluded in our 1 dallydiet
et—
_ know how the body digests, absorbs, and metabolizes fat” | /
° understand thees ofadeficientor excessivea rer oflipids
A i Me ll
INTRODUCTION
\ats and oils belong to a group of compounds called lipids, which are insolu-
ble in water but soluble in fat solvents. Like carbohydrates, they are mainly
. made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They contain much smaller
proportions of oxygen than carbohydrates and larger proportions of carbon and
hydrogen. Hence, they are a more concentrated source of energy providing 27,
times more energy than carbohydrates and proteins.
The lipids of importance to our health are fatty acids, fats, oils, phospholipids
lipoproteins, and sterols.
Lipids 211
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Classification based on Structure
Simple lipids They constitute more than 98% of food and body fats. Simple lipids
are made up of three fatty acids attached to glycerol. They are mixed triglycerides
which means that more than one type of fatty acid is present in the fat, e.g., cooking
oils and butter.
Compound lipids They are fats in which at least one fatty acid is replaced by
carbohydrate, protein, or phosphorous, i.e., they are fats + non-fat molecule, e.g.,
phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoprotein.
Derived lipids They are the breakdown products of fats and include diglycerides,
monoglycerides, glycerol, and fatty acids.
Sterols They are not made up of fatty acids and glycerol but have a benzene ring
structure. These fat-like substances include cholesterol and fat soluble vitamins A,
D, E, and K.
As mentioned in Chapter 6, the basic chemical structure of fats and oils is a
molecule of glycerol to which three fatty acids are attached. Such a fat is called
a simple triglyceride. Triglycerides constitute 90% of all food fats.
H H
|
H—C—OH
|
H—C—O—C—R
i
|
H—C—OH + 3RCOOH ——~ H—C—O—C—R
y, + 3H,0
O
| Fatty acids | VY Water
Tonk He -Siosd eB
H H
Glycerol (CH,OHCHOHCH,OH ) Triglyceride (fat)
Fig. 15.1 Basic chemical structure of fats and oils
R is the carbon chain of varying length ending with methyl group (CH3) and
COOH is the acid group and is a double bond.
FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids consist of chains of carbon atoms with a methyl (CH) group at
one end and a carboxyl (COOH) group at the other end. Fatty acids may
have short chains or they may have long chains (12-22 carbon chains).
They may be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fats have single bonds
between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fats have one or more double
Lipids
a OV>Pa—eOOoooooTT
Simple Compound Derived Sterols
lipids lipids lipids»
(made up of glycerol RGaER Ltt SUES a ‘t Cholesterol VitaminD
+3 fatty acids) Phospholipids Lipoproteins MOG re Ergosterol
Lecithin HDL 7-Dehydrocholesterol
Fats Oils LDL
Butter Groundnut VLDL
Cream Sesame Chylomicrons
Hydrogenated Sunflower
fat Safflower
Suet Rice bran
Lard Olive
Tallow
Fig. 15.2 Classification of lipids based on structure
bonds between the carbon atoms. Fatty acids with two or more double bonds are
called polyunsaturated.
Unsaturated fatty acids are highly reactive to oxygen at the point of unsaturation
and turn rancid. Hydrogen is added at the double bond during hydrogenation of
oils. The more the number of double bonds, the more unstable is the fat.
Food fats are generally a mixture of both types of fatty acids. Natural fats contain
more than one kind of triglyceride molecules. Fats are mixtures of triglyceride mol-
ecules differing in length and in degree of unsaturation of the fatty acid chain. For
example, butter contains thirteen different fatty acids esterified to glycerol.
Both fats and oils are triglycerides but fats have a higher proportion of saturated
fatty acids and are solid at room temperature, while oils have more unsaturated fatty
acids and are liquid at room temperature.
The type of fatty acids present in fat determines the nature of the fat, its flavour,
and other properties such as smoke point and melting point.
eae
a 09To
H H
Single bond Double bond
Fatty acids
Saturated Unsaturated
(no double bonds)
Stearic ‘Monounsaturated ~ Polyunsaturated
Palmitic (1 double bond) (2 or more double bonds)
Myristic Oleic Linoleic
Butyric Linolenic
Arachidonic
Fig. 15.3 Classification of fatty acids
it ns soc Lipids
is 2138
Pe
ile Bale
PeePoset ops Boney
HSH Hehe AH gts Gea ! i i i
Stearic acid C,,H;;COOH Long-chain
saturated fatty acid
G laadlsteat ¢Lissal
Ho-C—¢—C-—-
AnH
Butyric acid C3;H,COOH Short-chain
saturated fatty acid
‘sr
ee tigge r hp bad po
OSH
eee
Hdd oh SH Et Hy Hee JEOCH
8
am
Oleic acid C,7,H3;COOH Monounsaturated

fatty acid
O1AH oH WH, 4H H
HO-C—C-C-c-C_-¢-¢ ¢:
HHH i
Acid group (COOH) Double bond (=) Methyl end (CH3)
Linoleic acid C,7H3;COOH Polyunsaturated fatty acid
(18:2 w 6)
Fig. 15.4 Chemical structure of fatty acids
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Unsaturated fatty acids are of two types — monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
Monounsaturated Fats
Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid and has one double bond. It is found in
groundnut, olive oil, corn oil, etc. They may help lower blood cholesterol levels.
Polyunsaturated Fats
The polyunsaturated fatty acids are those with two or more double bonds. They
include linoleic acid (two double bonds) linolenic acid (three double bonds), and
arachidonic acid (four double bonds). They help in lowering blood cholesterol
levels and prevent atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.
Essential fatty acids Two of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) cannot be
synthesized by the body. They have to be provided in the required amount by our
diet and are called essential fatty acids.
They are linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, and linolenic acid, an omega-3
fatty acid.
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty
acids with the end most double Lond on the third carbon from the methyl end.
Omega (w) is the last letter of the Greek alphabet used by scientists for naming
fatty acids.
18:3 @ 3 is the abbreviation for linolenic acid which is a long chain fatty acid
made up of 18 carbons with three double bonds with the last double bond between
carbons 3 and 4 from the methyl/omega end.
Fish oils are especially rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) which is abbreviated
as 20:5 w 3, i.e., a 20-carbon fatty acid with five double bonds, and the last double
bond is on carbon 3 from the omega end.
Omega-6 fatty acids have the last double bond located on the sixth carbon from
the methyl or omega end. Essential fatty acids linoleic acid (18:2 w 6) and arachi-
donic acid (20:4 w 6) are omega-6 fatty acids. They are present in a number of
foods.
Omega-6 rich oils include safflower, sunflower, cottonseed, corn, sesame, and
groundnut.
Omega-3 rich foods include olive oil, fish oils, mustard oil, soya bean, flax seed,
fenugreek seeds, mackerel, blackgram, rajmah, and green leafy vegetables.
When consumption of omega-6 goes up, need for omega-3 increases. Omega-3
and omega-6 in the correct ratio helps in reducing blood cholesterol levels.
Eating 200-300 g of fish/shellfish per week or 15-20 g of flax seeds daily meets
the RDA (0.5-1.0 g/day of omega-3 fats).
To ensure that the body gets the required amounts of essential fatty acid, a blend
of different oils should be used for cooking.
Oils recommended for cooking:
1. Sesame + mustard
2. Groundnut + mustard:
3. Soya bean + olive
4. Corn + rice bran
Omega-3 fatty acid is an essential part of each and every cell membrane. It helps
in maintaining the cells membrane and prevents free radicals from attacking DNA
in the cell.
Free radicals are O, OH, CO, NO, and NOO.
The percentage of free radicals increase because of the following:
¢ High protein diet
° High fat diet
Lipids 215
e = Stress
¢ Smoking
e Alcohol
An optimum balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is essential for
maintaining good health. They are beneficial for the cardiovascular system, for
inflammatory reactions, and immune response.
In the body, linoleic acid is converted to arachidonic acid which is required for
normal growth, healthy skin, and metabolism of cholesterol. Hence, arachidonic
acid is not an essential fatty acid.
_ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidation. Oxidation is the process
that turns newspaper yellow and cut apples brown. Oxidation leads to degener-
ative changes in our body, i.e., it contributes to the breakdown of body cells as
we age. Antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, and selenium
help protect against free radical damage. They scavenge free radicals and protect
body cells against cancer. They prevent atherosclerosis and coronary artery diseases
(CAD).
The sources of antioxidants are listed below.
1. Vitamin E: Soya oil, sunflower oil, almonds, spinach, and mint
Vitamin C: Amla, guava, green leafy vegetables, all citrus fruit, papaya, toma-
to, cabbage, and capsicum
3. Beta-carotene: All green leafy vegetables, and all yellow, orange, and red
fruits and vegetables
4, Selenium: Whole grains, whole pulses, green leafy vegetables, and cauliflower
5. Non-nutrient antioxidants: Phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and isoflavones
present in beans, cloves, oats, tea, coffee, grapes, turmeric, mustard, red wine,
etc. 2
We need to consume much more than the RDA for antioxidant effect.
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

These are found in animal foods such as meat, butter, cheese, and egg yolk and
in plant foods such as coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter. Hydrogenated fats
used in bakery products and confections have a high percentage of saturated fatty
acids. Stearic acid, palmitic acid, myristic acid, and butyric acid are some of the
saturated fatty acids. A maximum of 10% of our total calories should come from
saturated fats.
Table 15.1 Some saturated fatty acids present in food
Acetic acid
Caproic acid
Caprylic acid
Lauric acid
Myristic acid Coconut, butter
Palmitic acid Palm, soya, sesame, butter, lard, cotton seed
Fie menme
Linoleic acid Safflower, sunflower, cottonseed, corn,
soya bean, groundnut, salmon, tuna
Soya bean, rape seed, sesame, butter
Eicosapentaenoic
acid
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
They are composed of fats, phosphoric acid, and a nitrogenous base, e.g., lecithins
and cephalins. They are required for cell permeability and for the formation of
brain and nervous tissue. They help in transporting fats throughout the body as they
form a part of the lipoproteins.
LIPOPROTEINS
They include chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density
lipoproteins (LDL), and high density lipoproteins (HDL). They are composed of
lipids (triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids) and proteins in varying
proportions with percentage of proteins being least in chylomicrons and most in
high density lipoproteins (HDL). Lipoproteins are required for transporting triglyc-
erides to various tissues in the body via blood circulation. Triglycerides are encased
by a covering of water soluble proteins which helps them to circulate in water-based
blood. These lipid-protein complexes are called lipoproteins.
Since low density lipoproteins are the main carriers of cholesterol, an increase
in LDL increases the risk of heart disease. High density lipoproteins help in low-
ering cholesterol levels. An LDL/HDL ratio of less than 3 is desirable.
GLYCOLIPIDS
They contain glucose or galactose in place of one of the fatty acids in the triglyc-
eride molecule.
Table 15.3. Percentage of fat in some Indian foods
:
rngectnwes fos Turmeric
Fruits
Mackarel
Oil/vanaspati 100
CHOLESTEROL
It is a fat-like substance present in food. It is different in structure from triglycerides,
as it has a ring structure. It is present in all cells of the body and in large amounts
in brain and nerve tissue. Cholesterol if consumed in excess is responsible for diseases
of the cardiovascular system. The normal blood cholesterol level for adults should
be below 200 mg/100 ml blood.
The human body gets cholesterol from two sources:
1. Synthesis in the liver
9. Food rich in cholesterol.
If the diet is deficient in cholesterol, the body can synthesize the required cho-
lesterol.
The functions of cholesterol are listed below.
1. Cholesterol is a precursor of all steroid hormones, e.g., sex hormones.

9. A precursor of vitamin D, 7-dehydrocholesterol is present in the skin which
is irradiated by UV rays of sunlight to form vitamin D.
3. It is required for formation of bile.
4, It is an essential constituent of cell membranes.
Sources
Cholesterol is present in animal foods only. Whole milk, butter, ghee, cream, egg
yolk, organ meats, and shellfish are rich sources.
It is also synthesized by the body independent of the dietary intake.
FUNCTIONS OF FATS
Energy Fats are a concentrated source of energy in our diet. One gram of fat/oil
gives nine kilocalories when it is oxidized in the body. All tissues except those of
the central nervous system and brain can utilize fat as a source of energy.
Protein sparing action ‘The kilocalories from fat spare dietary proteins from being
oxidized for energy. An adequate intake of fat in the diet allows proteins to perform
their main functions of growth and maintenance.
Thermal insulation Subcutaneous fat acts as an insulation and helps in retaining
body heat.
Protection of vital organs Fat provides a protective padding to vital organs from
mechanical shock and keeps them in place.
Absorption of fat soluble vitamins Fat is necessary for the absorption of fat solu-
ble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Lipids 249
Essential fatty acids An adequate intake of fats/oils is necessary to meet the
body’s requirements for linoleic and linolenic acids.
Satiety value Fats slow down the secretion of gastric juice and speed of digestion.
Food is more flavoursome because of volatile essential oils naturally present and
fats used for cooking. A well cooked meal containing fats is more satisfying than a
meal devoid of fats.
Synthesis of cell membranes Fats are an important constituent of all cell mem-
branes.
Synthesis of hormones The lipid cholesterol is necessary for the synthesis of some
j
: hormones, e.g., sex hormones.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND METABOLISM OF FATS

The fats and oils consumed in the diet need to be broken down into their constituent
components, namely glycerol and fatty acids, before they can be utilized by the
body.
Digestion
No chemical digestion takes place in the mouth. Fat is broken into smaller particles
by chewing and is mixed with saliva.
In the stomach, peristaltic movements churn the food along with the gastric juice.
Two enzymes help in digesting fats, namely, gastric lipase in the gastric juice and
pancreatic lipase from the pancreas which acts in the small intestine. For fats to be
digested, they first need to be emulsified. Gastric lipase acts on emulsified butterfat,
and the main digestion of fats begins in the small intestine.
The presence of fats in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of bile from the
gall bladder. Bile acts as an emulsifier and breaks down large fat globules into smaller
particles. This increases the total surface area of fat and increases the efficiency of
enzyme action. The alkaline nature of bile helps pancreatic lipase to remove fatty
acids fromthe triglyceride, converting them to diglycerides and monoglycerides
and finally to fatty acids and glycerol.
The final products of fat digestion to be absorbed are fatty acids, glycerol, mono-
glycerides, and diglycerides. Some remaining fat which is undigested may be
excreted through the faeces.
Absorption
Since fats are insoluble in water, they cannot be directly absorbed into the intestines
and blood stream without making them absorbable. Bile helps in absorption of fat
by forming a complex with fatty acids and glycerides which is absorbed by the
Mouth
——+» Salivary
a glands
—-+- Oesophagus
From lymph
Chylomicrons
enter blood
circulation
[Liver 4 Gastric lipase
action begins
Bile gr Stomach
Presence of fat ! VQ
stimulates bile Pancreatic lipase converts
secretion which triglyceride to mono- and
emulsifies fat diglycerides, fatty acids, glycerol
Absorbed into
lymphatic circulation
as chylomicrons Enteric lipase breaks mono- and
diglycerides into fatty acids
and glycerol
Undigested fat
excreted in faeces
Fig. 15.5 Digestion and absorption of lipids
intestinal wall. Once absorbed, bile separates and returns to the intestine to recom-
bine with fatty acids and glycerides and the process continues.
Metabolism
In the intestinal wall two important reactions take place.
1. The enzyme enteric lipase breaks down the remaining mono- and diglycerides
into fatty acids and glycerol.
2. The fatty acids and glycerol recombine to form new body fats or newly
formed triglycerides which need to be absorbed and transported via the
blood circulation. The newly formed triglycerides and fats are covered with
small amounts of protein to form lipoproteins called chylomicrons.
Lipids 221
Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation from lymph vessels in
the
small intestine. From the lymphatic system they enter into the portal
circula-
tion and are converted into other lipoproteins in the liver. These lipopro
teins
are circulated to all body cells for energy and other structural function
s, or
stored in the adipose tissue as a reserve source of energy.
FOOD SOURCES
Most foods except the bread cereal group and the vegetable fruit group (except
olives and avocado) contain varying percentages of lipids. Some fats are visible such
as fats and oils added to food or used for frying. Many sources are hidden or invis-
ible such as the fats and oils naturally present in the food , e.g., milk, egg yolk, oily
fish, and meat. Both visible and invisible sources must be taken into account while
calculating the fat content of a meal.
Plant Sources
All oils and oilseeds like groundnut, sesame, soya bean, rice bran, coconut, almond,
cashewnut, corn, safflower, sunflower etc. and all hydrogenated fats and margarine
are sources of lipids.
Animal Sources
Table 15.4 Approximate cholesterol content of some common foods (per 100 g edible portion).
eS a CaN
Beef tallow 109
‘Mawa-based sweets 65
Egg white (1 egg) 0
Egg Yolk (1 egg) 252

Mutton, pork, fish, poultry, milk, and milk products such as butter, cream, yoghurt,
cheese, eggs, and organ meats.
Invisible Sources
Invisible sources of fats are nuts, salad dressings, flesh food, desserts, cookies, cakes,
milk, eggs, milk-based sweetmeats, etc., which are rich in fat, but the fat is not visible.
DEFICIENCY OF FATS
A deficiency of fat causes a deficiency of essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic
acids, and subsequently a deficiency of arachidonic acid. These polyunsaturated fatty
acids are required for healthy cell membranes and their permeability. A deficiency
results in characteristic eczema and skin lesions. It is seen in infants as dry scaly
lesions on the skin. Toad skin or dry papules are seen on upper limbs.
A deficiency of fat may result in a deficiency of fat soluble vitamins, and growth
and weight may be affected in children.
Since fat is present in minute quantities in almost all foods including cereals and
pulses, a deficiency in adults is unlikely because these foods are consumed in largé
quantities. What is of greater concern today is the problems related to excessive intake.
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESSIVE INTAKE

The percentage consumption of fat varies widely in different regions and in different
income groups. In oriental diets the percentage of fat is 10%, while in the United
States approximately 40% of the total calories come from fat. The percentage con-
sumption increases directly with incomes, and today it is a major problem faced in
urban areas and changing lifestyles.
Excess intake of fat causes obesity because more kilocalories are consumed than
required by the body. Excess fat is stored in the adipose tissue. Excessive con-
sumption of saturated fats can elevate blood cholesterol levels. A high intake of sat-
urated fats and cholesterol are predisposing factors for cardiovascular diseases,
while foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids have a protective effect.
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES

Fats should contribute not more than 30% of the total kcalories. Kcalories from
saturated fat should not exceed 10% of total calories and at least 10% calories
should be provided by PUFA to ensure an adequate intake of essential fatty acids.
The correct ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids should be maintained. The
cholesterol intake should not exceed 200 mg/day. A variety of cooking oils should
be used everyday to ensure consumption of all essential fatty acids. Nonvegetarians
Lipids 223
should eat groundnut, corn, soya, and olive oil throughout the year, while for fish
eaters a mixture of safflower and sunflower oil is adequate. Rice bran oil and corn
oil is recommended for vegetarians.
The fat content of the diet can be reduced by following simple measures, such as:
Use skim/cow’s milk and its products
Select lean meat and trim off visible fat
Steam, boil, or poach food instead of frying
Avoid salad dressing or use low fat dressing
Select fruit for dessert instead of baked puddings and pastries
For flavour add herbs, spices, and lime juice instead of fats
a Dry powdered chutnies of flax and niger seeds are rich in essential fatty
rane
Oo
ae
acids, and are a good substitute for oil-based pickles.
SSS
SSS ILO SS ILM ST LLL FLUTES TTL TPES UTI SST LLM GOSS SSE SUM SPLEEN IT RSIS
Fats, oils, and fat-like substances belong to a group collectively known as lipids. Lipids
of importance in human nutrition include simple fats and oils such as butter, cooking
oils, phospholipids, lipoproteins, and cholesterol. Simple fats which constitute 98% of
dietary fats are made up of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules. Food fats or triglyc-
erides are mixed triglycerides with saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Two fatty acids which are polyunsaturated, namely linoleic and linolenic
acid, are essential as they cannot be synthesized by the body and must be present in
the diet. They belong to omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids which are essential for main-
taining the integrity of cell membranes and lowering blood cholesterol levels.
Depending on whether saturated or unsaturated fatty acids are present, the fat is
solid or liquid at room temperature. Different foods contain different percentages of
fat. Cereals, pulses, fruits, and vegetables are low in fat, but yet make a significant
contribution because they are consumed in fairly large quantities in the Indian diet.
Fats are a major source of calories providing 9 kcal per gram of fat/oil. They help in
absorption 6f fat soluble vitamins and provide thermal insulation and protection to
vital organs. A deficiency of fat leads to a deficiency of essential fatty acids which
manifests itself as eczema in children. Polyunsaturated fatty acids help lower blood
cholesterol levels. Hence, a mixture of oils is preferable to using only one type of oil.
An excessive consumption of saturated fats leads to raised levels of blood cho-
lesterol, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases. Excess fats are converted to
adipose tissue and stored as body fat which is a reserve source of energy for the
body. A 20% or more rise in body weight leads to obesity. The diet should not
exceed more than 30% of total calories from fat of which less than 10% should be
saturated and at least 10% should be polyunsaturated.
pW EI ALES TEL GE TLE TL ELE LEE MULTE LL TEER TET ETL
KEY TERMS
Adipose tissue It is a fatty tissue. Essential fatty acid The fatty acid linoleic acid and
Arachidonic acid A 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty linolenic acid which cannot be synthesized by the
acid with four double bonds. In the body it is syn- body and should be supplied by the diet. It serves as
thesized from essential fatty acid linoleic acid. a precursor for arachidonic acid.
Atherosclerosis A condition of narrowing of the Ester Compound formed when an acid reacts with an
lumen of the arteries due to deposition of cholesterol alcohol. Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and fatty
and other material and hardening of arterial walls. acids.
Bile Greenish yellow brown alkaline secretion of the Glycerides Group name given to mono-, di-, and
liver which is stored in the gall biadder and is needed triglycerides meaning fats and oils found in adipose
for digestion of fat. It is composed of bile salts, tissue and plant and animal foods.
cholesterol, etc. Lipoproteins Compound lipids made up of lipid and
Chylomicrons Lipoprotein complexes of very fine protein present in four forms, namely, chylomicrons,
droplets of fat covered with a protein casing so that very low density lipoproteins, low density lipoproteins,
they can be transported through the intestinal wall and high density lipoproteins. Form in which trigly-
into lymphatic circulation, giving lymph a milky white cerides, cholesterol, and other fats are transported in
appearance. water-based blood.
Cocoa butter A yellowish white fat prepared from Lymphatic system All vessels and structures that
cacao seeds (cocoa beans). carry lymph from the tissues to the blood.
Coronary heart disease A disease resulting in a Mixed triglycerides Triglyceridesin which all three
reduction or stoppage of blood supply to part of the fatty acids attached to glycerol are different.
heart muscles due to narrowing or blockages in a Obesity A condition of overweight in which
blood vessel. weight exceeds more than 20% of desirable body
weight.
Eczema _A skin disorder with inflammation and dry
scaly lesions seen in essential fatty acid deficiency. Omega-3 fatty acids Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
Erucic acid Monounsaturated fatty acid present in acids with the first double bond between carbons 3 and
rape seed/mustard seed. Amount used in hydrogenated 4 from the omega or methyl end (omega means last).
fat is limited as it is known to damage heart muscle in Portal vein The vein carrying blood from the wall of
experimental animals. Low erucic acid varieties are the intestine to the liver.
being developed.
EER PL RE AI ES ETL TSE LE ERE UM RU SSE ER SPA OSS ER A GER eR
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1 Differentiate between
i Fats and oils
ii Monounsaturated and poyunsaturated fats
iii Omega-3 and omega-6 fats
iv Visible and hidden fats
Q2 Fill in the blanks
i Simple fats are made up of and
ii Fats supply times the energy as compared to carbohydrates.
Lipids 225
iifate Cholesterol is present in foods of origin only.

The body obtains cholesterol from sources and from Sin
the body.
The secretion of the liver is essential for digestion and absorption
of fats.
How do saturated fats differ from unsaturated fats?
List five important functions of fat in the body.
Which of the following are rich sources of cholesterol:
Hydrogenated fat vy Mutton
Prawns vi Coconut oil
Egg white vii Processed cheese
Organ meats viii Palm oil
Explain the following:
Role of compound lipids in the body
Consequences of excessive consumption of fat
i Digestion of fats
Role of antioxidants
Why is a mixture of oils recommended for daily consumption?
Explain giving suitable examples.
Suggest five simple measures to reduce the fat intake in your daily diet.
INTRODUCTION i
#|
ater is so familiar and so large a constituent of the body that its funda-
mental importance in both structure and functioning of all tissues tends
to be overlooked. |
Water is the most essential constituent of our body. It accounts for 55-70% of
our total body weight. Men have a higher proportion of water in their body as
compared to women. Lean individuals have more water than the obese, and infants
and children have a greater proportion of water than adults.
The total body fluid is distributed among two major compartments.
1. The extracellular fluid or water present outside the cells in the interstitial
spaces and blood plasma.
2. The intracellular fluid or the water present inside the cells.
Water 227
Considering an average of 60% of body weight contributed by water, an adult

weighing 70 kg has a total body water of 42 litres of which 28 litres is intracellu-
lar and 14 litres is extracellular. Of the 14 litres, 11 litres is present as interstitial fluid |
and 3 litres as plasma. Water present in the body is never plain water but has
electrolytes dissolved in it. Similarly, when the body loses water, it loses electrolytes .
as well.
Sodium is the principal electrolyte of the extracellular fluid while potassium is
predominant in the intracellular spaces. The normal concentration of ions in the
intracellular and extracellular fluids needs to be maintained at all timteg. This con-
centration of ions is preserved by a balance between the intake of water and the
output or loss of body water.
FUNCTIONS
1. Water quenches thirst and is the most refreshing and cooling of all liquids.
2. It is a structural component of all cells. In the bone, water is tightly bound,
but in most tissues, a constant interchange takes place between the body com-
partments of water.
3. Water is the medium in which all chemical reactions take place.
4. It is an essential component of all body fluids such as blood, lymph, cere-
brospinal fluid, bile, digestive juices, and urine.
5. It acts asa lubricant and helps food to be swallowed and digested food to pass
through the gastro intestinal tract. aly
6. It acts as a solvent for the products of digestion and helps in transporting
these products to different tissues.
7. Water regulates body temperature by taking up and distributing heat pro-
duced in cells when metabolic reactions take place.
8. It helps in excreting waste products of metabolic reactions.
9. Water is essential to maintain the turgidity of cells.
_ DAILY INTAKE OF WATER

Apart from the water we drink during the day to relieve thirst between and during |
meals, there are three major sources of water.
Beverages and liquid foods Hot and cold beverages such as tea, coffee, milk ©
shakes, fruit juices, and soups are largely made up of water. Both stimulating bever-
ages and refreshing beverages are important sources of water and nutrients.
Water content of solid foods Another important source of water is fruits, veg-
etables, and the water used for cooking food. Solid foods contain varying percent-
ages of water.
228 Food Science andNutrition
The water consumed from beverages and solid food amounts to 2,100 mlday
approximately.
Metabolic water It is synthesized in the body as a Sai of oxidation of fat, pro-

teins, and carbohydrates, adding to about 200 ml/day.
Oxidation of 100 g fat_ ~————> 107 ml water
100 g protein ————» 4] mi water
100 g carbohydrate ———> 56 ml water
The intake of fluid varies among different people and also varies according to the
climate, habits, and physical activity on a day-to-day basis.
DAILY LOSS OF BODY WATER

Insensible water loss It is the loss of water we are not consciously aware of
even though it occurs continuously in all living beings. It includes
(a) continuous loss of fluid by evaporation from the skin, which occurs inde-
pendently of sweating (this loss by diffusion through the skin is about
300-400 ml/day), and
(b) insensible water loss through the respiratory tract, which is about 300-400
ml/day (this loss of water is greater in cold weather).
Water loss through sweat The extent of water loss through perspiration or
sweat largely depends on physical activity and environmental temperature. The vol-
ume of sweat secreted is normally about 100 mlMday but could increase to a few litres
in very hot weather or during heavy exercise.
Water loss in urine This is the most important mechanism by which the body
maintains a balance between fluid intake and output as well as electrolyte home-
ostasis. Urine volume can be as low as 0.5 litre/day in a dehydrated person or as
high as 20 litres/day in a person who has been drinking tremendous amount of
fluid.
The rate of filtration of water in the normal kidney is about 125 ml/minute or
approximately 180 litres daily for an adult. About 99% of the water filtered is re-.
absorbed into the blood while 500—2,000 ml is excreted as urine.
Water loss in faeces Only a small amount of water (100 ml/May) is normal-
ly lost in faeces. The saliva, gastrointestinal secretion, and bile may together add to
8 litres or more fluid per day. All but a small proportion of this is re-absorbed in the
gut (large intestine). If thereisdiarrhoea or vomiting, fluid losses may be large and
cause dehydration.
ES ae are Ss te Water 229
Table 16.1 Daily intake and output of water (in ml/day)
Fluids ingested Insensible-skin

From metabolism Insensible-lungs
Sweat
Faeces
Urine
Note Prolonged heavy workout may result in sweat losses as great as 1-5 litres/day accompained by
a reduction in urine output.
WATER BALANCE
Deficiency of Water
Excessive loss of water could take place due to diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, excessive
perspiration, strenuous exercise, and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. It can result in
dehydration. Dehydration can be classified as
mild <5% fluid loss
moderate 5-15% fluid loss
severe 15-20% fluid loss.
A 20% loss of fluid from the body can be fatal.
A dehydrated person feels thirsty, has a dry mouth, sunken and dry eyes, and
may feel restless, irritable, or even lethargic or unconscious in severe cases. The skin
when pinched does not go back quickly. A dehydrated person is usually managed
by Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT). The WHO recommends Oral Rehydration
Salts (ORS) that are to be dissolved in 1 litre of water. This is to be sipped till hydra-
tion returns to normal.
Table 16.2 Oral Rehydration Salts
Oral rehydration salts are most often prescribed in cases of diarrhoea. Glucose
present in ORS enhances the absorption of salt.
Apart from ORS, ORT also includes any of the following.
1. Sugar and salt solution
40 g sucrose + 4 g NaCl in 1 litre of water
2. Rice water with salt
50 g rice + 4 g salt in 1 litre water
3. Dilute salted lassi
4. Plain water, lemon water, coconut water, thin soups, or dal water may also
be given along with ORT.
If vomiting is severe, intravenous fluids such as normal saline (0.9% NaCl) and
dextrose need to be administered. When the body loses fluids, it loses both water
and electrolytes, hence ORS or Dextrose Normal Saline (DNS) is given. Dehydration
cannot be treated by giving pure water only.
Retention of Water
Oedema is the retention of salt and water in the interstitial fluid giving rise to
swelling of the skin. A pit or depression is formed when pressure is applied with the
finger to the swollen skin and this is how oedema is distinguished from swelling.
Water and salt may need to be restricted.
Daily Requirement
A minimum of six to eight glasses of water is recommended to enable the body to
perform optimally and keep one active and refreshed throughout the day. It should
be consumed at regular intervals so that the body is always well hydrated. This
quantity is independent of other fluids consumed.
‘nbs MEE ELE ETRE ETE fT SLIT SLL SST

ELEE TRIER,
SUMMARY
Water is a vital constituent of our body necessary for the structure and functioning
of all cells and tissues in the body. It accounts for 55-70% of our body weight. Body
fluid is distributed as extracellular and intracellular fluids. Intracellular fluid is
present inside the cell while extracellular fluid is present between cells in tissues and
in blood plasma. The concentration of electrolytes in both extracellular and intra-
cellular compartments needs to be maintained at all times.
Apart from the water which we drink, the body gets water from beverages, liquid
and solid foods, and from the oxidation of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in the
body. The body loses water by evaporation through the skin, perspiration, urine,
Water 231
and faeces. The major loss is through the kidneys in the form of urine, by which
toxic metabolites are excreted from the blood.
Water performs many functions in the body and is the medium for all chemical
reactions. It acts as a lubricant, solvent, temperature regulator, and a means of
excreting waste products. It is present in all cells and body fluids and maintains the
turgidity of cells.
Excessive loss of water results in dehydration while accumulation of water in the
extracellular spaces is called oedema. Both cases need to be treated because a loss
of 20% fluid from the body could be fatal. Dehydration is treated by ORT in which
ORS are given gradually.
For optimum health, a minimum intake of six to eight glasses of water is recom-
mended.
SS SSS
SSSSSS SSSR TE LLL IL LTE TIT
KEY TERMS
DNS Dextrose normal saline is an intravenous fluid lon A charged particle.
containing 5% dextrose and 0.9% normal saline. Oedema_ The accumulation of large amount of fluid
Electrolyte A chemical element or compound that in extracellular spaces.
dissociates into ions when in solution. ORS Oral rehydration salts are a mixture of elec-
Homeostasis A state of equilibrium in the body trolytes and glucose used for ORT.
between body parts and functions. ORT Oral rehydration therapy is used for treatment
Interstitial fluid Fluid present in the spaces or inter- of dehydration by orally feeding fluids to which sugar
stices between the cells and tissues in an organ. ple SES
and saltare. added.
mL
_
SRS SEUSS (Sl ATAU TU STPLESY TEED
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Why is water an essential nutrient? Discuss the functions of water.
Q2 List the various ways of water loss from the body.
Q3 What are the major sources of water to our body? Explain, giving suitable
examples.
Q4 List the various conditions which lead to excessive loss of body water.
Q5_ Explain briefly
i Oedema
ii ORT
iii Water balance
INTRODUCTION
“he term vitamin was coined from the words ‘vital amine’ as early scientists
felt these chemicals which are vital for life were amines. Vitamins were dis-
covered one at a time from 1900 to 1950, some asa cure for classic diseases
such as beri-beri, pellagra, and scurvy, while others were discovered after research —
on various body functions. :
Vitamins like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are organic compounds. Unlike ~
these nutrients, vitamins are required in minute quantities and are also called —
micronutrients. They do not provide energy and are present in very small quanti-
ties in food, but nonetheless are vital for life processes. All vitamins can be synthe-_
sized on a commercial scale, though fresh foods are always preferred.
Vitamins 233
Definition Vitamins is the term used for a group of potent organic compounds
other than proteins, carbohydrates, and fats which occur in minute quantities in
food and which are essential for some specific body functions such as regulation,
maintenance, growth, and protection. Many of them cannot be synthesized, at least
in adequate amounts, by the body and must be obtained from the diet.
CLASSIFICATION
Vitamins are grouped according to their solubility in either fat or water.
Fat-soiuble vitamins The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K.
They require fat for their absorption and can be stored in the body. If their intake
is poor, but body stores are ample, deficiency symptoms will not be seen imme-
diately.
Water-soluble vitamins The water-soluble vitamins are B-complex vitamins and

vitamin C. Being water soluble they are easily absorbed and the excess consumed
is excreted in the urine. They are not stored in the body.
Table 17.1 Classification of vitamins
. Vitamin | B-complex
(retinol, retinal, retinoic acid) . Vitamin B,
Precursor — carotenes such as (thiamine)
a-, B-, and y-carotene and _ Vitamin B>
cryptoxanthin (riboflavin)
. Vitamin D . Niacin
(a) D2- activated ergosterol (a) Nicotinic acid
or calciferol (b) Nicotinamide
(b) D3 — activated . Vitamin Be
7-dehydrocholesterol (a) Pyridoxine
or cholecalciferol (b) Pyridoxal
. Vitamin E (tocopherols) (c) Pyridoxamine
(a) a-Tocopherol . Vitamin B42 é
(b) Tocotrienols Cyanocobalamin or
. Vitamin K (quinones) Cobalamin
(a) K, — phylloquinones . Folic acid or folacin
(b) Kz — synthesized by . Pantothenic acid
intestinal bacteria 8. Biotin
(c) K3 — menadione Il Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
(the water soluble
synthetic form)
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin A .
Vitamin A is the generic name given to a group of compounds having vitamin A
activity. These compounds are retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. They are found
only in the fatty phases of foods of animal origin. Plant foods contain yellow, orange,
and/or red coloured pigments called carotene which give colour to vegetables and
fruits. Carotene pigments are converted to vitamin A in the body, i.e., carotene is a
provitamin or precursor of vitamin A. Carotene is synthesized by plants and is the
ultimate source of all vitamin A.
Pure vitamin A is a pale yellow crystalline compound occuring naturally in the
animal kingdom. It is soluble in fat, insoluble in water, and relatively stable to heat,
acids, and alkalis. It is easily oxidized and rapidly destroyed by UV rays.
Functions Vitamin A performs the following functions.
1. Vitamin A maintains normal vision in dim light. Rhodopsin or visual purple
is present in the retina of the eye. It is required for vision in dim light. It is
formed when vitamin A combines with protein opsin. In bright light
rhodopsin absorbs light and breaks down into protein opsin and retinal.
Every time rhodopsin breaks down, some retinal is lost.
In dim light or darkness, retinal and opsin recombine rapidly to form
rhodopsin provided there is an adequate supply of vitamin A. If there is a
deficiency of vitamin A, the regeneration is slow and the person’s eyes fail to
adapt to changes in light.
2. It helps in synthesis and maintenance of healthy epithelium - outermost
lining of skin and innermost lining of mucous membranes of respiratory,
gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tract. Epithelial glands secrete mucous
that lubricates the lining of the eyes, respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, etc.
Rhodopsin
(visual purple in the retina)
Light Dim light
Retinal + Opsin
t
Some loss occurs
on breakdown
Fig. 17.1 Role of vitamin A in vision

Vitamins 235
3. Vitamin A is required for normal bone and tooth development, and proper
growth.
4. It helps the body to fight against infections by keeping mucous membranes
in a healthy condition which act as a barrier to infection.
Deficiency If the body has sufficient stores, deficiency does not develop at once.
Night blindness or nyctalopia It is one of the earliest signs of vitamin A deficiency.
In this condition, an individual is unable to see well in dim light, especially after
coming from a brightly lit area. This happens because there is insufficient vitamin
A to bring about quick formation of rhodopsin.
Epithelial changes The epithelium becomes dry, scaly, and rough. Goose pimples
are seen on upper forearms and thighs.
Changes in the eyes are:
(a) Secretion of tears decreases

(b) Eye ball becomes dry and lustreless
(c) Bitot spots (pigmented spots) are seen on conjunctiva
(d) Photophobia or sensitivity to bright light is observed
(e) Xeropthalmia - cornea becomes dry and inflammed. If not treated it leads
to keratomalacia.
(f) Keratomalacia or softening of the cornea and permanent blindness results.
Bone development Growth failure and stunted bones are seen in children.
Hypervitaminosis A High doses of vitamin A is not recommended as excess is
stored in the liver. This excessive accumulation of vitamin A in the body is toxic.
Symptoms of toxicity are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, loss of hair, thickening
of long bones, and joint pain.
Sources Animal foods such as whole milk and milk products, egg yolk, oily fish,
fish-liver oils, organ meats, butter, cream, and clarified butter or pure ghee are
rich sources.
Sources of carotene All yellow, orange, and red fruits and vegetables such as car-
rots, pumpkin, mango, papaya, peaches, and apricots, and all green leafy vegetables
such as fenugreek leaves, spinach, colocasia leaves, amaranth, curry leaves, and
turnip greens are rich sources of provitamin A.
Requirement An adult requires 600 pg of retinol or 2,400 ug of B-carotene
per day; 4 pg of B-carotene is converted to | jig of retinol in the intestinal wall
and liver.
Vitamin D
It is a fat-soluble vitamin. The two important forms are vitamin D» (activated ergos-
terol or calciferol) and vitamin Ds (activated 7- dehydrocholesterol or cholecalciferol).
Vitamin D3 is produced when 7- dehydrocholesterol in the skin is exposed to the
UV rays in the sun. Vitamin D differs from other fat-soluble vitamins because it is
synthesized in the body, and we do not depend on our diet for it. Being fat soluble
it requires fat for its absorption.
Functions
1. Absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the small intestine requires the
presence of vitamin D and the hormones of the parathyroid and thyroid gland.
2. Mineralization of bones and teeth — after calcium and phosphorus is absorbed,
vitamin D is required to ensure that these minerals are deposited in bones and
teeth to strengthen them.
3. Regulation of calcium and phosphorus levels in blood.
Sources Sunlight is the main source of vitamin D. The precursor in skin is converted
to active vitamin D3. Barriers such as clothing, soot, fog, window glass, and melanin
(pigment in the skin) interfere with synthesis of vitamin D. Sunscreen lotions with.
high SPF also prevent vitamin D formation.
It is found in fish liver oils, fortified milk, vanaspati, and margarine. Natural foods
such as butter, milk, and fish have it in small amounts.
Hypervitaminosis D Large doses of vitamin D can be toxic. Excessive use of forti- _
fied foods lead to loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhoea, growth failure, and calcifica-__ |
tion of soft tissues and kidney stones.
Deficiency Vitamin D deficiency leads to lowered absorption of calcium, low
serum levels of calcium, and reduced bone mineralization. Bones cannot withstand
the weight and bend into deformities.
Rickets is seen in infants and children especially dark- Khed children. Bones
are soft and yield to pressure. Joints are enlarged and theré is delayed closing of the
skull bones. Symptoms of rickets include enlarged skull, pigeon chest, poor muscle
development, pot belly, and bowed legs or knocked knees.
Osteomalacia or adult rickets is more common in women who consume a diet |
deficient in calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, and have had several pregnan- —
cies. The softening of bones leads to a deformed spine, rheumatic pain in the legs |
and lower back, a waddling gait, and spontaneous fractures.
Vitamin E
|
Vitamin E or tocopherol is a fat-soluble vitamin. It is stable to heat and acids. Itis |
rapidly oxidized in rancid fats. | |
Vitamins 237
Many claims are being made that supplements of this vitamin can prevent or
cure a wide variety of diseases, from reproductive function to skin problems such
as psoriasis and acne, but there is no proof.
Functions Vitamin E is the most potent natural antioxidant found in food.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids form a structural part of all cell membranes. They
are prone to oxidative breakdown by free radicals in the cell. The main func-
tion of vitamin E is to act as an antioxidant. Vitamin E itself gets oxidized and
protects cell membranes from oxidative damage. It performs the following
functions:
1. Prevents oxidation of vitamin A in the intestine
2. Protects normal cell membranes by preventing their breakdown
3. Prevents hemolysis of red blood cells
4, Prevents oxidation of PUFAs.
Sources Vitamin E is widely distributed in foods, particularly vegetable oils (corn,

soya, sunflower, safflower), wheat germ, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and dark
green leafy vegetables.
Deficiency In severe deficiency, although uncommon, increased haemolysis of
red blood cells is seen in premature infants.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is essential in the diet because it is needed for synthesis of prothrombin
and other blood clotting factors. It exists as K (found in plants), Ko (synthesized by
bacteria in the intestinal tract), and K3 (synthetic form). Being fat soluble, it requires
fat and bile salts for efficient absorption.
Functions Vitamin K is required for the formation of prothrombin and several
other proteins involved in clotting of blood. The ability of blood to clot is dependent
upon a high blood level of prothrombin.
Deficiency” A deficiency of vitamin K is uncommon in adults. New born infants
have a sterile intestinal tract, hence they are given a single dose of vitamin K to
prevent haemorrhagic disease.
A deficiency interferes with formation of prothrombinogen and, thus, reduces
clotting tendency of blood. It may occur during diseases of malabsorption, oral use
of sulfa drugs and antibiotics, or certain drugs which are vitamin K antagonists and
can cause haemorrhages.
Sources Bacterial synthesis in the intestinal tract supplies at least half of the daily
needs. Green leafy vegetables, cabbage, cauliflower, and pork liver are excellent
sources. Cheese, egg yolk, and tomato also supply vitamin K.
Table 17.2. Recommended Dietary Allowances and main sources of fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin A Whole milk, butter, egg yolk

(retinol)
or
Provitamin Yellow, orange, and red fruits and vegetables, green leafy
carotene vegetables
Vitamin D Sunlight, fish-liver oils, fortified vanaspati
Vitamin E Vegetable oils, wheat germ, green leafy vegetables
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables, liver, cheese, egg yolk, intestinal flora
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

B-Complex Vitamins
Scientists discovered eleven water-soluble B-complex vitamins of which eight are
considered essential for humans.
They differ from each other in their structure, distribution in foods, stability, and
symptoms that result from their deficiency. They are:
1. Thiamine (vitamin B,)
Riboflavin (vitamin By)
Niacin
Pyridoxine (vitamin Be)
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Folic acid
SON
AAR
WY Cyanocobalamin (vitamin Bj»)
They are all water soluble. :
These eight vitamins are grouped together because their functions are closely
related. The remaining three B-complex vitamins, namely, para-aminobenzoic acid
(PABA), choline, and inositol play an active role in cell metabolism but the diet and
intestinal synthesis can make good this requirement.
The B-complex vitamins which are essential in human nutrition are broadly
grouped into the following categories:
i Classic deficiency disease vitamins
(a) Thiamine Beri-beri

(b) Riboflavin Ariboflavinosis
(c) Niacin Pellagra
Vitamins 239
2. Anaemia preventing vitamins
(a) Pyridoxine Hypochromic anaemia

(b) Folic acid Macrocytic anaemia
(c) Cyanocobalamin Pernicious anaemia
3. Recently discovered coenzyme factors
(a) Pantothenic acid

(b) Biotin
Thiamine (vitamin B,;) Thiamine performs the following functions:

1. Thiamine functions mainly as a co-enzyme, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP),
which is required in the breakdown of glucose to yield energy.
2. It helps to maintain a healthy nervous system.
3. It is required for normal appetite and digestion.
Daily requirement of thiamine is 0.5 mg/1,000 kcal. Thus, an adult who needs
3,000 calories would require 1.5 mg of vitamin B, per day.
Sources Foods rich in protein such as pork, liver, pulses, groundnut, and eggs are
good sources. Whole grain and enriched cereals, parboiled rice, unpolished rice,
and sprouted pulses contribute B,. Soya bean is a rich source.
Effect of cooking and processing _B, is easily destroyed by cooking food in neutral
or alkaline medium. Losses are greater when food is cooked at high temperatures,
overcooked, and cooking water discarded.
Deficiency The symptoms of deficiency occur because the tissue cells are unable
to receive sufficient energy from glucose. Therefore, they cannot carry out their
normal functions. The gastrointestinal, nervous, and cardiovascular systems are
specially affected.
Early symptoms of deficiency include fatigue, irritability, depression, poor
appetite, tingling, and numbness of the legs. A severe deficiency causes beri-beri.
Beri-beri is of two types.
1. Dry beri-beri: Polyneuritis or inflammation of the nerves, numbness of
extremities, muscle weakness, and cramps are the main symptoms.
2. Wet beri-beri: Severe oedema, enlargement of the heart, palpitation, and
increase in rate of heart beat are seen in wet beri-beri.
A person may suffer from either type of beri-beri. Beri-beri is also known as ‘rice-
eaters’ disease because it is seen in people whose chief diet consists of polished rice.
Prevention Parboiling rice to retain Bj.
240
240 Food science
Food Science and
and Nutrition
NUUIUIOM
Riboflavin (vitamin B) Riboflavin performs the following functions:

1. As aco-enzyme, just like B, is a vital factor in carbohydrate metabolism, —
By is vital is protein metabolism.
2. Asaco-enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism, By is a constituent of co-enzymes
flavin mono nucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
Daily requirement is 0.55 mg/1,000 kcalories.
Sources Milk and cheese are rich in By. Organ meats, eggs, dark green leafy
vegetables, and enriched cereal foods.
Effect of cooking and processing By is sensitive to light. If milk is kept in clear

glass bottles, ah of By is lost in a short time. Cooking in open containers and in
excess water is harmful.
Deficiency
1. Swelling of lips with cheilosis
2. Cracks in the skin at the corners of the lip, i.e., angular stomatitis
3. Redness and swelling of the tongue or glossitis
4, Eyes look bloodshot, eye fatigue, itching, burning, watering, and sensitivity
to bright light, i.e., photophobia.
Niacin Niacin or nicotinic acid is a vitamin intimately connected with several

metabolic reactions it takes part in as a component.
Functions Like B,; and By, niacin is also required for enzymes that bring about
breakdown of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids to yield energy, i.e., for release
of energy from food.
1. As a constituent of two co-enzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), to release
energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
2. For a healthy skin, normal gastrointestinal tract, and maintenance of the
nervous system. ;
Because this vitamin takes part in many reactions of energy metabolism in the
breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, its requirement is related to calorie
intake (6.6 mg/1,000 kilocalories). Although milk is not a good source of niacin it con-
tains essential amino acid tryptophan which is converted to niacin in the body.
60 mg tryptophan aa a? 1 mg niacin
6
Sources Protein rich foods such as poultry, fish, meat, groundnut, beans, and peas
are good sources. Grains are fair sources except maize and rice, green leafy vegetables,
Vitamins 241
potatoes, milk, eggs, and cheese are poor sources of preformed niacin but rich
sources of tryptophan.
Effect of cooking and processing It is most stable of all B-complex vitamins. Fairly
stable to heat, acid, alkali, light, oxidation, and autoclaving.
Deficiency It is seen in low-protein or maize-based diets. Pellagra, which means

rough skin, is characterized by four D’s - diarrhoea, dermatitis, dementia, and
death. Deficiency begins with weakness, headache, loss of appetite and weight, and
a sore and swollen tongue. Dermatitis is symmetrical and on exposed parts of the
body — forearms, legs, and hands and is aggravated by sunlight.
Dementia or depression, confusion, poor memory, delirium, and hallucinations
occur in severe deficiency. Without treatment it results in death.
Anaemia-preventing Vitamins
Folic acid, vitamin Bj, and vitamin Bg help in the formation of either red blood
corpuscles (RBCs) or haemoglobin and help in preventing anaemia.
Folic acid or folacin Derives its name from Latin word ‘folium’ which means leaf.
Sources Liver, kidney, green leafy vegetables, whole pulses, and yeast, and in fer-
mented food such as idli, dhokla, and dosa. Some bacteria present in the intestinal
tract are capable of synthesizing the vitamin.
Functions In order to perform its functions, folic acid needs to be converted into
its active form. Vitamin C is needed for this conversion.
Inactive folic acid Vit. C Active folic acid
It is a component of specific enzymes required for formation of DNA and haeme

in the RBCs. By is required along with folic acid for maturation of RBCs.
Deficiency Deficiency results in megaloblastic anaemia which is common in
underdeveloped countries, among the vulnerable age group. In folic acid defi-
ciency, the bone marrow releases large nucleated cells into the circulation. The
anaemia is a macrocytic, megaloblastic anaemia. Megaloblasts are large nucleat-
ed cells or immature RBCs. Other symptoms are weakness, loss of weight, pallor,
and glossitis. Haemoglobin level may fall as low as 2-4 g/100 ml and blood
transfusion may be needed. Normal Hb level is 11.5-14.5 g for women and
12.5-16.5 g % for adult men.
Cyanocobalamin (vitamin B,2) It is found only in foods of animal origin. Liver,

kidney, milk, eggs, and cheese are good sources. Small amounts of animal protein
in the diet take care of By requirement.
Functions
1. It helps folic acid in the synthesis and maturation of RBCs.

2. It is essential for formation of myelin sheath around nerve fibres.
Absorption Vitamin By) is absorbed only if a glycoprotein known as ‘intrinsic factor’

is present in gastric juice.
Deficiency Vitamin By» deficiency results either in megaloblastic anaemia or in per-

nicious anaemia. The latter is more common and is serious. Megaloblastic anaemia is
seen in strict vegetarians who do not consume milk. It is because of a dietary deficien-
cy of By.
Pernicious anaemia occurs due to absence of intrinsic factor in the person’s gastric
juice. So, even if diet provides enough By, it will not be absorbed.
Symptoms ‘The person appears well nourished with respect to body weight. Skin
and eyes are pale, tongue is raw and red, and mouth ulcers are present. There is
numbness, tingling sensation, and a feeling of pins and needles in the fingers, as
nervous system is affected. Haemoglobin level is low and megaloblasts appear in
blood. Treatment of pernicious anaemia involves injections of By) throughout life
as oral doses cannot be absorbed due to lack of intrinsic factor.
Pyridoxine (vitamin Bs) Liver, kidney, meat, whole grain cereals, soya beans, and
groundnuts are sources of pyridoxine.
Functions
Essential for synthesis and breakdown of amino acids

Helps in conversion of tryptophan to niacin
Conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid
Needed for synthesis of haeme
Le
mee
do
a Production of antibodies.
The requirement increases with an increase in protein content of diet.

Deficiency Anaemia is hypochromic anaemia because Hb is not synthesized for
the red colour of RBCs. Red blood cells are pale in colour. Soreness of tongue,
depression, and sleepiness are other symptoms. Deficiency occurs along with other
nutrient deficiencies, e.g., PCM and B-complex deficiency.
Pantothenacid
ic and biotin They are both co-enzymes required for release of ener-
gy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Biotin is synthesized in the intestinal tract. Both
vitamins are widely present in foods and deficiency is rare in normal circumstances.
Egg white contains a protein avidin that interferes with absorption of biotin
from the intestinal tract. Only raw egg whites can cause a deficiency as avidin is
Vitamins 243
inactivated when eggs are cooked. Having a few raw egg whites in a week is not
harmful and do not cause a deficiency.
Vitamin C
Vitamin C, also known as the fresh fruit and vegetable vitamin, was discovered as an
acid in lime juice which prevented scurvy among British sailors on long voyages at
sea. It was named ascorbic acid because of its antiscorbutic or antiscurvy properties.
It is highly soluble in water and most easily destroyed as compared to all other
vitamins. It is readily oxidized and destroyed by heat and presence of alkali. It is
lost when food is dehydrated.
Functions
1. Synthesis of collagen which is the intercellular cementing substance that

keeps cells in bone and muscle tissue together
Making haemoglobin by helping in absorption of iron from food
Healing of wounds and fractures
Increasing resistance to infections and fevers
Proper growth during periods of increased need or during rapid growth
oh As an antioxidant, like vitamin E, it prevents the oxidation of vitamin A and
Cw
unsaturated fatty acids.
Deficiency Deprivation of vitamin C results in defective formation of the intercel-

lular cementing substance.
Symptoms
Poor wound healing because collagen is not synthesized
Increased susceptibility to infections
Painful joints and bleeding gums
Skin bruises by slightest injury
TS
ea Severe deficiency causes scurvy. The symptoms are swelling, infection and
bleeding of gums, and anaemia.
Excessive intake The benefits of consuming megadoses of vitamin C to prevent the
common cold and cancer is still controversial. An increased intake beyond the RDA
is advised in certain cases such as surgical cases, infections, and drug therapies, but
benefits of megadoses of 1-5 g daily is still under study.
Sources Fresh citrus fruits such as orange, sweet lime, grape fruit, lemon; other
fruits and vegetables such as guava, amla, cabbage, capsicum, green chillies, green
leafy vegetables, and tomatoes are excellent sources of vitamin C. Cereals and
pulses are poor in vitamin C, but when dry pulses are sprouted ascorbic acid is
Table 17.3. RDA and main sources of water soluble vitamins
Thiamine (B,) 0.5 mg/1,000 kcal Whole grains, pulses,

wheat, groundnuts
Riboflavin (B>) | 0.55 mg/1,000 kcal Milk, eggs, organ meats
Niacin 6.6 mg/1,000 kcal All protein rich

Provitamin — foods — groundnuts, beans, peas,
tryptophan meat, fish
Pyridoxine (Be) 0.6-2.5 mg Wheat, jowar, red gram,

meat, liver, fish, parboiled rice
Pantothenic acid 4-7 mg Milk, egg, intestinal flora
Biotin 30-100 pg Intestinal flora, egg yolk, liver
Folic acid 100 pg Green leafy vegetables,

lentils, intestinal synthesis
Cyanocobalamin 1 ug Milk and milk products,

(By2) egg, meat
Ascorbic acid Fresh fruits and vegetables eaten
(vitamin C) uncooked, citrus fruits;
guava, amla
formed in them. 85% of the vitamin is formed in the grain and 15% in the sprout.
Green gram contains thrice as much vitamin C as compared to bengal gram.
Sprouted pulses are a good alternative to fresh fruits and vegetables during periods
of scarcity. Sprouts can be lightly steamed or consumed raw.
Berries such as zizyphus, strawberries, gooseberries, and cashewfruit are seasonal
rich sources. Amla is the richest source providing 600 mg/ 100g as compared to
oranges which provide 30 mg/100 g, i.e., amla contains 20 times as much vitamin C
as compared to orange. Heating and dehydration reduces the vitamin C content of
all fresh fruits except amla which retains some vitamin C in the preserve.
EFFECT OF COOKING ON VITAMINS

Water-soluble vitamins are more easily lost during cooking and storing food. Losses
occur due to oxidation or exposure to air which is catalysed by enzymes. Blanching
fruits and vegetables, which need to be refrigerated or frozen, destroys the enzymes
and preserves vitamin C. High temperature, prolonged heating, and alkaline medium
favour destruction of vitamins. To retain maximum vitamins in our food, observe the
following rules:
Vitamins 245
1. Select good quality, fresh fruits and vegetables. Stale, wilted, and poor quality
produce may be cheaper, but has lower vitamin content.
2. Always wash fruits and vegetable before peeling or cutting and not afterwards,
as water-soluble vitamins get leached into water and are lost.
3. Cut fruits and vegetables for salads just before they are to be served and store
in a cool place. Keep food covered. This prevents oxidative losses.
Avoid cutting into small pieces as more surface area is exposed.
a Avoid soaking in water as water-soluble vitamins leach out.
6. Cook in minimum quantity water so that extra cooking is not required to dry
up the excess liquid. Use shortest cooking time.
7. Cook ina covered pan, except while cooking greens — cook uncovered for a few
minutes to allow volatile acids to escape which helps in preserving green colour.
8. Do not overcook. Refresh greens and use pot liquor or cooking liquid in
soups, gravies, or for kneading dough.
9. Do not add alkali (soda bicarbonate) to enhance green colour or hasten the
cooking of pulses such as kabuli channa as B-complex and vitamin C are
readily destroyed in an alkaline medium.
10. Store food in a refrigerator, covered with a lid, aluminium foil, or cling film
to retain nutrients.
11. Reheat only what is required. :
12. Pressure cooking helps in retaining vitamins as food is cooked in a covered
container for a shorter time.
13. Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during deep fat frying, if the food to be fried is
not coated prior to frying.
14. Vitamin A and carotene are lost due to oxidation and dehydration.
RAE A AST NAA PO el LM PRE AE
SRDS
SUMMARY
Vitamins are vital organic compounds required by the body to perform specific
functions such as the release of energy from food and other growth related, protective
and regulatory functions. They are required in minute amounts and hence are
categorized as micronutrients. They are broadly classified as fat soluble (vitamin A,
D, E, and K) and water soluble (B-complex and vitamin C) vitamins. Each vitamin
has a specific role to perform and cannot be replaced by another vitamin. Fat-soluble
vitamins require fat for their absorption and can be stored in the body. Water-soluble
vitamins are readily absorbed but are not stored in the body. Excessive intake of
fat-soluble vitamins leads to toxicity or hypervitaminosis.
Vitamin A is present in animal foods orily. Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is
present in yellow, orange, and red fruits and vegetables, and in green leafy vegetables.
We get our requirement of vitamin D from sunlight. The precursor in the skin
246. Food Science and Nutrition
7-dehydrocholesterol is activated by UV rays from sunlight. A deficiency of vitamins

E and K is rarely.seen in adults as both vitamins are wide-spread in nature.
The B-complex vitamins are water soluble and include eight vitamins, namely,
thiamine or By, riboflavin or Bg, niacin, pyridoxine or Bg, folic acid, cyanocobalamine
or By, pantothenic acid, and biotin. They mainly function as co-enzymes in the
release of energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Three B-complex vitamins
are designated ‘anaemia preventing vitamins’ as they are needed for synthesis of
haeme and for the maturation of red blood cells. Apart from the food sources, the
bacterial flora in the intestine are capable of synthesizing vitamins, namely, vitamin
K and B-complex vitamins.
Vitamin C is the most susceptible of all vitamins. It is present in fresh fruits and
vegetables and in sprouted grain. It is destroyed by oxidation, heat, and an alkaline
medium. Proper cooking practices need to be followed if vitamin content of food
has to be retained.
i a ORAS TE
KEY TERMS
Anaemia A condition in which number of RBCs or called megaloblastic anaemia, caused by deficiency
haemoglobin content of blood is reduced. of folic acid and Byp.
Antagonist A substance that interferes with the Neuritis Inflammation of the nerves.
action of another substance. Oedema Retention of fluid in extracellular spaces.
Antioxidant A substance naturally present or added Sodium, the electrolyte in. the extracellular fluid, is
to a product to prevent its breakdown by oxygen. also retained along with water resulting in swelling.
Carotene Reddish orange colour pigment in yellow/ Parboiling Steaming of rice in the husk before
orange/red fruits and vegetables and green leafy milling so that B-complex vitamins diffuse from the
vegetables which include a-, B-, and y-carotenes and husk and bran into the grain.
cryptoxanthin. Pernicious anaemia Chronic macrocytic anaemia
B-Carotene A fat-soluble carotenoid pigment which caused by absence of intrinsic factor needed for
is present in plants and is a precursor of vitamin A. absorption of B,2 accompanied by nervous distur-
Cheilosis Swollen, cracked, and red lips. bances.
Co-enzyme A substance that must be present along Photophobia Abnormal sensitivity to light.
with an enzyme for a specific reaction to occur. Precursor Another term used to describe provitamin.
Collagen Intercellular cementing substances which is Preformed vitamin Active form of the vitamin.
protein matrix of cartilage, connective tissue, and bone. Provitamin A provitamin is a substance which can be
Glossitis Inflammation of the tongue. converted into the active vitamin in the human body.
Hypochromic anaemia Hypo means less and chroma Rhodopsin or visual purple A light sensitive pigment
means colour. A type of anaemia in which RBCs are in the rods of the retina needed for vision in dim light
pale in colour. It is seen in iron and Be deficiency. or for dark adaptation.
Intrinsic factor A mucoprotein in gastric juice which Vulnerable age group The ages when nutrient needs
helps in absorption of vitamin By. are high because of synthesis of new tissues, e.g.,
Macrocytic anaemia Macro means large and cytes infancy, preschool children, adolescents, pregnant,
means cells. A type of anaemia in which large, imma- and lactating women. They are more susceptible to
ture RBCs or megaloblasts are released in blood. Also deficiency diseases.
MRM
Vitamins 247
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1 Define vitamins and classify them.
Q2 Differentiate between water soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
Q3 Explain the following briefly:
i Role of vitamin A in vision
ii Role of vitamin E in maintaining the integrity of cell membranes
iii Role of vitamin K in coagulation
iv B-complex vitamins and energy metabolism
Q4 List the anaemia preventing vitamins and their functions.
Q5 List five rich sources of each of the following vitamins:
i Carotene
ii Niacin
iii Vitamin By»
iv Ascorbic acid
v Vitamin E
Q6 List any ten measures which will help in retaining vitamins while cooking.
Q7 What are the symptoms of the following deficiency diseases
i Beri-beri
ii Pellagra
iii Scurvy
Q8 Match the following items in column I with a suitable answer from column II
Niacin Rice-eaters disease

Vitamin D Lost on exposure to light
Beri-beri Precursor tryptophan
Riboflavin Amla
Ascorbic acid Sunlight
night blindness
9 kcal/g
ineral elements are inorganic substances found in body tissues and fluids.
They occur in foods as salts, e.g., sodium chloride, calcium phosphate,
and ferrous sulfate. They constitute 4% of our body weight.
Unlike carbohydrates, fats, and proteins they do not furnish energy. They have
many functions in our body such as tissue building, regulation of body fluids, and
other functions. Like vitamins, they are required in small quantities and are vital to
the body. They should be supplied daily as they are excreted through the kidney,
the bowel, and the skin.
Minerals are present in the body as
(a) components of organic compounds, e.g., haemoglobin contains iron and
thyroxine contains iodine ;
Minerals 249
(b) as inorganic compounds, e.g., calcium phosphate in the bones

(c) as free ions in every cell in the body and
(d) in all body fluids.
Sodium is the main electrolyte in the extracellular fluid, and potassium is the
main electrolyte in the intracellular fluid.
The mineral elements are not destroyed by heat, oxidation, acid, or alkali. Since they
are soluble in water some loss occurs due to leaching when cooking water is discarded.
Definition
Minerals are inorganic elements required by the body in varying amounts to carry out
various body functions. They remain largely as ash when plant and animal tissues are
ignited.
CLASSIFICATION
Minerals may be classified into three groups.
Major minerals or macrominerals Seven minerals are required in large amounts of
over 100 mg/day, e.g., calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magne-
sium, and sulphur.
Minor minerals These are required in small quantities, less than 100 mg/day, e.g.,
iron and manganese.
Trace elements A few micrograms to a few milligrams are required per day, e.g.,
iodine, fluorine, zinc, and molybdenum.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS

1. Minerals form the structural components of bones, teeth, soft tissues, blood,
and muscles, e.g., calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in bones.
2. They regulate activity of nerves with regard to stimuli and contraction of mus-
cles, e.g., calcium.
3. Maintain acid-base balance of body fluids, e.g., sodium and chlorine.
4. They control water balance by means of osmotic pressure and permeability
of cell membranes, e.g., sodium and potassium.
5. They are constituents of vitamins, e.g., thiamine contains sulphur and cyano-
cobalamin contains cobalt.
6. They form part of molecules of hormones and enzymes, e.g., iodine in thyrox-
ine and zinc in insulin.
7. They activate enzymes, e.g., calcium activates enzyme lipase.
8. They regulate cellular oxidation, e.g., iron and manganese.

9. Necessary for clotting of blood, e.g., calcium.
Calcium
The adult body contains 1.2 kg of calcium of which 99% is present in bones and
teeth. The bones provide:
1. A rigid framework for the body and
2. Reserves of calcium
The remaining 1% is distributed in extracellular and intracellular fluids and has

the following functions:
1. Calcium acts as a catalyst in clotting of blood.
_ 2. It increases permeability of cell membranes thus helping in absorption.
3. It regulates contraction and relaxation of niuscles including the heart beat.
4. Itactivates a number of enzymes such as pancreatic lipase and acts as a co-factor.
Factors affecting calcium absorption The amount of calcium absorbed by

humans depends on the body’s need. Approximately 40% of calcium ingested is
absorbed.
1. Phosphate and phytic acid is present in cereals and form insoluble calcium
salts if present in excess.
2. An alkaline intestinal pH (above 7) reduces absorption by forming insoluble
salts.
3. Excess fibre decreases absorption of calcium.
4, Oxalic acid in green leafy vegetable forms insoluble calcium oxalate, which
is excreted.
5. Faulty absorption of fats and fatty acids form insoluble calcium salts, which
are excreted.
6. Lactose increases calcium absorption.
7. High protein intake increases absorption.
The parathyroids regulate the calcium level in blood and calcium metabolism in
bone. The calcium to phosphorus ratio should always be 1:1.
Sources Various sources of calcium are:
1. Milk and milk products excluding butter, ghee, and cream

2. Ragi, green leafy vegetables especially drumstick leaves, cabbage, curry
leaves, carrot, and cauliflower tops, and amaranth
3. Small dried fish, nuts, and oilseeds such as gingelly seeds
4. Betel leaf with slaked lime is a rich source of calcium.
Minerals 251
Deficiency A severe deficiency of calcium leads to rickets in children and

osteomalacia and osteoporosis in adults (refer Chapter 17, Vitamin D deficiency
for symptoms of rickets and osteomalacia).
1. Osteoporosis In osteoporosis, the bones become porous because of bone
mineral loss. This causes compression of the vertebrae that results in loss of
height, back and hip pain, and increased susceptibility to fractures. It is seen in
post-menopausal women and can be controlled by weight bearing exercises such
as walking, calcium supplements, and hormone therapy.
Tetany A decrease in serum calcium levels gives rise to a condition called
tetany. The symptoms of tetany are severe intermittent spasms of the muscles
of hands and feet accompanied by muscular pain. Twitching of facial muscles
occurs.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus comprises 1% of total body weight. It occurs along with calcium in
human nutrition and also has many other functions in the body.
1. Building bones and teeth along with calcium and magnesium.
2 DNA and RNA, the nucleic acids needed for genetic coding contain phos-
phorus.
As phospholipids, they regulate the absorption and transport of fats.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP)are neces-
sary for storing and releasing energy according to body needs.
As part of enzymes needed for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and pro-
teins.
Sources Phosphorus is widely distributed in foods. Milk and meat are rich in phos-
phorus. Whole grain cereals, legumes, nuts, carrots, and fish are also rich sources
of phosphorus.
Deficiency Phosphorus deficiency is rare since a diet that contains adequate pro-
tein and calcium will be rich in phosphorus. Deficiency symptoms are similar to
calcium deficiency.
Iron
The human body contains 3-5 g of iron of which 70% is in the circulating haemoglobin.
Functions:
1. Essential for carrying O, to the lungs where O, is released arid CO, is picked
up to be exhaled by haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
Z, It is an essential part of several oxidative enzymes.
3. It helps in specific brain functions such as a good attention span and capaci-
ty to learn and memorize.
4. It facilitates the complete oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats with-
in the cell and release of energy for performing physical work.
Diet provides iron in two forms:
1. Haeme iron, i.e., iron associated to the protein, globin, to form haemoglobin.
Haeme iron is found in flesh food only.
2. Non-haeme iron is the form present in all plant sources and in 60% of animal
sources.
Haeme iron is present in small quantities in food. About 40% iron in flesh food
is haeme iron while 60% is non-haeme iron. It is rapidly absorbed and transported.
About 23% is absorbed.
Non-haeme iron is the larger portion of iron in food. It is tightly bound to organic
molecules in the form of ferric iron (Fe’**). In the acidic medium of the stomach,
it is dissociated and reduced to its more soluble ferrous form (Fe"”). The absorption
rate of non-haeme iron is slow and approximately 8% is absorbed.
Vitamin C from the diet and hydrochloric acid in gastric juice help in converting
ferric iron to ferrous iron.
Factors affecting iron absorption The following factors enhance absorption:
Body need In periods of extra demand or in a deficiency, more iron is abso-
rbed.
Acidic medium Gastric acidity and ascorbic acid in the meal favour absorption.
Form of iron Haeme iron and ferrous form are better absorbed.
Complete proteins Complete proteins such as meat favour absorption.

The following factors decrease absorption:
1. Ferric iron or non-haeme iron in the absence of protein and ascorbic acid are
poorly absorbed.
2. Achlorhydria or lack of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice and use of antacids
with meals interfere with absorption.
3. Tea and coffee with meals.
4. Excessive intake of phytates and oxalates interferes with absorption.
5. Malabsorption due to intestinal disorders.
Iron is required for replacement of daily losses through excretion in urine, sweat,
hair, and worn-out cells. It is also needed for replacement of blood losses and an
expanding blood volume in all stages of growth.
Minerals 253
Sources Various sources of iron are:
Liver, organ meats, shellfish, lean meat, egg yolk are all good sources
Green leafy vegetables, whole grain, and enriched cereals, legumes, and jaggery
Garden cress seeds and niger seeds are excellent sources
Peaches, apricots, manukas, and figs
sh Use of iron cooking utensils contributes significantly to the iron content of the diet
ae
i
hy
Non-haeme iron is present in plant foods such as green vegetables, and cereals.
40% iron in meat, poultry, and fish is haeme iron and 60% is non-haeme iron.
Deficiency Iron deficiency or anaemia is very common in the vulnerable age groups
in all developing countries. Haemoglobin level may be as low as 5-9 g. Normal
haemoglobin levels for females are 11.5-14.5 g% and for males 12.5-16.5 g%.
Symptoms General fatigue, breathlessness on exertion, giddiness and pallor of
skin (paleness), oedema of ankles and spoon shaped nails are the common symp-
toms of iron deficiency.
Iron deficiency causes microcytic and hypochromic anaemia. Red blood cell’s
appear pale and smaller in size. Iron deficiency may also be seen if excessive blood
loss occurs or because of faulty absorption, intestinal disease, or parasites especially
hookworm and roundworm infestations.
Iodine
Most of the iodine in an adult body is found in the thyroid gland. The only known
function of iodine is as a constituent of thyroxine. The thyroid hormone regulates
the rate of oxidation within the cells. The iodine absorbed is incorporated into the
amino acid tyrosine to form the hormone thyroxine.
Iodine + Tyrosine —> Thyroxine.

If intake of iodine is inadequate, the stores of thyroxine are gradually depleted
and the thyroid gland enlarges in an attempt to produce the necessary thyroxine.
Sources Seafood contains maximum iodine and fruits contain the least. Wide variations
are seen because food content of iodine depends upon the soil where they are grown. ‘To
provide sufficient iodine, salt is being iodized. Salt is a universally used dietary item. It is
cheap and addition of iodine does not affect its flavour. It is added in the form of sodium
or potassium iodide in the proportion of 1 mg for every 10 g of salt.
Deficiency Deficiency occurs when iodine content of the soil is so low that insuf-
ficient iodine is obtained through food, e.g., the soil in the Kangra valley in the
Himalayan belt is deficient in iodine. Deficiency of iodine results in goitre.
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Minerals
255
256
Be Food Science
—————————E——ee and
eee Nutrition
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Symptoms
1. Enlargement of the thyroid gland.
9. Cretinism in children (stunted growth). Cretinism is characterized by a low
basal metabolism rate (BMR), flabby and weak muscles, dry skin. Skeletal
development stops and mental retardation is seen.
Goitrogens — are substances in food known to interfere with the use of thyroxine
and can produce goitre. They are present in the red skin of peanuts and in vegeta-
bles such as cabbage and cauliflower, turnips and mustard.
Fluorine
Fluorine is the normal constituent of the body, found mainly in bones and teeth.
Small amounts of fluorine bring about striking reductions in tooth decay probably
because the tooth enamel is made more resistant to the action of acids produced by
bacteria in the mouth.
Sources Milk, eggs, and fish are important sources. Fluoridation of water to ensure a
concentration of 1 ppm is a safe and economical way to reduce the incidence of
dental caries.
Deficiency A deficiency results in dental caries and is seen in areas where drinking
water contains less than 0.5 ppm of fluorine. Adding fluorine at a level of 1 ppm
reduces the incidence of dental caries by 50%. Foods as well as water contain varying
amounts of fluorine. |
Fluorosis Fluorosis or mottling of teeth occurs in parts of the world where drink-
ing water contains excessive amounts of fluorine, i.e., 3-5 ppm. Teeth lose their
lustrous appearance. Enamel becomes dull and unglazed and chalky white patches
are seen. Sometimes enamel is pitted giving the tooth surface a corroded appear-
ance. Skeletal fluorosis may also be seen. There is hypercalcification of the bones.
Mottled areas may get yellow brown stains or discoloured.
Sodium
Sodium chloride or common salt is a daily ingredient in our diet. The adult body con-
tains 180 g of sodium most of which is present in the extracellular fluid of the body.
The functions of sodium are listed below:
1. Maintaining fluid balance and normal osmotic pressure between intracellular

and extracellular compartments.
2. It maintains normal irritability of nerves and helps in muscle contraction.
3. Regulates the alkalinity and acidity of body fluids along with the mineral
chloride. |
4. Regulates cell permeability or passage of substances into and out of the cell.
Minerals 257
Table 18.2
Main function
Mineral[A“Main function \Y ___| Deficiency symptoms |Sources
/
Chloride Electrolyte in extracellular fluid Seen in severe vomiting Common salt

Water balance or diarrhoea resulting
Acid—base balance in alkalosis
Digestion — as part of gastric juice +S
Sulphur As a constituent of amino acids, Uncommon All protein food rich in

vitamins, skin and hair, etc. amino acid methionine
In cartilage, bones, and skin as and cystine such as
chondroitin sulfate milk, meat, eggs,
Enzyme activity poultry, pulses, nuts
| Copper Haemoglobin synthesis Uncommon . Liver, meat, seafood,
Part of several enzyme systems Anaemia whole grains, pulses,
Synthesis of melanin pigment and Excessive intake nuts, and copper
integrity of myelin sheath is toxic utensils
Constituent of enzymes involved | Loss of appetite Widely distributed in

in metabolism Stunted growth in children wheat bran, liver,
Functioning of insulin Loss of taste sensitivity peanuts, cheese,
Healing of wounds Dull hair oysters, seafood, eggs,
Normal skin, bones, and hair Delayed wound healing and whole grain
Normal taste acuity
Cobalt As a component of vitamin B Unknown Vitamin B,.

for proper formation of red blood
cells
As a component of enzymes in Unknown Whole grain cereals,
glucose metabolism legumes, soya beans,
and leafy vegetables
Molybdenum It acts as a catalyst for Unknown Whole grains, pulses,

metalloenzymes and for milk, green leafy
several metabolic reactions vegetables, organ
meats
Sources Milk, egg white, meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables, bengal gram dal,
beetroot, and knolkhol are good sources.
The sodium from additives should also be included in the sodium content of a meal.
Deficiency A deficiency is seen in people engaged in heavy physical activities
such as farm and mine workers and in atheletes. It may also occur in cases of severe
vomiting or diarrhoea. It results in weakness, giddiness, nausea, and muscle cramps.
It can be treated by adding salt to water or lime juice and if this is not retained,
intravenous saline could be given.
Excess An excessive intake of sodium should be avoided as it predisposes a person to
hypertension. Salt is 40% sodium, which means that a teaspoon of salt provides 2 g or
2,000 mg of sodium. Sodium is presentinfood as well as in many ingredients added to
food such as sodium bicarbonate, monosodium glutamate, sodium benzoate, sodium
propionate, and sodium nitrate. These need to be curtailed on a low-sodium diet.
Potassium
It is present as the major electrolyte in all body cells.
Functions:
1. As acomponent of all cells in the intracellular fluid it helps in regulating the
water balance along with sodium.
2. It regulates the acid-base balance like sodium.
3. It helps in transmitting nerve impulses and contraction of muscle tissues.
Sources Fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, flesh food, and whole grains are rich in
potassium.
Deficiency Deficiency of potassium is unlikely in normal circumstances but may
occur in severe malnutrition, chronic alcoholism, surgery, and prolonged infection.
Magnesium
About 60% is found along with calcium and phosphorus in the bones and teeth.
The remaining 40% is present in tissues and body fluids and performs the following
functions:
1. Itis present mainly in the intracellular fluid and helps in maintaining fluid bal-
ance along with sodium, potassium, and calcium.
2. It helps in transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contractions, and regula-
tion of the heart beat.
3. It acts as a co-factor in many metabolic reactions.
Sources Milk, cheese, fish, meat, wholegrains, pulses, and nuts.

Deficiency Deficiency of magnesium is uncommon. It may occur in malnutrition
and alcoholism. Symptoms of deficiency are similar to tetany and include muscle
tremors, spasms, and convulsions.
LAS ETE ATA AL RI LEAL
AN UTP
SUMMARY
Mineral elements are organic compounds present in body tissues and fluids in small
amounts and are referred to as micronutrients. They constitute 4% of body weight
and do not provide any energy. They are classified into three groups based on the
Minerals 259
quantity required by the body. Major minerals or macrominerals are required in

large amounts exceeding 100 mg/day. Minor minerals are required in amounts less
than 100 mg/day and trace elements are those whose requirement is a few milligrams
or in micrograms per day.
The minerals of importance to the body are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chloride,
magnesium potassium, sulphur, all of which are major minerals. Iron, manganese,
fluorine, zinc, molylbdenum, copper, cobalt, and iodine are required in much
smaller quantities.
Minerals occur in the body as components of organic compounds, as components
of inorganic compounds, and as free ions in all cells. They perform various functions
related to growth and maintenance and regulation of body functions.
They are widely distributed in nature and a balanced diet with variety in choice
of foods ensures an adequate intake and prevention of deficiency. However, many
factors affect the absorption and utilization of minerals and these need to be known
to enhance availability of minerals.
RSS SSS SYS YLT ITY ESP PELE EE EEL TIE ATI DEE DLT PLETE EET ITI ELLIOT GEE EEL LEE ET ELITES
Betel leaf Leaf of the creeper Piper betel, which is Niger seeds Also called black gingelly seeds.
consumed along with slaked lime and betel nut for its Non-haeme iron Iron present in plant foods and
digestive properties. partly in meat, fish, and poultry, which is not associ-
Co-factor A mineral element which activates an ated with haemoglobin.
enzyme. Oxalic acid An organic acid present in green leafy
Electrolyte An element or compound which dissoci- vegetables and cocoa.
ates, when in solution, into ions. Phytic acid An organic acid present in outer layers of
Garden cress seeds Maroon red seeds, which when cereals which combines with calcium forming insoluble
soaked in water develop a mucilaginous covering. calcium phytate.
Haeme iron Iron associated with the haemoglobin
molecule and is better absorbed than h iron
REIS RE LOESISTERS ANTRTELS LEM AIL
|
REVIEW QUESTIONS
List the seven major minerals? Describe the functions of minerals in general.
Classify mineral elements giving two examples for each.
State the factors which affect absorption of iron and calcium in the body.
Define the following terms
i Mineral elements
ii Co-factor
iii Trace elements
iv Goitrogens
Q5 List the various sources of sodium in our diet.
Q6 The iodine content of food depends on the iodine content of the soil on
which it has grown. Explain this statement.
Q7 Match the following minerals in column I with’a deficiency symptom in
column II.
I II
1. Calcium a. Tooth decay
2. Iron b. Cretinism
3. Sodium c. Muscle cramps
4. Iodine d. Alkalosis
5. Fluorine e. Spoon-shaped nails
6. Chloride f. Macrocytic anaemia
7 Phosphorus g. Osteoporosis
h. Glossitis
i. Tetany
1 Night blindness
iM
INTRODUCTION
ext to air and water, the body requires food as a continuous source of
energy to stay alive and keep all organs and systems functioning efficiently.
Just as every engine requires fuel to keep going, the human body too
requires fuel in the form of food as a source of power to work continuously.
The human body is far more complex than any machine invented and as long as
there is life, its energy supply cannot be turned off.
The first and foremost function of food is to supply energy to the body. This takes
priority over building of new tissues, repair of wear and tear, and regulation of body
functions. For example, if a diet contains adequate protein but is deficient in carbohydrate
and/or fat, the protein will be oxidized to meet the energy needs first and balance
used for other functions.
Glucose
Baily eds
glycerol
oe Oxia i 60, | + 10+ : ENERE
Amino acids deamination
(if sugar or (-NH,)
fat is deficient)
Fig. 19.1 Oxidation of nutrients to release energy
When food is digested, the complex nutrients carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
are broken down into monosaccharides, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids,
respectively. These simple forms are absorbed into the bloodstream and supplied
to the millions of cells in the body to be oxidized by a series of complex steps to
release energy.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy exists in several forms. The
forms of energy important in nutrition are:
1. Chemical energy in food

2. Light or solar energy for synthesis of vitamin D in the skin and for photosyn-
thesis in plants |
3. Mechanical energy for movement of muscles
i Electrical energy for functioning of the brain and nerve cells
5. Heat energy, generally produced when energy is converted from one form to
another. The energy from food is finally converted into heat energy.
The various forms of energy are interconvertible.
Solar energy
(light energy)
Chemical energy
(food)
brain and muscle all living

nerve cells cells cells
Electrical © Mechanical Heat

energy energy energy
Fig. 19.2 Forms of energy

Energy Metabolism 263
Living cells are capable of releasing the energy stored in certain nutrients. This
energy is used to perform various activities in the cell such as synthesis of proteins,
maintaining warmth, and contraction of muscle.
The energy from the breakdown of food is stored in the body in the from of a
high-energy compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenosine triphosphate
acts as a store of energy-rich phosphate bonds. Living cells can use energy only in
the form of energy-rich phosphate bonds.
When energy is required for cellular activity, living cells release energy from
ATP which gets converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). One mole (molecular
weight in gram) of ATP provides 8 kcal/33 kJ of energy. Adenosine diphosphate is
reconverted to ATP by addition of phosphate ions. Phosphate ions help in release
and transfer of energy.
ATP ADP + 8 kcal
adenosine triphosphate ______~~—~=~—~—~—— adenosine
+ phosphate diphosphate
ion
Fig. 19.3 Release and transfer of energy
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The energy present in food or the energy needed by the body is measured in units
called joules or calories. The calorie in nutrition is the large Calorie or kilocalorie.
The kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 kg (1,000 g) of water by 1°C. This calorie is 1,000 times bigger than the calorie
used in physics.
The international unit for energy is the joule (J) and it is the energy expended
when 1 kilogram (kg) is moved | metre (m) by a force of 1 newton (N).
Scientists and nutritionists are concerned with large amounts of energy, so they use
the units kilocalorie, kilojoule (kJ = 10°J), or megajoule (MJ = 10°J)to express energy.
1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kilojoules
1 megajoule = 239 kilocalories
ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD

The energy content of various foods can be measured in two ways: by calorimetry
or by proximate composition.
Calorimetry
The bomb calorimeter is based on the principle of calorimetry. It measures the heat
produced when the food sample is ignited by an electric spark in the presence of
oxygen and platinum which acts as a catalyst. The bomb calorimeter is made up of
eett
ol TM
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A bomb calorimete
S —Stirrer
T — Thermometer
W — Weighed amount of water
O — Pure oxygen
D — Outer double-walled insulating jacket
F — Platinum dish with weighed food sample
E — Fuse ignited by electric current
B — Bomb chamber ,
Fig. 19.4 Measuring the potential energy of food
two main parts — an inner part in which a measured quantity of food sample to be
tested is placed and an outer portion which contains a known volume of water.
When the food sample is electrically ignited, the surrounding water absorbs the heat
produced. The energy value of the food is calculated by measuring the rise in tem-
perature of water, based on the definition of the term calorie...
Table 19.1 Energy value of food
Carbohydrates
wee 4.15
|i
Proximate composition
This is a simpler and faster way of determining the calorie content of food. The
approximate carbohydrate, fat, and protein content of a food given in the food com-
position tables is multiplied by their fuel factor, i.e., calories provided by 1 g of the
nutrient and this total gives the energy value of a food.
The energy content of food given in the food composition tables are derived values.
The carbohydrate content is calculated by difference, subtracting water, minerals,
proteins, fats, and crude fibre content. However, foods contain undigestible carbohy-
drates which do not provide any energy and these values need some correction.
The energy value of food obtained by igniting it in the bomb calorimeter is the
potential energy value of food.
The potential energy present in food when measured in a bomb calorimeter is high-
er than the energy released in the body. This is because some losses occur during diges-
tion, absorption, and metabolism. The potential energy value must be corrected to allow
for the losses that occur during digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients.
The physiological fuel factors are based upon the corrections for losses of unab-
sorbed nutrients in the faeces and nitrogenous products excreted in the urine. On a
mixed diet containing high-quality protein, 85-90% carbohydrate, 95% fat, and 92%
proteins are digested and absorbed.
The carbohydrates and proteins which are absorbed are fully oxidized.
However, when proteins are oxidized as a source of energy, they first need to be
deaminated (removal of amino group). The amino group is converted to urea and
is excreted in the urine. Hence, the body loses a part of the protein that is digested
and absorbed. This loss of protein is about 25%.
The net energy value obtained from food by the body is lesser than that meas-
ured in a bomb calorimeter.
ENERGY NEEDS OF THE BODY

The energy requirement for an average healthy person is based on the energy
required to carry out basal processes as well as the energy cost of activities one
indulges in. The average requirements for both the sexes belonging to different age
categories is given in the RDA table in chapter 12.
These allowances are suggested for a reference man weighing 60 kg and a ref-
erence woman weighing 50 kg in the 20-39 year age group.
Reference man The reference man is between 20-39 years of age and weighs 60 kg.
He is in a state of good health, free from disease, and physically fit for active work.
He is moderately active and is employed for 8 hours in moderate work. He spends 8 ©
hours in bed, 4-6 hours sitting or engaged in light work, and 2 hours in walking, active
recreation, or household chores. On an average his energy requirement is 2,875 kcal.
Reference woman The reference woman is between 20-39 years of age, healthy,
and weighs 50 kg. She is moderately active and spends 8 hours is routine household
work or in light work. She spends 8 hours in bed, 4-6 hours sitting or moving
around and performing light activity, and 2 hours in walking or active recreation or
household chores. On an average her energy requirement is 2,225 kcal.
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide us with energy. About 60-65% of the
total calorie requirement should be from carbohydrates, the energy from fat should
not exceed 30%, preferably 15% calories from fat of which 15 g should be polyun-
saturated vegetable oils to meet the requirement for essential fatty acids; and
10-15% calories from proteins.
TOTAL ENERGY REQUIREMENT

The total energy required by a person is the sum total of basal energy needs, the
energy effect of food intake or the specific dynamic action and energy cost of physical
activity. Energy is needed for growth, for maintenance, for the innumerable processes
continuously taking place, for regulating body temperature, and for physical and mental
activity. Activities that need energy are broadly classified into:
1. Voluntary activities, e.g., activities under the control of our will such as walking,
sitting, cycling, and dish washing.
2. Involuntary activities that go on irrespective of whether we want them to.
They are not under the control of our will and are vital activities on which
our survival depends such as beating of the heart, respiration, and maintaing
body temperature. Energy is first provided for these activities and is referred
to as basal metabolism.
Total energy _ Basal metabolic Specific Pog Cases

needed by the body ~ rate dynamic action “*“"'Y ty
Fig. 19.5 Basal metabolism
BASAL METABOLIC RATE

The amount of energy required by the body for carrying out involuntary work
and maintaining the body temperature is known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
The involuntary work includes the func:ioning of various organs and systems which
work continuously to keep the body processes going such as the heart and blood
circulation, the kidneys and excretion. Approximately one-third of this energy is
needed for these processes while the remaining two-thirds is utilized for mainte-
nance of muscle tone.
Test for Basal Metabolism

To measure the BMR, the following conditions need to be observed.
1. The test is conducted before breakfast 12-16 hours after the last meal, i.e., in
a post-absorptive state, to eliminate the influence of food.
2. The subject should be relaxed and lying down but awake because sleep reduces
BMR and activity or exercise increases the rate of oxidation in the cells.
3. The subject should have a normal pulse rate and be free from tension or fear
of the test.
4. The ambient temperature should be comfortable as perspiration or shivering
may affect the rate of oxidation.
5. The subject should be afebrile as fever increases the BMR by 7% for every
degree Fahrenheit rise in temperature.
The test is conducted by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed and/or
carbon dioxide exhaled in a predetermined time, usually 6-8 minutes.
A deviation of 10-15% from the accepted standards may be considered normal.
The adult BMR is 1 kcal/kg body weight/hour for males and 0.9 kcal/kg body
weight/hour for females, or approximately 1,440 kcal for males and 1,080 kcal for
females, respectively.
Factors Affecting the BMR

Many factors influence the BMR.
Body size Heat is continuously lost through the skin. A tall well-built person has
a greater skin surface area than a shorter or smaller person and loses more heat
through the skin and hence has a higher BMR.
Body composition The amount of muscle tissue and adipose or fatty tissue in the body
affects the BMR. An athlete with well-built muscles and little body fat has a higher
BMR than a non-athlete with more body fat of the same weight. The metabolic activ-
ity in muscle tissue or lean tissue is much more as compared to adipose or fatty tissue.
Age During periods of rapid growth, the BMR increases by 15-20% because the
growth hormone stimulates cell metabolism and new cells are formed. It is high
during infancy, pre-school years, and puberty. During pregnancy and lactation it
rapidly increases once again. The BMR gradually declines with age at the rate of
2% for each decade after the age of 21 years.
Sex The BMR is 10% higher in males as compared to females. The difference in
BMR is attributed to a higher proportion of adipose tissue in females and hormonal
variations between the sexes.
268
Se Food
a Science ed
and Nutrition i eee eee ee ee
Fever Fever increases the BMR by 7% for each degree Fahrenheit rise in body
temperature. This is one of the reasons for loss of weight during fever.
State of health The BMR is low during starvation and malnutrition because of
reduction in muscle tissue. In diseases and conditions where catabolic processes are
high such as cancers, tuberculosis, and burns, BMR is high.
Hormones Disorders of the thyroid gland markedly influence the BMR.

Hyperthyroidism, a condition of excessive production of thyroid hormone increases
BMR, and hypothyroidism or decreased production of thyroid hormone decreases
BMR. : 5
Climate BMR rises when the climate is cold in order to maintain normal body
temperature. In very warm climates leading to profuse sweating, BMR may increase
by trying to reduce body temperature.
Psychological tension Worry and anxiety increase BMR.
SPECIFIC DYNAMIC ACTION

Specific dynamic action (SDA) is a term used to describe the effect food has in
increasing the metabolic rate above the level found when fasting. Energy
is needed to digest, absorb, and metabolize the food we eat. Food intake
stimulates the metabolism process leading to an increase in energy expendi-
ture. This is known as the thermogenic effect of food or the specific dynamic
effect. Proteins have maximum effect on SDA, increasing the BMR by about
30% when eaten alone, while carbohydrates and fats show smaller increases.
When eaten together in a normal mixed diet, the increase is about 5-10% of
basal metabolism.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
Physical activity increases the energy requirement above the basal metabolism.
There is a wide variation in the energy required for physical activity among indi-
viduals. Physical activity includes energy needed for work, recreation, and mental
activity, i.e., all voluntary activities. Some people use up more energy for physical
activity than for basal metabolism.
On the basis of occupation, activities are grouped under three heads.
1. Sedentary/light work
2. Moderate work
3. Heavy work
Sedentary work ‘Teaching, office work, executive, housewife, tailoring.

Moderate work Farming, industrial labour, driver, maidservant.
Heavy work Stone cutter, miner, wood cutter.
The energy requirement varies with the type of activity and the speed and efficiency
with which it is performed (refer RDA table for energy requirement in Chapter 12).
For example, swimming uses up twice the energy of bicycling, and walking
briskly uses up thrice the energy of walking at a moderate pace. The body size of
the person also affects energy expended for a task. The larger the body size, the
more energy would be needed just as more energy is needed to move a heavy sack
of potatoes compared to a lighter one.
The energy expended for physical activities is measured indirectly by strapping
a light-weight respirometer, collecting the expired air and analyzing the carbon
dioxide and oxygen content to calculate the energy expended.
ENERGY BALANCE
The human body is constantly using energy which needs to be replaced. For this a
constant supply of energy is required. Energy is used for basal metabolism, specific
dynamic action, and physical activity. The energy from the food we eat, mainly
carbohydrates and fats, is used to meet the energy demands of the body. When
food is not available during fasting or starvation, the body draws upon its own stores
to meet the energy needs of the body. The body has three types of energy store.
Glycogen The form in which carbohydrate is stored in the muscles and liver is
adequate to last for 12-48 hours. Approximately 300 g glycogen is stored in the
muscle and 100 g in the liver.
Muscle Protein is stored in limited amounts in the muscle.
Adipose tissue Fat is stored in the adipose tissue and the amount stored varies
vastly from one person to another.
A person in energy balance neither gains weight nor loses weight. Excessive
consumption of calories as compared to the output or activity leads to a condition
called over weight, which in severe cases is called obesity. A deficient intake of
carbohydrates and fats in the diet leads to underweight or undernutrition. Both
underweight and obesity are undesirable conditions which need timely correction,
Definition Energy balance is a condition in which the energy provided by food is
nearly equal to the total energy expended by the body resulting in a steady body
weight.
Energy balance : Energy output = Energy input
Overweight
Overweight and obesity affect over 25% adults in developed countries and can lead
to serious health consequences if not treated early. When an individual’s energy
intake consistently exceeds energy expenditure, weight gain occurs initially, leading
to obesity. Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed
from one form to another, the excess chemical energy from food is converted into
fat and stored as potential energy in the adipose tissues.
Overweight A person whose body weight is 10% more than the prescribed height
for weight standards for his age and sex.
Obese A person whose body weight is 20% or more than that of the prescribed
standards.
Grossly obese A person who weighs 45 kg or 100% more than accepted standards.
Underweight A person whose weight is 15-20% below the accepted standards.
Body mass index The concept of ideal or desirable body weight has been changing
from time to time and ideal weight for different body frames was initially computed.
Today the weight of an individual is assessed on a more scientific basis known as
the body mass index (BMI).
Weight in ki
Body mass index = a SEN OS — at
(Height in metres) H
Normal values
Merete
H2
= g9205
Woman iW 9s 19-24
H2
Values over 25 indicate obesity.

A woman weighing 65 kg having a height of 155 cm will have a BMI of 27.
BMI = 65.— 65 _ 9
i Salanoe
On the basis of BMI, obesity is graded as follows:
Obesity BMI
Grade I 25-29
Grade II 30-40
Grade III >40
Causes of obesity
¢ Family food habits - rich high-calorie foods
¢ Ignorant of calorific value of food
¢ Skips breakfast, nibbles high-calorie snacks
* Sedentary lifestyle
* Lower metabolism with increasing age but failure to reduce intake
¢ Emotional outlet — eats more to overcome worry, stress, etc.
¢ Attends many social events
¢ Distress eating (to avoid wastage)
An obese person should lose one to two pounds per week. A reduction of 500
kcal/day will lead to a weight loss of one pound per week. Physical activity should
be increased for faster weight loss and better muscle tone.
If 1 lb weight is to be lost per week, then
1 lb of body fat = 455 g

1g of body fat provides 7.7 kcal/g as it has some water in it.
Caloric equivalent of
1 Ib body fat = 455 X 7.7 = 3,500 kcal
3,500 kCal to be lost in 1 week or 7 days
3,500
. Weight loss in 1 day = = 500 kcal/day
Underweight
Underweight is caused due to undernutrition which is the result of ingesting insuf-
ficient quantity of food. An energy intake less than the need is the most common
cause. Other causes for underweight are poor assimilation of food due to digestive
disorders, faulty absorption, intestinal infestations, infections, poor food habits,
stress and tension, poverty, and lack of nutrition knowledge.
Table 19.2 Sources of energy in the diet
Carbohydrates
at cs beams
Alcohol
Teenagers are weight conscious an.. sl ip meals or consume junk food to main-
tain their weight. Anorexia rervosa is a condition of self-induced severe weight loss
seen in adolescents and has psychological origins. :
Undernutrition affects ones growth, health, behaviour, and brain structure and
function. Such individuals should be prescribed a high-calorie, high-protein, mode-
rate fat diet for gaining weight. An excess of 500 kcal/day will help in gaining
1 Ib/week.
CALCULATING THE ENERGY VALUE BASED ON PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES

Problem
A non-vegetarian meal provides 20 g protein, 10 g fat, and 125 g carbohydrate of
which 5 g is fibre. Calculate the calories provided by this meal.
1. Protein
1 g protein provides 4 kcal

.. 20 g protein will provide 20 x 4 = 80 kcal
2o>eFat
1 g fat provides 9 kcal

. 20 g fat will provide 20 x 9 = 180 kcal
3. Carbohydrate
1 g carbohydrate provides 4 kcal

1 g fibre provides 0 kcal
Digestible carbohydrate = 125 —- 5 = 120 g
120 g carbohydrate will provide 120 x 4 = 480 kcal
‘Total calories provided by the meal = 80 + 180 + 480
= 740 kcal
The meal provides 740 kcal.
DIETARY SOURCES
All foods provide energy. While selecting food one must consider the other nutrients
such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and fibre present in the food and make a wise
choice.
The nutrients carbohydrates and fats are consumed mainly as a source of energy.
All refined carbohydrates, i.e., sugars and starch and all foods rich in fats are
rich
sources of energy (refer chapters 13 and 15 for sources).
The cereal group is another excellent source of, energy and supplies the highest
percentage of calories.
Hollow calorie foods or empty calories are provided by food which is rich in energy
but lack other vital nutrients. Sugars, fats, and alcoholic beverages are referred to as
empty calorie foods because they contain traces of vitamins and minerals. They are
low in nutrient density.
Nutrient dense foods are those food which are rich in one or more nutrients apart
from calories. It is a measure of the quantity of these nutrients supplied by a food
in relation to its calorie content. Nutrient dense foods are of special importance to
weight watchers and those leading a sedentary lifestyle. It helps them get all the
nutrients they need without consuming unnecessary calorie-rich foods and gaining
weight.
Table 19.3. Foods
Aerated soft drinks such as | Milk, cheese, yoghurt
Pepsi, Coca Cola, and Limca} Green leafy vegetables

Synthetic syrups Pulses, Sprouts
Candy and candy floss Soya beans, peanuts
Chocolates Guava, Amla
Iced cakes and fresh Liver, fish, meat
cream pastries Eggs
Ice lolly Flax seeds
Puffy pastry
ESTIMATION OF ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

The total energy required in a day can be estimated by two methods - RDA tables
and actual record of activities.
The RDA table gives us the approximate calories required on the basis of age,
sex, and activity. A specific estimate of ones energy needs can be calculated by
adding energy needed for performing different activities in a 24 hour period. The
energy cost of various activities is mentioned in Table 3. If the time taken for each
activity is known, the energy cost can be easily calculated. A sum total of energy
required for BMR + SDA + physical activity could also give us the total energy
requirement.
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Total energy required id,rich ringtectign
Note: These values include BMR + SDA.

Jeo 002.i.tsi
ralculating Energy Requirements

Particulars — Adult woman, 25 years old, weight 50 kg, Height 155 cm
¢ Calculate energy required for basal metabolism. (BMR for females =
0.9 kcal/kg/hour)
BMR for one day will be
0.9 x 50 (weight in kg) x 24 (hours in a day)
= 1,080 kcal
¢ Estimate your level of physical activity as a percentage of BMR.

Activity Energy cost as % of BMR
Sedentary 20% :
Moderate 35%
Heavy 50%
Energy cost of physical activity for a heavy worker will be

= (50% x BMR) + BMR
= 50/100 x 1,080 + 1,080
= 1,620 kcal
Add energy cost of food intake (SDA) which is 6-10% of total calories. On a vege-
tarian diet it is about 6% and on a non-vegetarian diet it is about 10%, approximate-
ly 100 kcal.
Total energy requirement = BMR + Physical activity + SDA
= 1,080 + 1,620 + 100 = 2,800
= 2,800 kcal
MODIFYING ENERGY CONTENT OF MEALS

The energy content of the diet can be suitably modified to enable a person to
gain or lose weight. It is essential to understand the causes of weight loss or
weight gain before suggesting modifications. The weight gain or weight loss
should be gradual.
_ Underweight
The cause of weight loss must be treated before a modified diet is prescribed.
To gain weight
¢ High-calorie diet, ie., 500 kcal more per day for weight gain of 1 lb/week
* High-protein diet with good quality protein 1.2 g/kg desirable body weight
¢ Adequate vitamins and minerals. Sometimes supplements may be necessary
* Modify diet gradually
¢ Have six small meals a day
* Keep meal times pleasant and food should be appetizing and attractively
served
Type of foods recommended
¢ Food which is easy to assimilate
¢ High-calorie, high-protein foods
¢ Salad dressings, cream soups
eeep Energy Metabolism
EMEIBY 277
METADOUSM 277
Desserts
Fresh fruits such as banana, mango, chikoo
Whole milk, whole milk curd, and paneer
Nutritious soups and stews
Animal protein - baked fish, mutton stew, cheese sandwiches
Do not force the individual to eat, but serve meals which will whet ones
appetite.
Overweight/Obesity
To reduce weight:
Low-calorie, high-fibre, high-protein diet
Low fat, no salad dressings
Low sugar and refined carbohydrate
Avoid sugar in tea and coffee
Use lean meat
Have three meals a day
Type of foods recommended Foods which give a feeling of fullness at the end of a
meal, i.e., low energy density meals, lots of substance but lesser calories.
To create satiety, increase
1! Bulk or fibre content
2. Volume
Foods suggested:
Soups — Large portion of liquid, rich in ingredients. The steamy aroma gives
a sense of satisfaction.
Vegetable juices — Served before a meal reduces quantity of food consumed
at mealtime.
Salads — A salad platter looks like a large portion of food served. It takes time
to chew, has lots of fibre, and is low calorie.
High-fibre breakfast cereal — Is lots to eat and chew, keeps blood sugar
levels steady.
Plain lassi - Made from skimmed milk and served diluted and unsweetened
could be had before or between a meal.
Smoothies - Appetite suppressing fruit protein drinks. The volume is
increased by whipping fruit and yoghurt/soya curd/protein powder in the
blender with crushed ice for a longer time.
Td ANE URL EM MA Ee A
SUMMARY ®
The body requires a continuous source of energy to stay alive and to carry out all
body functions, processes, and activities. This energy is derived from the oxida-
tion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the tissue cells, resulting in production
of heat energy, and carbon dioxide and water which are excreted. The various
forms of energy necessary for life are interconvertible. Energy is stored in the
form of high-energy phosphate bonds in ATP. Energy is measured in kilocalories
or kilojoules. One kilocalorie = 4.184 or 4.2 kilojoules. The energy value of food
can be measured in an instrument called a bomb calorimeter or by using food
composition tables. This is the potential energy present in food. The energy avail-
able to the body is the physiological fuel factor that is lesser than the potential
energy as some losses of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats occur during digestion
and absorption. :
The body needs energy to carry out the involuntary work of the body or for basal
metabolism, for physical activity, and for releasing the nutrients or making them
available to the body, i.e., the specific dynamic action. Many factors affect the
BMR. The energy cost of different activities varies depending on the activity and
the speed and efficiency with which it is carried out. The body is in energy balance
if there is no weight loss or weight gain. Overweight and obesity result from an
imbalance between energy intake, which is more, and energy output, which is less.
Underweight results from deficient intake and more output. Both conditions can be
cured by modifying the energy intake.
LS RR TST
KEY TERMS
Adenosine triphosphate A compound with three Physiological fuel factor The energy in proteins, car-
phosphate groups in which energy is stored. bohydrates, and fats which is available to the body.
Aerobic exercises Exercises requiring oxygen. Physiological fuel factor for protein = 4 kcal/g, carb-
Basal metabolism The energy needed by the body ohydrates = 4 kcal/g, and fat = 9 kcal/g.
to carry out involuntary activities while at rest. Proximate composition The carbohydrate, fat, pro-
Calorimeters An instrument used to measure heat tein, water, minerals, and crude fibre content.
energy by noting the rise in temperature of a known Specific dynamic action Also known as post-prandial
volume of water. thermogenesis or calorigenic effect of food. It is the
Energy The ability to do work. Energy from food is energy required to transform food into nutrients to
expressed in kilocalories and kilojoules. be used by body cells and accounts for 6-10%
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increase in energy expenditure.
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REVIEW EXERCISES
Q1 Define the terms
i Kilocalorie
ii Basal metabolism
iii Specific dynamic action
iv Potential energy in food
v_ Physiological fuel factor
Q2_ The basal metabolism is the rate of oxidation occurring in the body at rest.
Why can the basal metabolism vary in two individuals of the same age?
Q3 On what factors does the total energy requirement depend on? Explain
them briefly.
Q4 One serving of pudding provides 30 g carbohydrate, 10 g fat, and 2 g of
protein. Calculate the calories provided by two such servings.
Q5 How are the fuel values of food estimated? Explain any two methods.
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Balanced Diet
INTRODUCTION
utrients are needed by humans in specific amounts to ensure good

health and well-being. These nutrient needs are met by eating the right
kinds and amounts of food. But how does an individual know what the
right kind and amount of food should be? If a diet is planned and given to an indi-
vidual with the correct kinds and proportions of different nutrients, and he is
asked to follow it every day, it will become monotonous. Also a diet which is
acceptable to one individual may not be acceptable to another individual for
many different reasons such as food preferences, customs, food habits, age, eco-
nomic reasons, and allergies. !
Balanced Diet 281
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES

While planning balanced diets, we need certain guidelines regarding the kinds and
amounts of nutrients that we require for maintenance of good health. The RDA is
the guideline stating the amount of nutrients to be actually consumed in order to
meet the requirements of the body. The RDA is based on requirements.
The requirement for a particular nutrient is the minimum level that needs to
be consumed to perform specific functions in the body and to prevent deficiency
symptoms. It should also maintain satisfactory stores of the nutrient in the body.
Recommended Dietary Allowances are based on a person’s requirements for
different nutrients. In other words
Recommended Dietary Allowances = Requirement + Margin of safety
The margin of safety is added to take care of factors such as:
1. Losses during cooking and processing
2. Short periods of deficient intake
3. Nature of the diet
4. Individual variations in requirements.
For example, the requirement for iron in Western countries is 10 mg for adult
men and 15 mg for adult women respectively, while Indian RDAs suggest an intake
of 28 mg for adult men and 30 mg for adult women. This is because the form of
iron consumed varies and the factors interfering with absorption of iron such as
phytates in cereals and larger proportions of nonhaeme iron present in Indian diets.
The requirement for vitamin C or ascorbic acid is actually 20 mg, but since the vitamin
is easily destroyed during pre-preparation, cooking, and storage, the recommended
intake is twice the requirement and is 40 mg/day.
The RDAs apply to healthy individuals and are set high enough to cover individual
variation. They are based on gender, age, body size, activity level, and special
physiological state. Disease and drugs prescribed for treatment can alter the
requirement for one or more nutrients.
RDAs for Specific Nutrients

¢ The RDAs are expressed in metric units such as kilocalorie (kcal), grams (g),
milligrams (mg), and micrograms (Lg).
¢ They are based on gender and activity levels such as sedentary or light,
moderate, and heavy.
¢ The RDAs for B-complex vitamins Bj, Bg, and niacin are based on kilocalories
or energy. The major role of these three vitamins is the release of energy from
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
The RDA for B, is 0.5 mg/1,000 kcal, By is 0.55 mg/1,000 kcal, and niacin is
6.6 mg/1,000 kcal.
* The RDAs for protein are based on body weight. Adults need 1 g/kg body
weight while infants, children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating mothers
need more protein to meet the demands of growth and body building.
¢ RDAs, for practically all nutrients, increase during pregnancy and lactation
to meet the needs of the growing foetus during pregnancy and for production
of milk during lactation. These additional needs depicted by a + sign in the
RDA table take care of the physiological stress which results due to these
conditions.
¢ The RDAs for infants are expressed per kg body weight.
¢ The RDAs for vitamin A are expressed in terms of retinol (preformed
vitamin A) and £-carotene (precursor or provitamin A). B-Carotene needs to
be converted to vitamin A in the body. During this conversion certain losses
occur and on an average only 25% is converted to vitamin A. The total vitamin A
or retinol could be calculated using the formula given below
ug of B-carotene
Total vitamin A in pg = pg of retinol + =
ean
_ How much food each individual will need will depend on many factors which
have been considered while computing the Recommended Dietary Allowances.
Factors such as age, gender, and special physiological needs have been kept in mind.
The RDA table gives us the quantity of different nutrients to be included in our daily
diet. The second important factor we need to know to ensure the right selection of
food is its nutritive value. Most foods contain more than a single nutrient. The nutritive
value of different foods have been analysed in the laboratory and on the basis of this
information, food composition tables have been formulated.
These tables give us the percentage of important nutrients in the edible portion
of all foods we consume. If we know the weight of the food we have consumed, we
can calculate its nutritive value with the help of the food composition tables. This
can be compared with the RDAs which will tell us whether our diet is nutritionally
adequate or not. The RDA is a goal to be achieved and food is selected so that we
reach the goal.
However, this process is time consuming and not at all practical as lengthy
calculations are necessary. What is needed is a practical guide which can help
individuals to select foods of their choice according to their nutritional requirements.
Since no single food provides all the nutrients in desirable amounts, and all foods
differ in their nutrient content, it becomes necessary to divide food into groups to
help us consume a balanced diet.
Balanced Diet 283
Definition
Balanced diet A balanced diet is one which includes a variety of foods in adequate
amounts and correct proportions to meet the day’s requirements of all essential
nutrients such as proteins carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, water, and fibre.
Such a diet helps to promote and preserve good health and also provides a safety
margin or reserve of nutrients to withstand short durations of emergency.
The safety margin takes care of the days on which we fast, or on a certain day all
nutrients may not be consumed. If the balanced diet meets the RDA for an individual,
then the safety margin is already included as the RDA is formulated keeping extra
allowances in mind.
A balanced diet takes care of the following aspects:
It includes a variety of food items
It meets the RDA for all nutrients
Nutrients are included in correct proportions
Provides a safety margin for nutrients
It promotes and preserves good health
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Polk
Nes Maintains acceptable body weight for height.
BASIC FOOD GROUPS

One of the simplest ways to plan a balanced diet is to divide foods into groups.
Foods are grouped on the basis of the predominant nutrients present in them. They
may be classified into three, four, five, seven, or eleven food groups. This classifica-
tion varies from one country to another depending on many factors. For example,
in India we do not have milk and milk products or flesh foods as a separate food
group because of religion, economic reasons, etc. The five food group classification
is used in India as a guide to meal planning. Many factors have been considered
while compiling these groups such as availability of food, cost, meal pattern, and
deficiency diseases prevalent. Not all foods in each group are equal in their nutrient
content. That is why a variety of foods from each group should be included in the
fer
A food group consists of a number of foods which have common characteristics.
These common features may be the source of food, the physiological function
performed, or the nutrients present.
On the basis of the source of food, at least fourteen groups can be identified, e.g.,
cereals, pulses, milk and milk products, eggs, flesh foods, nuts and oilseeds, sugar
and sweeteners, fats and oils, root vegetables, other vegetables, green leafy vegeta-
bles, fruits, condiments and spices, and miscellaneous foods. This does not simplify
the planning of balanced meals.
A classification based on nutrients present will ensure that all nutrients are made
available to the body and offer greater variety within the group.
There are five basic food groups: _
Cereal and millets group

Protein or body building food group
Protective food group
Secondary protective food group
Fats and oils, sugar and jaggery group.
Se
Cereal and Millets Group

This group includes all cereals and millets which form the staple diet for a large
majority of Indians. The major nutrients provided by this group are calories, protein,
fibre, B-complex vitamins mainly thiamine, some minerals, and fibre. As the
income decreases, the calories provided by this group increases.
The staple cereal consumed varies in different geographical areas and includes
wheat, rice, maize, and millets such as jowar, bajra, ragi, and their products such as
refined flour, semolina, broken wheat or dalia, parboiled rice, rice flakes or
parched rice, puffed rice, popcorn, cornflakes, vermicelli, pastas, bread, and pizza.
Other cereals are triticale, rye, oats, barley, etc.
One serving from this group is 30 g of cereal/by-product of cereal and includes:
« A slice of bread
e A medium phulka
e Half cup cooked rice
¢ Two poories
¢ A bowl of breakfast cereal.
It is preferable to use two or more different cereals everyday, of which some should
be whole grain for maximum nutritional benefit. Ragi is the only cereal which is rich
in calcium and wheat is rich in iron as compared to rice. When cereals and pulses are
consumed together in the same meal, the quality of protein increases dramatically.
At least six or more servings should be selected from this group. Each serving
provides 2-3 g of protein and 80-100 kilocalories.
Protein or Body Building Food Group
This group includes both plant and animal foods that are rich in protein, both quanti-
tatively and qualitatively. All milk and milk products such as whole and skim milk,
paneer, cheese, curds, buttermilk, milk powder, and mawa or khoa excluding butter,
cream, and clarified butter or pure ghee which is included under fats and oils; pulses
and their products such as roasted channa, bengal gram flour, soya products such as
soya flour, tofu, soya grits, and textured vegetable protein; meat, fish, poultry game and
organ meats, and eggs; and nuts and oilseeds such as groundnuts, sesame, and almonds.
Oa ele ORI Balanced Diet
BOBaenced Diel | 285
285.
Apart from proteins, this group also provides B-complex vitamins, vitamin A,
iron, and calcium. Animal proteins supply By) and cholesterol.
One serving from this group is equal to 30 g pulses, 1 egg, 40 g mutton, or 1 cup
of milk or curd.
At least three servings should be included from this group daily.
The protein quality of a nonvegetarian diet is far superior to that of a vegetarian
diet except when cereals and pulses are consumed together, the protein quality
improves. Those who depend on pulses for meeting their protein requirement can
improve the protein content of the meal by one or all of the following ways:
1. Including at least one serving from this group in every meal
2. Adding a small amount of animal protein in every meal
3. Combining cereals and pulses or cereals and animal protein
4. Including a variety of pulses, especially whole grain or split pulses with the
husk
5. Sprouting pulses to increase availability of nutrients and provide vitamin C
and B-complex vitamins specially B,, By, and niacin.
As a general rule, this group does not provide ascorbic acid or vitamin C to the diet.
One serving from this group provides approximately 7 g protein and 70-100
kilocalories.
Protective Food Group

This group includes all vegetables and fruits that are rich in B-carotene and ascorbic
acid. These nutrients increase the body’s resistance to disease and protects the body
against infection, hence the name protective. B-Carotene is converted to vitamin A
in the body.
The foods in this group are rich in carotenoid pigment which imparts a yel-
low, orange, or red colour to fruits and vegetables. In green leafy vegetables
which are naturally rich in B-carotene, the orange colour of carotene pigment is
masked by the green pigment of chlorophyll present in the leaf. Other rich
sources aré pumpkin, carrots, tomatoes, ripe jackfruit, mango, papaya, peaches,
and apricots. This group also includes all citrus fruits such as oranges, sweet
lime, grapefruit, lemon, guavas, amla, zizyphus, and pineapple which are rich in
vitamin C.
Green leafy vegetables such as spinach, fenugreek leaves, radish leaves, amaranth,
oniontops, colocasia leaves, drumstick leaves, mint, and cabbage are rich source of
carotene. One serving from this group includes 50-75 g of vitamin C rich fruit or
vegetable which is equal to half a cup or one whole fruit in the case of citrus fruits
or 100 g of green leafy vegetable.
Choose at least two servings from this group, one in the form of a green leafy
vegetable and the other in the form of a vitamin C rich fruit which is uncooked. Apart
Cereal and millets group Body building food group

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Soy
Cheese
Fish
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Chicken
Protective food group Secondary protective food group
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Pumpkin Peas
Carrot Tomato
Spinach
Brinjal
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Apple
Beans Lady’s finger Banana
4
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Cauliflower Chikoo
Fats and oils, sugar and jaggery group
Fig. 20.1 Five basic food groups

Balanced Diet 287
from carotene and vitamin C, this group provides negligible amounts of calories,
protein, and fibre. Green leafy vegetables provide iron, calcium, and folic acid.
A serving from this group gives 25 kcal and 1 g protein.
Secondary Protective Group or Other Fruits and Vegetables
All fruits and vegetables which do not come under the protective food group are
included in this category. This group provides some carbohydrates, minerals,
vitamins, and fibres to the diet. The main role of this group is to add variety to
the diet. Fruits such as banana, chikoo, pears, grapes, melons, custard apples, and
apples are included in this group.
Vegetables such as brinjal, cucumber, and lady’s finger; all gourds such as ash
gourd, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ridge gourd, and sponge gourd; tender peas and all
beans; and roots and tubers such as potato, onion, radish, and yam and colocasia are
also included in this group.
One serving from this group is equal to 50-75 g of vegetable or fruit which is half
a cup of cut vegetables.
Two or more servings from this group should be included everyday. One serving
provides 25-50 kcalories and 1 g protein.
Fats and Oils, Sugar and Jaggery
The foods in this group are a concentrated source of energy and mainly provide
calories only. Some foods such as animal fats provide vitamins A and D. Vegetable
oils provide essential fatty acids. Sugar provides only calories while jaggery and
honey provide small quantities of minerals as well.
This group includes sugar, jaggery, honey, molasses, and all forms of sugar such
as icing sugar, castor sugar, Demerara sugar, glucose, corn syrup, and all natural
sweeteners. All foods which are preserved with the help of sugar such as jams,
jellies, and marmalades are included in this group. One gram of sugar provides 4
kcal, and this energy is available quickly.
Fats and oils are a concentrated source of energy since one gram of fat gives 9 kcal.
Hydrogenated fat, margarine, butter, cream, and clarified butter are sources of fat.
Groundnut, coconut, sunflower, safflower, gingelly, rice bran, corn, soya, mustard, etc.
are sources of oil. Fats and oils should not exceed 30% of the total calories. This
includes the invisible fats in the diet. About 50% of the fat intake should be from at least
two to three vegetable oils to ensure consumption of essential fatty acids. 15-20% of
total calories from fat is recommended.
The diet should provide approximately 25-30 g of sugar and 25 g of fats and oils
per day. This amount will vary depending on the total energy requirement. One serv-
ing is one teaspoon sugar or 5 g sugar providing 20 kcal and one teaspoon or 5 g fat
providing 45 kcal.
This group does not contain any protein.
288 Food Science
BSN and
at Nutrition
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GUIDELINES FOR USING THE BASIC FOOD GROUP

1. Include at least one or a minimum number of servings from each food group
in each meal.
9. Make choices within each group as foods within each group are similar but
not identical in nutritive value.
3. Ifthe meal is vegetarian, supplement vegetable proteins with suitable combi-
nations to improve the overall protein quality of the diet. For example, serving
cereal, pulse combinations or including small quantities of milk or curds in
the meal.
4, Include uncooked vegetables and fruits in the meals.
5. Include at least one serving of milk to ensure a supply of calcium and other
nutrients as milk contains all nutrients except iron, vitamin C, and fibre.
6. Cereals should not supply more than 75% of total calories.
Table 20.1 Five basic food groups
Cereal and All cereal and their 6-12 serving Carbohydrates, partially
millets products such as 1 serving is 1/2 cup complete proteins, fibre
wheat, rice, maize, cooked rice, 1 chappati, (except rice),
millets such as jowar, a slice of bread, 2 poories |B-complex vitamins,
bajra, ragi, semolina, a bowl of breakfast cereal |some are rich in iron
poha, bread, noodles, or calcium
pizza, puffed cereals
Protective Yellow, orange, and 1 or more serving Rich source of carotene,

foods red fruits and 1 serving is 1/2 cup iron, folic acid, fibre,
vegetables such as cooked vegetable or other vitamins and
mango, papaya, 1/2 cup cut fruit minerals
carrots, pumpkin
Green leafy vegetables
such as spinach,
fenugreek, colocasia
All citrus fruits, guava, 1 or more serving Rich source of ascorbic
tomato, pineapple, 1 serving is 1 medium acid
amla sized fruit
Protein or All pulses, nuts, and 3-6 servings of any of Partially complete
body building oilseeds such as the following proteins, carbohydrates,
foods Bengal gram, red gram, 1 serving is 1 cup dal iron, B-complex
| black gram, green vitamins B,, By, niacin
gram, lentils, soya Soya bean and oilseeds
beans, sprouts, provide fat
groundnuts, sesame, Sprouts provide
almonds vitamin C
(continued)
Balanced Diet 289
Table 20.1 Five basic food groups (continued)
Milk and milk products 1 cup milk or curds Complete protein,

such as whole milk, 25 g cheese calcium, phosphorous,
skim milk, curds, fat, vitamins A, Bo, Bi,
paneer, cheese, cholesterol
ice cream, buttermilk
Meat, fish, poultry, 1 medium size piece Protein, iron, fat,
egs 1 egg cholesterol, vitamins A,
By, Bs, By2, niacin
Secondary All other fruits and 2 or more servings Carbohydrates, fibre,

protective vegetables not 1 serving is 1/2 cup small amounts of
foods included in protective vegetable or fruit or vitamins and minerals
food group such as 1 medium banana
brinjal, beans,
gourd vegetables,
lady's finger, potato,
onion, yam, colocasia,
radish, beetroot
Banana, apple, chikoo,
grapes, melons, pears
Fats and oils, All fats such as 5 servings of which Calories, oils provide
sugar and vanaspati, margarine, 3 servings should be vitamin E and essential
jaggery shortenings, vegetable oil fatty acids
fresh cream, non-dairy Fats provide vitamins
cream, butter, A and D
clarified butter
All oils such as
groundnut, corn, soya,
rice bran, sesame, salad
oil, olive oil, fish oils
Sugar, jaggery, honey, 5 servings Only calories
molasses, chocolates Jaggery, honey, and
Jam, jellies, marmalade preserves give very small
amounts of minerals
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SUMMARY
Nutrients are needed in specific amounts to ensure good health and well-being. The
nutrients needed by different age groups are mentioned in the RDA table. To
enable us to consume these nutrients, food has been divided into five groups. These
groups have been formulated on the basis of the nutrients present in them. If we
select the number of servings recommended from each of the food groups,
we can get a balanced meal.
A balanced diet has all nutrients in correct proportions and amounts to
ensure good health and provide a margin of safety to take care of short
periods of emergency. Food groups help us in getting a balanced diet.
A choice must be made within each group since all foods in the group are
not identical in nutrient content.
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KEY TERMS
Activity level Level of activity of a person, i.e., Lactation The period when the mother nurses her
sedentary or light, moderate, and heavy. This is closely infant.
related to one’s occupation. Physiological state State when nutrient needs
Balanced diet A diet which includes a variety of increase because of normal physiological events such
foods in adequate amounts and correct proportions as pregnancy and lactation.
to supply all essential nutrients which promote and Recommended Dietary Allowances Allowances of
preserve good health. nutrients which cover the needs of practically all
Demerara sugar Light brown sugar, a stage in sugar healthy individuals. They are not requirements for
extraction. any individual but guidelines which tell us the amount
Food group A number of foods sharing common char- of nutrient to be consumed daily.
acteristics which are grouped together. Characteristic Triticale Cereal which is a cross between wheat and
for grouping may be function, nutrient, or source. rye. Used in breakfast cereals
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Differentiate between the terms RDA and requirement.
Q2 Explain how the use of food groups simplifies planning of balanced meals.
Q3 List ten foods which belong to the protective food group, stating reasons for
your choice.
Q4 In which food group would you include the following?
i Orange marmalade
ii Orange juice
iii French dressing
iv Alcoholic beverages
v Coca Cola
vi Coriander leaves
vii Nutrinuggets
Q5 List the five basic food groups giving four examples for each. State the main
nutrients provided by each group.
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Menu Planning and Mass

Food Production
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INTRODUCTION
n the past few decades, people ate in restaurants occassionally to celebrate a
special event such as an anniversary, a birthday, or an achievement. It was an
outing to look forward to, and if one indulged, it did not matter as these outings
were rare.
Today, the scenario is different. Eating out has become a way of life. Education
and employment has taken many of us away from home, and the mother’s role
now has an added responsibility of contributing to the family income. Modern day
compulsions have made eating out a necessity. No longer does one find time for the
traditional fare of yesteryears and depends on the caterer for the following:
Food for festivals and celebrations
Meals at the work place.
Ready-to-eat meals picked up on the way home from work
Snacks and sweetmeats for daily consumption
Preserves, pickles, papads, etc.
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An All meals served in institutions such as hospitals, school/college cafeteria,
mess or dining hall, and boarding schools.
The number of reported cases of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, heart attacks,
etc. is on the rise and so is the number of meals consumed away from home. This
is not surprising because if one indulges practically everyday, it is bound to result
in ill-health because of malnutrition. The caterer’s role has become more significant
as the responsibility now lies with the caterer for planning nutritionally adequate
meals. Menu planning is the key to overcoming this problem.
Definition Menu planning is defined as a simple process which involves applica-
tion of the knowledge of food, nutrients, food habits, and likes and dislikes to plan
wholesome and attractive meals.
The caterer who is responsible for providing meals has to decide on various
aspects, such as:
Menu
Serving size
Food cost
Suppliers and quantities to be purchased
Standardized recipes to be followed
Type of service
Meal timings
Clientele
The aim of menu planning is to:

Meet the nutritional needs of the individuals who will be consuming the food
Plan meals within the food cost
Simplify purchase, preparation, and storage of meals
Provide attractive, appetizing meals with no monotony
Save time and money :
ee Minimize overhead expenditure, i.e., fuel, electricity, water, labour.
Siren):
Menu planning is the most important aspect of planning and organization in the
food industry. It is an advance plan of a dietary pattern over a given period of time.
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 293
Menus are of the following types.

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Table d’hote or fixed price menu It includes two or three courses at a set price.
Each course may offer a choice of dishes.
A la carte On this menu, dishes are individually priced and the customers can
compile their own menu which may be one, two, or more courses.
Banquet menus These are special menus for banquets or functions.
Institutional menus Hospital menus, boarding school menus, and industrial can-
teen menus.
Menus may be cyclic which means they are compiled to cover a specified period
of time. The length of the cycle may vary and is decided upon by the management.
A number of menus are set and repeated. They are often modified to take into
account variations which may arise for a number of reasons.
FACTORS INFLUENCING MEAL PLANNING

Many factors influence the acceptability of a meal. Customers select what appeals
most to them from a menu card based on individual likes and dislikes, budget,
popularity of items, etc. However, while planning meals the following factors need
to be considered.
Nutritional Adequacy
The most important consideration in menu planning is to ensure that the meal ful-
fils the nutrient needs of the individual consuming the meal. For example, if the meal
is planned for an industrial worker, it must meet the RDAs for that age group. Foods
from all basic food groups should be included in each meal so that the meal is bal-
anced and nutritionally adequate. Nutrient needs may be modified for hospital diets
(therapeutic diets).
Economic Considerations
The spending power of the clientele has to be kept in mind and meals have to be
planned within the budget. Low cost nutritious substitutes should be included in the
menu to keep the costs low. The food cost should be maintained, if the organization
has to run profitably.
Type of Food Service

Menus should be planned in relation to the type of food service, whether it is cafe-
teria, seated service, buffet, etc.
Equipment and Work Space

The menu should be planned keeping the available equipment and work space in mind.
Deep freezers, refrigerators, grinders, dough kneaders, deep fat fryers, boilers, etc.
should be adequate.
Leftover Food
An effective manager should consider as to how leftovers could be rotated to obtain
maximum profit. Adequate storage space and hygienic standards should be ensured
to minimize the risk of contamination and spoilage of food.
Food Habits
Food habits of the customer is another important criteria which needs to be considered
as food served has to be acceptable to the customer. Special attention should be
paid when a particular type of community is catered to. Religious considerations
should be known to the meal planner.
Availability
Some fruits and vegetables are seasonal. During the season the cost is reasonable and
quality is better. Today, practically all fruits and vegetables are available throughout
the year because of advanced preservation technology. However, seasonal fruits
and vegetables should be given preference. Regional availability influences menu
planning. For example, fish and sea food is fresh and cheaper in coastal areas.
Meal Frequency and Pattern
The meal timings and number of meals consumed in a day, whether meals are
packed or served at the table, also influences the selection of food items on the
menu. The age, activity level, physiological state, work schedule, and economic
factors need to be known before planning meals for institutional catering.
Variety
This is one of the most important considerations while planning meals. A variety of
foods from the different food groups should be included. The term variety means
1, Variety in food ingredients
2. Variety in-recipe
3. Method of cooking
4, Colour, texture, and flavour
5. Variety in presentation and garnish.
A meal should look attractive and be appetizing. A judicious blend of flavours,
attractive colour combinations, and different textures make food enjoyable and
interesting. The method of cooking used for different items on the menu should vary.
For example, two deep fried items would make the meal heavy. Simple processes
such as fermentation and sprouting not only contribute to improved flavour and
digestibility, but also enhance the nutritive value of the meal.
A well planned meal which is nutritionally adequate would have a good satiety
value and prevent the occurence of hunger-pangs before it is time for the next meal:
The nutritional adequacy of a meal in an a la carte service depends on the food
choices made by the customer. It is the duty of the caterer to offer adequate, nutri-
ent dense foods io the clients, to choose from.
PLANNING BALANCED MEALS

Meal planning involves proper selection of food to ensure balanced meals. In
Chapter 20 on balanced diets we have studied how food is classified into five basic
food groups to help us plan balanced diets. We have also read that food can be
classified on the basis of its source, the nutrients present in it, or on the basis of its
functions into 3-11 food groups. These food groups help us in planning balanced
meals which supply all essential nutrients. In this chapter we will study the three
basic food groups classified on the basis of functions performed by nutrients as this
is the simplest way to ensure adequate nourishment to the body.
The three main functions performed by food are:
1. Providing energy
2. Body building and maintenance
3. Regulation of body processes and protection against infection.
On the basis of functions performed, food is classified into the following three
groups.
1. Protective/regulatory foods
2. Body building foods
3. Energy giving foods
Protective/Regulatory Foods
All fruits and vegetables — green leafy and other vegetables and all fruits are included.
Green leafy vegetables, Rich in carotene and ascorbic
orange, yellow, and red acid. Also contain minerals, fibre,
fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits and carbohydrates
Body Building Foods
Foods rich in protein are included in this group. Nuts and oilseeds also provide fats.
All animal proteins Protein, vitamin and mineral rich
Pulses, nuts, and oilseeds Protein, vitamin, mineral, fibre, oils
Mango Amla) OD@ Q0

DD
Ice cream Cheese
Roots and tubers

ais
Pay
Energy giving foods
Fig. 21.1 The three food groups classification
Menu Planning and Mass Food Production
Table 21.1 Serving size and nutritive value for food groups
Energy giving Cereals

foods Roots and
tubers
Sugar
Fat
Body building Milk

foods Pulses
Meat/fish/
poultry
Egs
Protective/ Green leafy 100 Negligible Negligible
regulatory vegetables
foods Other 100-150 40 2
vegetables
Fruits 80-100 40 Negligible
Note: Two servings of green leafy vegetables = one serving of other vegetables.
Energy Giving Foods

This group provides mainly carbohydrates and fats, along with proteins, some
vitamins and minerals, and essential fatty acids. Foods included in this group are:
1. Cereals and millets Carbohydrate rich
and roots and tubers with other nutrients
2. Sugars and jaggery Only carbohydrates
3. Fats and oils Mainly fats and oils
While planning meals one should ensure that foods from all three groups is included
in each meal. This classification is simple and easy to use for menu planning.
STEPS IN PLANNING BALANCED MEALS

1. Collect information regarding the customer with respect to
e Age
e Gender
¢ Activity level
¢ Religion
¢ Socio-economic background
¢ Food habits
2. Check the RDAs for energy and proteins

3. Prepare a food plan, i.e., list number of servings from each food group to
meet the RDA
Decide on number of meals
Distribute servings for each meal
Select foods within each group and state their amount
Plan a menu
Oe Cross check to ensure that all food groups are included in requisite amounts.
COND
Using the above steps, plan a balanced diet for a day.
Example: Planning balanced meals for college students residing in a hostel.
1. Basic information
Age 16-18 years

Gender Male
Activity Moderate
Religion : Hindu
Background: Urban, middle income families
Food habits: Cosmopolitan
2. Recommended Dietary Allowance for
Calories : 2,640
Protemero: 78 g
3. Food Plan
Energy giving
Body building
Egg 1 50 70 7
(continued)
(continued)
Protective regulatory
4. Number of meals 04
5. Distribution of servings/meal
ae sea pem
| Secange |staerings |Great[ine :
ie hvinclicaayi
Roots and 3
2 l? 4 4 4
tubers
1mn is. 1"

Milk 2 1
building
foods Pulses 2 — 4 — 1
Egg 1 1 ae = —
Protective/ | Green 1 — 1 — —_
regulatory leafy veg.
foods
Fy |
1 1
ery
1
pm
_
Peanofy
Other veg. 3
6. Select foods and plan the menu

7, Menu for the day
Bed tea 1 cup with milk 1 tsp sugar and 50 ml milk

(from the day's allowance)
Breakfast Cornflakes 1 serving cereal

Milk 150 ml
Sugar 1 serving energy food
(continued)
(continued)
3 slices of toast wit 3 servings cereal 2 servings tat

1 boiled egg 1 serving body building
1 orange 1 serving protective
Palak aloo 1 serving green leafy vegetable

1 serving roots and tubers
1 serving fat for cooking
Dal 1 serving pulse
Rice 2 servings cereal
3 servings cereals
3 phulkas 1 serving other vegetables
Carrot halwa 1 serving fat
2'/ servings sugar
"/ serving milk
Tea 1 serving sugar

50 ml milk (from days allowance)
2 samosas 2 servings cereal
1 serving roots and tubers
1 serving other vegetable
2 servings fat
Tamarind chutney ‘/) serving sugar
Rajmah 1 serving pulses
‘fy serving other vegetables
1 serving fat
Colocasia (dry arbi) 1 serving roots and tubers
1 serving fat
Green salad ‘/ serving other vegetables
2 chappatis 3 servings cereals
Rice 2 servings cereals
Banana custard 1 serving fruit
"/ serving milk
1'4 servings sugar
8. Cross check to ensure inclusion of all food groups in required amounts.
CALCULATING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF A RECIPE

Using the food composition table, follow the steps given here to calculate nutritive
value of a recipe.
1. List the ingredients used and their quantities in the recipe.

2. Prepare a table with the following blank columns, and fill up the ingredient
and quantity column from the recipe.
BRWN
An
Snags :
Value for 1
portion
Refer to the food composition tables for the nutrients present in 100 g of edible
portion of each ingredient.
Calculate the nutrients present for the quantities used in the recipe.
a Weigh the finished product to know the total yeild.
Divide these values by the number of portions to know the nutritive value per
portion.
For general calculations, do not include salt, spices, baking powder, stock,
or ingredients which are used in very small quantities (less than 10 g)
except for sugar and fat. Baking powder and salt are calculated for their
sodium content, and not for their proximate principles, for sodium-
restricted diets only.
Recipe: Shrewsbury Biscuits
Vi
efined flour
Milk
Table 21.2 Sample food composition table
Cereals grains and products
Refined 14 0.3 74 348

flour
Whole of ANNES (KS) 341

wheat
me |? foslaa [we _[os fo ferfo fo

flour
Pulses and legumes
Bengal ale 5 4 61 360 202, 4.6 | 189 3

gram
whole
Lentils ee 0.7 hn? re vse }7.6|

te 270
270 |
ae 58 Ze7 52
cet dal
Green leafy vegetables
Spinach
09 aaa fe fo [i fm |
SE oo [a eal
rato —[4 [orfa [Lor [vo [oss [7
Other vegetables
Lady's
fingers
Cucumber
sera
and et
}Groundnuts) 25
25. |40 |3.1 | f90 fas jaz
37 |
‘Coconut 4.5 42 5\sSk6 SP cis

(fresh)
(continued)
Table 21.2 Sample food composition table (continued)
Eaeainents and spices
fie| elm [oom [oof vas

Cumin 12 1,080 PEP Ora 22 3
seeds
vo] [a
[ewes
fp [esos [» vs [wale
rom [os [ones [oe oe
aoe[orf [we
eee ee ee
means [S[oo[=
fos fa Tos fl 7
rte [7
Surmai
iefer 20 [os
Liver 19 LD 13 150 10 6.3 20

(sheep)
Milk 4.3
ot a oC
6.5 oO
nikon|s2 [ae
[aa[= [oa
(buffalo)
moer_[1es [od [a [2s [ae (continued)

Table 21.2 Sample food composition table (continued)

7 MT
Cream light |2.7
Milk 26 Pf
powder
Fats and oils
Cooking
oil
Note: Values are for 100 g edible portion.

*These values represent vitamin A in wg.
Nutritive Value of Shrewsbury Biscuits

The nutritive value of one shrewsbury biscuit is described below.
Table 21.3 Nutritive value of one shrewsbury biscuit
Refined flour
Margarine
Amul butter
Castor sugar
Baking powder
Total yeild from above recipe = 308 g

Number of biscuits = 14
Weight of one biscuit =22¢
Nutritive value of one shrewsbury biscuit = Values for one recipe + Number of
biscuits
Protein = ib 12¢g
Carbohydrate = a =13g
Energy (kcal) = ae = 130 kcal.
Therefore, one shrewsbury biscuit (weight 22 g) provides
¢ 1.2 g protein
© 0O8%— fat
¢ 13 g carbohydrate
¢ 130 kcal energy
SPECIAL NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Pregnancy
Every infant should have the right to begin life with a full-term healthy body and
receive the advantage of mother’s milk. For this to happen, every would-be mother
should take special care of her nutritional needs. Pregnancy is a period of remark-
able anabolic activity. A 3.2 kg infant develops in 9 months of pregnancy from the
nourishment received from the mother. If the diet is deficient during these months,
the foetus draws upon the maternal reserves. A poor diet will ultimately affect both
the infant and the mother, and may lead to complications of pregnancy such as pre-
mature birth and low birth weight.
Weight gain A healthy woman is expected to gain 16-24 lbs in the 3 trimesters of
pregnancy of which the full-term infant weighs 7 lbs. The remaining weight is due
to increase in tissues, an expanding blood volume, and energy stored in the form of
fat as a calorie reserve.
Energy The energy needs increase during the second and third trimesters of preg-
nancy. An additional 300 kcalories take care of the increased demands of pregnancy.
Calorific value of food is adjusted according to the weight gained.
Protein The protein requirement increases by 15 g for the synthesis of foetal and
maternal tissues.
Minerals The calcium requirement is 1,000 mg and iron is 38 mg for the

formation of foetal bones and teeth, and formation of blood respectively. The
absorption of minerals improves because of the increased requirement. Iodine in
the form of iodized salt, helps in protecting the mother and child against goitre
and cretinism.
Vitamins With an increase in calories, the need for vitamins B,, By, and niacin
increases as they are needed for release of energy from carbohydrates, fats, and pro-
teins. The need for folic acid and vitamin D also increases.
Nutrient dense foods should be selected to meet the extra demand for proteins,
calcium, iron, and vitamin D and B-complex vitamins.
Lactation
Mother’s milk is the most nutritious food designed for an infant. The nutritional
needs during lactation are greater than the needs during pregnancy as the mother’s
body has to supply all nourishment to the rapidly growing infant. The conversion
of dietary protein to milk protein is only 50% which means 2 g of good quality pro-
tein is converted to 1 g of milk protein.
Energy Calorie requirements increase by 550 kcal during the first six months of
lactation, followed by a marginal decrease during the next six months with 400 kcal
being adequate to meet the additional demands.
Proteins An additional intake of 25 g in the first six months and 18 g in the next
six months is adequate.
Minerals Calcium requirement is 1,000 mg which is necessary for synthesis of
milk. Additional iron is not prescribed as milk is a poor source of iron.
Vitamins The requirement for vitamins A, D, B-complex, and.vitamin C increases
being
Vitamin A - 950 ug
Vitamin C - 80 mg
Folic acid - 150 ug
Vitamin By - 1.5 ug
Fluid The intake of fluid increases during lactation.

The diet should be nutritious, easy to digest with restrictions on strongly flavoured
vegetables and spicy food. 7
Infancy
Human milk is the natural food for the infant. It is safe and convenient as it does
not involve sterilizing bottles and preparing formulas throughout the day. At the
same time, it is easy to assimilate, has the correct temperature, and gives a safe and
secure feeling to the infant, and sense of satisfaction to the mother.
During the first few days after delivery, colostrum is secreted which is not mature
milk but a substance richer in protein and vitamin A. Colostrum is secreted in small
quantities but is valuable as it increases the resistance to certain infections during |
the first few months of life. ,
The intervals of feeding should be fairly flexible instead of following a rigid
schedule or a self-demand schedule. For premature and low birth weight (weight
less than 2.5 kg) babies a fixed schedule is preferable.
Milk is deficient in iron, vitamin C, and vitamin D. The baby is born with stores
of these nutrients which suffice for 3 months. From the third month onwards, sup-
plements should be gradually added to provide those nutrients which are not sup-
plied by milk.
From the fifth to ninth month onwards, the infant should be weaned by substitut-
ing a cup feeding for a breastfeeding. This change should be gradual and at inter-
vals till the infant is weaned from the breast to the cup before the age of one year.
Nutritional requirements Human milk is the best food for infants. The next best
substitute is cow’s milk or modified buffalo milk. Buffalo milk is modified as it con-
tains a larger percentage of protein, fat, calcium, and energy as compared to human
milk and a lesser percentage of sugar. It is modified by partially skimming it, dilut-
ing it with water, and adding little sugar so that its composition resembles human
milk.
Supplementary foods during the first year The age at which supplementary foods
should be included depends on a number of factors such as literacy of mother, eco-
~ nomic factors, and time available. Supplements if not prepared, stored, and fed to
the infant in hygienic conditions is one of the main causes for diarrhoea and
gastro-intestinal upsets. While introducing a new food the following points should
be borne in mind:
1. Introduce one food at a time till the infant’s system is used to the new food.
Season with salt
Give a teaspoonful in the beginning
Never force-feed an infant
Start with a thin smooth consistency initially
Once the infant is used to supplements, introduce variety
Anak
wr Follow hygienic practices and do not give any leftover food or drink to an infant.
Choice of food supplements for infants:

Egg yolk
Strained cereals
Strained soup
Soft khichdi
Rice and dal
Pureed vegetables
Ready to eat infant cereals
Stewed fruit
eS
ae
eo
a
os Fruit juice
Childhood
During these stages rapid growth takes place. There is an increase in height and
weight because of increase in the bone and muscle mass. Children use up a lot of
energy in playing. They normally carry their lunch, which should be nutritious and
interesting, or monotonous, in which case the packed lunch box comes back home
unfinished or unopened. Special efforts should be made so that they do not meet
their energy needs from junk food.
Energy More energy per kg body weight is required for:

1. Rapid growth which takes place in this age group
2. Enhanced physical activity
3. High BMR as compared to an adult.
Proteins Good quality proteins should be included to take care of body building
and maintenance of tissues. Milk proteins are complete proteins and provide calcium
as well.
Carbohydrates and fats They provide calories, and spare proteins from being oxi-
dized for energy. Refined carbohydrates and poor dental hygiene are the reasons
for dental caries in children. The consumption of fruits and vegetables, both cooked
and uncooked, should be encouraged. Junk food and aerated beverages should be
discouraged.
Vitamins and minerals If the diet is well planned keeping the principles of menu
planning in mind, supplements may not be necessary.
Fluid Adequate fluid is necessary, specially in active children who play outdoor
games and sweat a lot. Fluids should not kill the appetite, which is seen when chil-
dren are thirsty and drink a lot of liquid just before a meal.
%
Points to be considered:
Regular meal timings

No nibbling low nutrient dense snacks between meals
Do not force feed, let the normal appetite return
Meal timing should be pleasant
et
IND
Oe
KayeFood should be appetizing and attractively served. Finger foods should be
preferred for children
6. Packed meals should not be messy to eat
7. Attractive colours and shapes appeal to children, and with a little imagina-
tion eating green vegetables and drinking milk could become more inter-
esting.
Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of physiological stress for the body because of extremely
rapid rate of growth. The appearance of sex characteristic is also accompanied by
mental and emotional changes: The diet plays a crucial role in promoting growth,
hence the RDAs for all nutrients are high during 13-18 years of age. Nutrients of
particular importance are carbohydrates and fats for energy and proteins, iron and
calcium for body building.
During adolescence the basal metabolic rate (BMR) accelerates once again
because of the growth spurt and other hormonal changes which take place. The
BMR of boys is higher than that of girls because of more muscle tissue. a
Food habits change drastically because of peer pressure, maintaining one’s figure
and weight, skin problems, and the newly found independence.
Energy Energy needs are high because of higher physical activity and BMR.
Sports and aerobic exercises increase the energy requirements for sports people.
Proteins A generous intake of high quality proteins is necessary for increase in
muscles mass and skeletal development. A deficiency of calories and proteins can
affect one’s optimum height increase and resistance to infections.
Girls grow rapidly between 11-14 years and boys grow rapidly between 13-16
years. Initially, girls are taller than boys between 11-12 years. But later the growth
rate is more in boys. Weight gain is a common problem in this age group which is
tackled differently by both the sexes. Boys prefer exercise as a means of losing
weight and body building while girls prefer going on a diet.
A deficiency of calcium/vitamin D during infancy or childhood results in rickets
(deforming of bones).The weak bones cannot withstand the weight of the body and
bend causing bow legs or knock knees. Once malformed, bones cannot be
straightened. The effect of rickets is seen in adolescents and adults. Along with
1. Bow legs 2. Knock knees 3. Normal legs
Fig. 21.2 Bow legs, knock knees, and normal legs
weight, emotional stress has an adverse effect on health and diet. Friction between
parents and adolescents is another area of tension.
Snacks are the all-time favourite food, which often forms a large percentage of
energy intake, favourite snacks being burgers, pizzas, pastries, ice creams, french
fries, pav wada, pav bhaji, popcorn, and South Indian snacks. Milk is substituted
by tea/coffee (which is more of a social need) or aerated beverages. This trend
indicates a high consumption of refined flour, hydrogenated fats, and potato.
South Indian snacks are a better option as they are made from a cereal—pulse
combination.
In general, the diet is deficient in the protein food group and protective food group.
Food such as milk, green leafy vegetables, yellow fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits,
and whole grain cereals are deficient in the diet of adolescents. Deficiencies during
infancy and childhood may leave their scar in adolescence.
Anorexia nervosa This is a disorder seen in adolescent girls concerning figure and
weight control. The onset of puberty results in widening of the pelvis and deposi-
tion of subcutaneous fat creating a psychological problem in figure conscious young
girls. They resort to crash diets for weight loss. This self-induced starvation to attain
a slim figure leads to weight loss, loss of muscle tissue, a low BMR, and serious - \
health problems.
Bulimia It is another disorder in which the appetite increases drastically followed

by induced vomiting to throw out whatever has been consumed. Bulimia creates
both emotional and physical problems and is also known as the gorging — purging
syndrome. Both disorders are mainly seen in adolescent girls from affluent families.
Nutrition in old age or geriatric nutrition is gaining importance as longevity has

increased and 65 plus is the fastest growing segment of our population.
Aging is an individual phenomenon depending to a large extent on the health
and nutrition status of an individual throughout his life span. People grow old at dif-
ferent rates and in different ways. Aging continues from birth throughout life.
Apart from the biological changes which occur with age, psychological and social
changes are also seen. The body functions slow down, there is increasing social stress,
and isolation. The elderly are often lonely, restless, and unhappy. They feel they are
a burden and cannot contribute physically or monetarily to the family.
The following changes are seen in old age.
Body composition As age advance, adults lose muscle mass and gain fat. Since
active muscle is lost, BMR reduces with age. Bone loss occurs leading to a reduc-
tion in height. Collagen content increases giving rise to loss of elasticity in blood
vessels, joints, and skin, seen as easy bruises, painful joints, and a wrinkled skin.
Sensory changes The five senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch become
dim with age. Old people cannot see without bright light, hearing is impaired affect-
ing their social behaviour, and the other senses are less acute.
Digestive functions Loss of teeth and ill-fitting dentures make it necessary to serve
soft well-cooked food. Decreased secretion of saliva makes food difficult to swallow.
Heartburn, diarrhoea, or constipation are other complaints.
Metabolic changes Changes in metabolism, specially glucose tolerance and
anaemias, are sometimes seen.
Osteopenia and osteoporosis are seen resulting in excessive bone loss, and fractures
due to normal stress is another common finding. Because of age-related disabilities,
the elderly should not live alone as they require assistance for all activities and com-
pany to overcome psychosocial changes in their life.
Nutritional requirements The main features of the diet are as follows:
iis A low calorie diet of 1,000-1,500 kCal, as there is a reduction in the basal
metabolic rate (BMR).
Good quality protein, calcium, and iron. Vitamin A, vitamin C, and folic acid
to prevent anaemia.
Food should be easy to chew, liquid preparations should be included in each
meal as they are light and easy to digest.
Hot meals should be served attractively as appetite is low.
Five small meals should be preferred to a three meal pattern.
Gas forming foods and strongly flavoured vegetables such as bengal gram,
cauliflower, cabbage, and onion should be avoided.
Fibre rich foods such as whole grains, green leafy vegetables, pulses, and fruits
are nutritious and provide fibre necessary for normal elimination. They should
be incorporated into the diet gradually to prevent gastric irritation and gas.
Fluids: Ample fluids are necessary to flush out toxic wastes. The kidneys
function at a slower pace with age, but fluids help in excretion of toxins.
Low calorie density and high satiety value foods should be included.
EFFECT OF QUANTITY COOKING AND PROCESSING ON NUTRIENTS

Almost all foods consumed today need some form of cooking and processing before
it is fit for service and consumption. Fruits and vegetables used in salads or for chut-
ney are consumed uncooked. The nutrients we receive from the meals we consume
depend to a large extent on cooking and processing practices which are being used.
While some amount of nutrient loss is inevitable, cooking has many benefits which
are listed below.
Benefits of Cooking Food

L: Cooking increases palatability ,
2 Cooking makes food easier to digest by destroying anti-digestive factors such
as trypsin inhibitor in soya beans
3. Pathogenic micro-organisms are destroyed
4, Shelf life is increased by destruction of spoilage organisms and denaturation
of enzymes
O: The appearance of food improves, e.g., cooked meat versus raw meat.
Common Food Processing Techniques

1. Removal of unwanted outer layers, e.g., potato peels, inedible shells and
scales of fish, and pea pods, and removal of inedible seeds, stone, etc.
2. Cutting, slicing, mincing, grinding, or reducing the size of vegetables, fruit,

meats, etc.
3. Liquefaction and emulsification, milling, and blending
= Heat treatment — blanching, cooking by various methods such as boiling,
frying, and roasting
5. Incorporation of air — beating, whipping, aeration of soft drinks
6. Extrusion
i Dehydration, freeze drying, deep freezing, etc.
8 Fermentation.
Food prepared in large quantity in Institutional Kitchens or in food processing

plants is more prone to loss of nutrients, if adequate care is not taken to retain or
preserve the nutrient. This is because if food is cooked in bulk, the pre-preparation
begins hours in advance, for example, vegetables have to be cut in advance and if
these are not blanched and refrigerated to inactivate enzymes, oxidative losses of
labile vitamins will continue at room temperature. Apart from nutritive value, the
crisp texture of salads is also lost and phenol containing vegetables will discolour
and turn brown, making the dish unattractive and unappetizing.
Effect of heat on nutrients Cooking has beneficial effects on carbohydrates
because of gelatinization of starch, favourable browning reactions such as Maillard
reaction and caramelization of sugar which gives colour and flavour to food.
Proteins too take part in Maillard reaction along with sugar. Enzymes which
catalyse undesirable enzymatic reactions in fruits such as apple and pears, and veg-
etables such as potato and brinjal are inactivated on blanching or cooking these
foods. Enzymes which hasten oxidative destruction of vitamin C or ascorbic acid
are denatured by blanching. Proteins get denatured by heat.
The chemical reactions that take place when oil is heated continuously during
deep fat frying bring about hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization of the oil.
The moisture from the foods being fried hydrolyse fat into free fatty acids, mono-
and diglycerides and glycerol.
CH,:O-CO-R, Gefts D, COR
CH’ O'CO- Rat He pee FOR + HOOC:-R;
CH,:0-CO:R; CH,:-OH
Triglyceride Diglyceride Fatty acid
The release of moisture, high frying temperatures of 160°-190°C, presence of car-
bonized crumbs in the oil, and oxygen from the atmosphere during frying brings
about oxidation of the oil. Repeated use of the frying medium forms thermal and
oxidative products which can cause gastro-intestinal irritation and destruction of
vitamins. These products undergo polymerization and increase the viscosity of the
oil. The oil darkens in colour, has a lower smoke point, and foams when used for
frying. Such oil should be discarded. Fat soluble vitamins ‘dissolve in fat used for
deep frying specially if food to be fried is not well coated.
Effect of alkali Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegeta-
bles, make pectin soluble, and dissolve hemicellulose. It is also used as lye
(sodium hydroxide) to peel vegetables during processing. A pinch of sodium
bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening the green colour.
However, B-complex vitamins and ascorbic acid are destroyed in an alkaline
medium. The use of alkali to hasten the cooking process for vegetables and puls-
es should be discouraged. Excessive cooking in an alkaline medium not only
destroys vitamins, but makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to the
product.
Effect of acid An acidic medium while cooking helps preserve water soluble vita-
mins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and vegetables. Vegetables
Table 21.4 Enhancing nutritive value of food
ESS PS
Fortification/enrichment | Salt lodine

Bread Lysine (amino acid)
Hydrogenated fat Vitamin A and vitamin D
Flour Vitamin B;, niacin, Fe, and Ca
Fruit juice Vitamin C
Sprouting Whole grain cereals Vitamin C
and pulses B-complex vitamin
Bioavailability of iron increases
Fermentation Cereal and pulse batters Thiamine, riboflavin, and

Bread dough niacin
Food combinations 1. Cereal + pulse Protein quality improves,

2. Cereal + small quantity . becomes complete protein
of animal protein
3. Cereal + pulse + green leafy
vegetable
lron utensils for cooking | Any food, preferably acidic food

and tempering cooked or stirred or tempered
with iron cooking utensils
Correct cooking All foodstuffs correct washing, Maximum retention

methods pre-preparation, cooking, and of nutrients
storage procedures
_ Menu Planning and Mass Food Production 315
Soaking and
sprouting
whole grains
Food combinations
Enhancing nutritive
value of food
Iron utensils yeortification/

enrichment
Correct cooking
methods
Fig. 21.3 Simple measures to enhance nutritive value of food
and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic medium as acids precipitate
pectin and hardens vegetables.
Effect of washing and soaking While preparing food, water soluble vitamins and
minerals leach out into the cooking or washing water. These losses can be minimized
by washing the uncut fruit or vegetables and not soaking the cut vegetable in water.
Soaking grains or pulses is beneficial as soaking increases digestibility and
reduces cooking time.
Effect of sprouting and fermentation Soaking whole grains overnight in water
and tying them in a muslin cloth to allow them to germinate has many beneficial
effects.
1. In sprouted grains, the dormant seed becomes active and synthesizes
vitamin C.
2. Partial breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats begin, making it easier
to digest.
3. The bio-availability of nutrients especially calcium and iron increases.
4. The active seeds synthesizes vitamin C or ascorbic acid and thiamine,
riboflavin, and niacin content increases.
Exposure to air or oxidation Exposure of finely divided foods to oxygen of the air
reduces the vitamin C content by oxidation. The enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase is
released when fruits and vegetables are cut. The enzyme activity is temperature —
dependant and can be inactivated by blanching, or by storing cut fruits and vegeta-
bles at refrigeration temperatures or by adding acid.
Vitamin A is destroyed on exposure to air. The colour of cut carrots (carotene)
fades due to oxidation and B-complex vitamins are also affected.
Milling Whole meal flour contains all nutrients present in the grain. In flour with
100% extraction no nutrients are lost. Low extraction flours (45% extraction) are
light in colour and are mainly starch with some protein and fat. Approximately 70%
of all B-complex vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre present in the whole grain are
lost during milling.
Polished rice (the form in which rice is consumed) loses 75% vitamin By or thi-
amine, while parboiling helps in retaining some of the vitamin.
Cooking and processing practices vary widely from one region to another,
hence no authentic information on exact losses can be known. While cooking
has both adverse and beneficial effects, proper practices can minimize the
adverse effects and maximize the benefits so that food can become more whole-
some and safe.
LR ALR SRO STEVE LR SR PLT PS LS TT ETT 3) ODED FEW ABR ETB NPE REHEARSAL MERLE REL LSE TEL LLL LANL TELE LETT,
SUMMARY
Meal planning and measures to retain nutrients in food cooked in large quantity is
gaining greater significance because of the change in lifestyle since the past two to
three decades. Eating out is no longer an occassional event but a way of life and the
dependency on the caterer to provide the day’s supply of nutrients has increased.
Lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and heart attacks are on
the rise because of lessened physical activity brought about by.mechanization and
increased intake of calorie and saturated fat dense foods for the innumerable cele-
brations that are part of one’s life.
The principle of menu planning is to provide wholesome and attractive meals
at an affordable cost to individuals in all types of food service establishment spe-
cially where the individual depends for all meals on the caterer. Meals are
planned keeping all factors of menu planning in mind. The nutritive value and
planning process can be simplified by following the three basic food group clas-
sification. This can be used to quickly check the adequacy of one’s diet. The nutri-
tive value of any recipe can be calculated using the food composition tables. This
is a lengthy process.
Nutritional needs change during our lifetime because of physiological, psycho-
logical, and social changes which influence our meal consumption patterns. The
changing needs should be kept in mind if optimum nutrition is to be maintained.
Food cooked in bulk needs prior pre-preparation and remains hot for a longer time.
It is reheated often over an extended lunch hour which further reduces its nutritive
value. The caterer should take all precautions to preserve and enhance the nutrient
content of foods served.
ee
SRST ee
SSS =. SSS SSS
SSSR SSS SSS La
STR UR TP
LTR TTT
I TLE SLE UL LES TE A
KEY TERMS
Aging Process of gradual physiological changes which Osteopenia A disease characterized by very little
take place during life, specially visible in adulthood. bone mass.
Anorexia nervosa Loss of appetite due to psycho- Osteoporosis Reduction in bone tissue, weakening
logical disturbance resulting in loss of muscle tissue, | of the bones, making them prone to fractures.
weight loss, and low BMR. Self-imposed starvation. Pathogens Micro-organisms capable of causing disease.
Bulimia Gorging on food and throwing up to get rid Satiety value Feeling of satisfaction and fullness and
of what is eaten. not feeling hungry till the next meal.
Geriatrics The science dealing with disease and care Weaning Shifting the infant's feeding gradually from
of the elderly. breast to bottle or cup.
SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS PL ELE LGR EO ELE TR LEBEL LT ELE LLL ETLEE LLL IT TT TAIL LE TL ELE ENE,
REVIEW GUESTIONS
Ql What are the advantages of menu planning?
Q2 List any eight factors which influence menu planning.
Q3 Explain the three group classification of food. What is the basis for this
classification?
Q4 Why should a pregnant woman be particular about her diet?
Q5 List any five advantages of breastfeeding.
Q6 What changes in old age affect menu planning for the elderly?
Q7 Explain the following.
i Anorexia nervosa
ii Weaning foods
iii Food composition table
Q8_ As a chef in a restaurant, what measures would you take to enhance the
nutritive value of foods served?
Q9 Using the three basic food group classification check the nutrtient adequacy
of the meals consumed by you in one day.
Q10 With the help of the food composition table, calculate the nutritive value of
any four recipes you have prepared in the food production laboratory.
INTRODUCTION
n Chapter 20 on balanced diets, we have read that a balanced diet is one which
provides all the nutrients needed by a person to support life, maintain good
health, to hasten recovery from illness, and take care of any short durations of
emergency such as days on which one fasts, misses meals, or nutrients lacking in the
diet. Very often illness or disease may alter the nutrient requirements of individuals.
Sometimes the patient’s condition is such that he cannot tolerate or is not allowed
to consume certain nutrients. For example, a diabetic cannot utilize glucose. Since the
end product of carbohydrate digestion is glucose, the carbohydrate content of the diet
needs to be modified. In such cases, the diet is modified to bring down blood glucose
levels, hasten recovery, and prevent complications arising due to diabetes mellitus.
ae EE Modified
OGHIIC Diets | 319
VIEDS ONS
The normal diet is used as the basis for all modified diets.
Diet therapy is defined as the use of food in the treatment of a disease. This is done
by changing the normal diet in order to meet the altered requirements resulting
from the illness or injury.
The aim of diet therapy is to maintain or restore good nutrition.
PURPOSE OF DIET THERAPY

Maintain normal nutrition and health, e.g., modified diets are based on balanced
diets
Treat deficiency diseases, e.g., high-protein, high-calorie diet in protein calorie
malnutrition
Alter nutrient requirement according to body’s ability to use the nutrient, e.g.,
modify carbohydrates in a diabetic diet
Give rest to an organ or to the body, e.g., intravenous fluids in severe vomiting
and diarrhoea
Change body weight, e.g., low-calorie diet in obesity to lose weight.
The clinical dietitian in a hospital is responsible for planning therapeutic ciets for
patients as per the doctors diet prescription. The administrative dietitian manages
food service establishments.
Dietetics It is the science and art of feeding individuals or groups under different health
and economic conditions according to the principles of nutrition and management.
CLASSIFICATION OF MODIFIED DIETS

The diet is normally altered or modified in the following ways:
1. Modification in consistency
2. Modification in nutrient content
3. Modification in quantity
4. Modification in method of feeding
Modified diets
Consistency Nutrient Quantity Special

1. Clear liquid content 1. Obesity aa of
2. Vomiting eeding
2. Full liquid 1. High protein
2. Low protein 3. Diarrhoea ar Wrte |
3. Soft
3. Sodiumrestricted 4. Diabetes Enteral Parenteral
4. Mechanical soft
diet 4. Low fat (by way of enteron or (by other routes
5. High fibre intestine) not via the intestine)
5. Light diet
6.Pureed diet Tube feeding, IV fluids
7. Bland diet e.g., formula e.g., Saline
diet 5% dextrose
Fig. 22.1 Classification of modified diets

Modifications in Consistency
Clear fluid diet The clear liquid diet is used for short periods when there is acute
vomiting or diarrhoea, when minimal bowel residue is desired, and to test the indi-
viduals ability to tolerate oral food.
This diet is free from any solids, even those found in milk. The clear fluid diet is
inadequate in all nutrients and should be used only for 1-2 days. The main purpose
of this diet is to prevent dehydration and relieve thirst. It is high in simple sugars
and needs to be modified for diabetic individuals. The amount of fluid given initially
is 40-80 ml/hour, which is gradually increased to 100-120 ml/hour.
Foods included:
1. Fruit juices — apple, orange, grape juices
2. Cereal water — barley water, arrowroot water, sago kanji, rice kanji
3. Soups - clear consomme, fat-free broth
4, Beverages - tea, coffee with lime and sugar (no milk), lime juice, coconut
water, sugar cane juice, carbonated beverages
5. Flavoured gelatin and fruit ices.
Full liquid diet This diet is prescribed for individuals who are unable to chew,
swallow, or tolerate solid foods. It is given after the clear liquid diet and before starting
solid foods.
It is composed of foods that are liquid at room temperature. If it is well planned
it can meet most of the RDA’s. However, due to difficulty in consuming adequate
amounts of foods from the body building food and cereal food group, vitamin and
mineral supplements should be given if the diet is to be used for longer durations.
It is prescribed during acute infections, gastritis, diarrhoea when milk is permitted,
after surgery, and for people too ill to eat solid food.
Foods included:
1. Cream soups, dal soup, whipped potatoes
2. Eggnog, milk shakes, plain ice cream, China grass jelly, custard
3. Oat meal, arrowroot, and sago kanji with milk
4. Soyamilk, complan, lassi, cocoa.
Soft diet This diet is given between the full liquid diet and light diet or the general
hospital diet. It is given during convalescence, acute infections, gastrointestinal dis-
orders, and after surgery.
The foods included in this diet are soft in texture and consistency, easy to chew
and digest with very little fibre, spices, and condiments. Spicy, highly seasoned, and
fried foods are avoided as they may cause heartburn, belching, and indigestion.
Strongly flavoured vegetables and gassy foods can cause discomfort because of flatus
or gas produced by bacterial fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates.
Modified Diets 321
Foods included: A wide variety of foods from the basic food groups can be
seleced and a nutritionally adequate diet can be planned. Cooking methods
should be boiling, steaming, poaching, or stewing. Fruits and vegetables with
coarse skins, rough fibres, and seeds, e.g., guava and jackfruit should be avoided.
Strongly flavoured vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, onions; Bengal gram,
fried eggs, omelettes, all salads, sweetmeats, and masalas and pickles should be
avoided.
Mechanical soft diet This is also called a dental diet and is a variation of the soft
diet. It includes foods which are easy to chew and swallow. There is no restriction
on seasoning or method of preparation. The texture or consistency of food may be
modified by mechanical processing such as mashing, blenderizing, or chopping.
This diet is nutritionally adequate if well planned and is given to individuals who
have difficulty in chewing or swallowing because of teeth and gum problems.
Light diet or the general hospital diet It is similar to the soft diet and also includes
simple salads, fruit salads and paneer.
Pureed diet ‘This is given to individuals who have difficulty in chewing and swallow-
ing food. It includes all liquid and semi-liquid foods which require no mastication.
Foods included:
1. Milk and milk beverages, eggnog, lassi, cream soups, custard, ice cream
2. All fruit and vegetable purees and juices
3. Soft scrambled egg, boiled mashed dals
4. Soft cooked cereals, oat meal
Bland diet This diet is prescribed for individuals suffering from gastric or duode-
nal ulcers, gastritis, and ulcerative colitis. It includes foods which are mechanically,
chemically, and thermally non-irritating, Foods low in fibre are recommended.
Stimulating beverages and spicy foods increase the secretion of gastric juice which
in turn causes pain when in contact with the ulcer.
Foods to avoid include strong tea, coffee, alcoholic beverages, condiments, and
spices such as black pepper, red chilli powder, cloves, mustard seeds, and nutmeg.
High-fibre foods and hot soups and beverages should be avoided. Fried foods and
strongly flavoured sulphur containing vegetables should be avoided.
Foods included:
Milk and milk-based preparations

Refined cereals and rice
Cream, butter
Cooked fruits and vegetables without peel and seeds
Dehusked pulses, boiled, baked, or stewed tender cuts of meat/poultry and fish
wd All egg preparations except omelettes and fried eggs
Aare
322 Food Science and Nutrition ee ee ee ee ee ee
Table 22.1 Diseases with nutrient modifications
Fat controlled, low-cholesterol diet
Restricted fat diets
Hypertension, cardiovascular disease | Sodium restricted diet
Lactose-free diet
Hepatic coma Low-protein diet
Underweight, malnutrition High-calorie diet
Modifications in Nutrient Content

The nutrient content of the diet is modified to treat deficiencies, change body weight,
or control diseases such as hypertension and diabetes. The type and amount of nutri-
ent needs to be modified, e.g., in diabetes not only does the amount of carbohydrate
need to be reduced but the type of carbohydrates allowed need to be modified, i.e.,
complex carbohydrates are included instead of simple sugars.
Table 22.1 lists some of the diseases with nutrient modifications required.
Modifications in fibre The terms roughage, residue, bulk, and fibre have been
used to describe the indigestible components of food. The term fibre will be used for
all the indigestible polysaccharides and lignin which remains after digestion of food.
High-fibre diet The high fibre diet is used to prevent and treat constipation and
diverticulosis. Fibre absorbs water to produce soft, bulky stools and increases
faecal transit time. It is also prescribed in obesity to increase the volume of
food being consumed without increasing the calorie content of the meal.
Foods included:
1. All milk and milk products

2. All body building foods specially whole pulses, nuts, and oilseeds
3. All fruits and vegetables especially with edible skins, seeds, and mem-
branes and those which can be consumed raw. For example, whole
orange segments with white membranes is preferred to orange juice
4. Whole grain cereals, green leafy vegetables
Low-fibre low-residue diet This diet is presribed during acute infections of the
gastrointestinal tract such as ulcerative colitis, acute diverticulitis, and severe
diarrhoea.
Modified Diets 323
This diet includes foods that leave a small faecal mass after digestion and absorption.
Only those foods which can be completely absorbed are included.
Foods such as arrowroot kanji, barley water, whey water, and sago kheer are
recommended. Foods avoided are fruits and vegetables high in fibre, nuts and
oilseeds, and whole grains. Refined cereals, meat, fish, poultry, eggs are permitted.
Milk is permitted in limited quantities as it leaves a residue. A maximum quan-
tity of two cups milk/day is permitted in the form of milk, paneer, or curds. Fruits
and vegetables with 2 g or less fibre are permitted. All fruit and vegetable juices
and cooked vegetables such as bottle gourd and potato are permitted.
Modifications in Quantity
The quantity of food served to the patient needs to be modified to check tolerance,
control nutrient levels, and bring about weight loss.
In acute vomiting, the quantity of fluid given is 40-80 ml/hour to check the indi-
viduals ability to tolerate oral feeding.
In a diabetic diet, the quantity of carbohydrate in each meal is as important as
the quantity of carbohydrate consumed in a day.
Modifications in Method of Feeding

Enteral feeding [Feeding by way of enteron or intestine but not by mouth.
Sometimes oral feeding is not possible, and when swallowing is difficult but the gas-
trointestinal tract is functional, tube feeding is used to provide food. A wide variety
of enteral feeding formulas are available. The proteins in the formula may be natural
intact proteins of milk, egg, etc. which need digestion or partially broken down pro-
teins, i.e., protein hydrolysates and amino acids. Carbohydrates are in the form of
disaccharides or glucose polymers, which are quickly broken down to glucose. Fats
are in the form of vegetable oils, lecithin, mono and diglycerides, and medium chain
triglycerides of 8-10 carbon chains, which are specially manufactured for formula
feeding as they are digested and absorbed quickly as compared to long chain triglyc-
erides that occur in nature. Vitamins and minerals are added to make the formula
nutritionally complete.
Formulas could be prepared by blending ordinary food into a smooth and free-flowing
consistency with less viscosity. Chemical formulas require minimal digestion, are quickly
absorbed, and leave little residue, while blended formulas with ordinary food are thick and
may block the feeding tube. Feeding tubes are inserted either through the nose or through
the abdominal wall. Feeding may be done continuously or it may be intermittent.
Parenteral feeding This method of feeding is resorted to when the intestine is not
functioning and needs rest. Parenteral fluids contain water, glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins to meet the individuals requirements for all nutri-
ents. These fluids are given through the peripheral and central veins.
Sometimes only glucose or glucose and saline is administered if required for a

short duration.
DIETS FOR COMMON DISORDERS
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (mel means honey) is a chronic disorder of carbohydrate metab-
olism characterized by high blood sugar level or hyperglycemia and a high level of
sugar in the urine or glycosuria. Along with carbohydrates, the metabolism of pro-
teins and fats is also affected.
Diabetes occurs due to a lack of insulin. The B-cells of islets of Langerhans
in the pancreas secrete the hormone insulin that is required for the uptake and
utilization of glucose by the cells. If insulin is deficient, glucose is not oxidized
in the cells, resulting in hyperglycemia. The normal fasting level of glucose in
blood is 70-110 mg/100 ml blood. When the fasting level of glucose rises above
170 mg/100 ml, the renal threshold is exceeded and sugar begins to appear in the
urine. In severe uncontrolled diabetes, blood glucose levels may be as high as
400 mg/100 ml.
Symptoms of diabetes include:
Hyperglycemia or high blood sugar level
Glycosuria or presence of sugar in urine
Polyuria or frequent urination
Polydipsia or excessive thirst
Polyphagia or excessive hunger
2
SS.
SoS Ketosis or accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood due to incomplete
oxidation of fats. Fats are rapidly broken down as a source of energy since
carbohydrates cannot be utilized. A diabetic diet is mainly modified in car-
bohydrate content which should not exceed 55% of total calories. The carbo-
hydrate content should not exceed 250 g/day. A minimum level of 100 g
should be included to prevent ketosis and protein breakdown and as a source
of energy for the nervous system.
Treatment of diabetes includes:
Educating the patient about the chronic nature of the disease

Diet management and carbohydrate distribution
Regular exercise to lower blood sugar levels
he
raeControlling blood glucose levels by
(a) Oral hypoglycemic drugs
(b) Insulin injections
Modified Diets 325
Table 22.2 Diet for diabetes mellitus patients
1. Complex carbohydrates rich in dietary 1. Simple sugars and refined carbohydrates —

fibre — millets, wheat, pasta, bread sugar, jaggery, sweets, preserves
2. Higher proportion of PUFA vegetable oils | 2. Saturated fats and cholesterol in moderation —
hydrogenated fats, ghee, butter, cream
3. Good-quality proteins - lean meat, fish, 3. Alcohol, soft drinks, sweetmeats, nuts, and
eggs, pulses, milk oilseeds
4. Salads, leafy vegetables, other vegetables
Fevers and Infection

Fever is defined as an elevation in body temperature above normal temperature of
98.6°F or 37°C. This increase in temperature may be due to infection caused by
micro-organisms, body reactions, inflammation, or heat stroke. Fever is a classic
sign of infection in the body.
Fever is treated by treating the cause of fever and lowering the body temperature~
by drugs such as antipyretics and by cold sponging. Symptoms such as bodyache
are treated with rest and drugs.
The BMR increases by 7% for every degree Fahrenheit rise in body temperature.
Protein catabolism or breakdown increases and body fluids and electrolytes are lost due
to excretion of toxic metabolic wastes and excessive perspiration to bring down fever.
The stores of carbohydrate, i.e., glycogen and fat are depleted leading to weight loss.
Table 22.3. High--calorie, aa Bia diet
Foods recommended _ oC Foods to be av — -
All foods should be liquid to semi-solid Solid foods which are hard or tough, requiring
consistency. Smooth texture with no harsh lot of mastication
-| irritating fibres, strong flavour, or spicy food 1. Cereals — millets, cereal with bran or
1. Cereals — refined cereals in the form irritating dietary fibres such as whole grain
of kanji, custard, or kheer, phulka, cereals and cereal products
boiled rice 2. Fried, spicy pulse, and meat/fish/poultry
2. Good quality, easy to digest proteins — preparations
chicken soup, stew, milk-based 3. Leafy vegetables, raw fruits, and vegetables
beverages, eggnog, sweet freshly with harsh fibres
set curds, custard, complan, soft- 4. Pickle, papad
cooked khichdi, dal rice (moong dal),
boiled vegetables such as bottle ©
gourd, pumpkin, potato. Stewed
fruits, soft fruits, fruit juices, sugar
Fevers may be due to acute infections such as influenza, septic wounds or chronic fever
lasting from several days to several months as in the case of tuberculosis, typhoid, etc.
Infection or entry and growth of micro-organisms in the body is one of the most
common cause of fever. A lowered resistance to infective agents results in their pro-
liferation in the body with production of toxic metabolites that give rise to symptoms
of fever accompanied by nausea and loss of appetite.
Diet should progress from a clear liquid diet to a full liquid diet to a soft diet.
Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are diseases of the heart and blood vessels. They
are very common in India, and the incidence of these diseases is increasing rapidly.
Table 22.4 Risk factors for heart diseases
Heredity or strong family history

Males/females after menopause
Smoking
Obesity
Age group 30-55 years
Workaholic — tension and stress
Sedentary lifestyle
Diet pattern
Alcoholic
Consumes rich foods
High in fat and cholesterol

Low in fibre
Refined carbohydrates and sugars
High salt intake -
Other diseases
Hypertension
Atherosclerosis
Diabetes
Obesity
High blood lipid levels
Modified Diets 327
Cardiovascular diseases include the following:

Hypertension Hypertension is an increase in blood pressure above normal.
Normal BP is 80/120 mm mercury (Hg) diastolic/systolic pressure. The diastolic BP
is the pressure exerted by blood on artery walls when the heart is contracting and
the systolic blood pressure is the pressure exerted by blood on artery walls when
the heart is expanding.
This is the most common disease of the circulatory system and many indivi-
duals are unaware that they are suffering from hypertension. Many factors con-
tribute to high blood pressure such as atherosclerosis, obesity, and diabetes.
Atherosclerosis increases the blood pressure by causing resistance to blood flow.
The heart has to pump harder due to narrowed arteries, increasing the BP. The
increased BP in turn damages the arterial walls. In an obese individual, the amount
of tissue which needs blood supply increases, thereby increasing the work of the
heart. A loss of weight often lowers BP.
Blood pressure can be controlled by the following:
1. Restricting sodium
2. Drug therapy
3. Stress management and exercise.
Ischaemic heart disease Ischaemia is a deficiency of blood supply to the heart
muscle leading to a heart attack.
Angina pectoris Angina is tightness and severe pain across the chest due to defi-
cient oxygen supply following any exertion.
Myocardial infarction An infarct is a localized area of heart muscle which dies
due to lack of oxygen because blood supply is cut off. Myocardial infarction could
be fatal.
Table 22.5 Modified fat diet
my
Foods low in cholesterol and saturated Cholesterol-rich foods

fats 1. Whole milk, butter, cream, mawa, cheese
1. Skim milk, paneer (skim milk), (processed)
2. Cereals (whole grain), pulses, 2. Indian sweetmeats, rich puddings, bakery
products
3. High fibre and soluble fibre such as
oat meal, millets, pectin, gums 3. Organ meats (liver, brain, etc.)
4. Salad vegetables, fruits, green leafy 4. Egg yolk, fish roe, shell fish, fatty meats,
vegetables, other root vegetables processed meats
5. Nuts, oilseeds, pickles
5. Lean meat, egg white, fish
6. Margarine, vanaspati, fried food
6. Vegetable oils, sugar, jaggery
7. Alcohol
Deposition of Atheroma or
fatty material
Normal artery Lumen (Atherosclerotic artery)
Fig. 22.2 Observe the narrowing of the lumen and hardening of the artery
due to deposits of fatty material such as cholesterol, triglycerides.
Atherosclerosis is a common symptom in all CVDs. It is the chief cause of heart

attacks and strokes. Coronary arteries are the arteries which supply blood to the
heart muscle. A blockage in any coronary artery can cause a heart attack due to
death of part of the muscle. An obstruction in the blood vessels in the brain results
in a stroke. It is a term used to describe the thickening and hardening of major
blood vessels by deposits of lipids such as cholesterol and triglycerides in the
lumen of the blood vessel. These deposits reduce or stop the flow of blood, and if
a major artery is involved it leads to a heart attack. Atherosclerosis begins early in
life as soft mushy lipids get deposited in the inner walls or lumen of the artery. The
deposits gradually thicken and harden making the space through which blood flows
narrower. If a clot forms, the blood vessel is totally blocked and cannot supply oxy-
gen or nutrients to that portion of the heart muscle, leading to necrosis or death of
tissue cells which could be fatal.
Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Peptic ulcers An ulcer is a localized erosion of the mucosal lining of those portions
of the alimentary canal which come in contact with gastric juice. They occur in the
oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum.
A person suffering from ulcers gets a burning, gnawing, or piercing pain 1-3
hours after a meal. The pain is relieved on taking antacids, or eating food which
does not stimulate gastric secretion. It is treated by giving drugs to control acidity,
giving bed rest to the patient, and prescribing a bland diet that is mechanically,
thermally, and chemically non-stimulating. Ulcers are also known as the disease of
hurry, worry, and curry. Cold milk is a good buffer and is recommended to ulcer
patients along with cream or ice cream.
Diarrhoea Diarrhoea is the frequent passage of loose watery or semi-solid stools of
greater than normal volume. When blood and/or mucous is present, the condition is
Modified Diets 329
Table 22.6 Sodium-restricted diet
Foods low in sodium

4 eeeale whet Le oP ahd Foods rich in cholesterol and fat, foods rich in sodium
bie ' (as sodium chloride or any other sodium salt used
2. All fruits — fresh and canned as an additive)
3. Cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, potato, onion 1. Baking powder — cakes, cookies
4. Sugar, honey, jam, jelly 2. Soda bicarbonate — nankhatai
5. Low sodium seasonings instead of salt 3. Monosodium glutamate — Chinese food and
| 6. Lime juice food served in restaurants (MSG is used
| 7. Mint, parsley, dill, basil indiscriminately by some caterers)
8. Fresh vegetables 4. Sodium benzoate - tomato sauce
9. All other vegetables, root vegetables 5. Sodium propionate — bread
10. Vegetable oil as a cooking medium 6. Sodium chloride — salted snacks, wafers,
11. Milk in moderation Ls Rust
7. Papad, pickles
8. Vegetables in brine
9. Celery, beetroot, and spinach
10. Foods rich in cholesterol and saturated fats —
salted butter and processed cheese
The most common cause of diarrhoea is eating contaminated food or overeating,

causing indigestion. Other causes are anxiety, nervousness, antibiotic treatment, etc.
Diarrhoea is not a disease, but a symptom of an infection or disease. In this con-
dition, food passes very rapidly through the gastrointestinal tract, giving very little
time for absorption of nutrients. Prolonged diarrhoea leads to dehydration due to
loss of fluids, and electrolytes and nutrient deficiencies.
To prevent dehydration, initially only fluids, electrolytes, and dextrose (glucose) are
given orally if tolerated or intravenously to give rest to the gastrointestinal tract. This is
followed by the clear liquid diet, very low residue diet, soft fibre restricted diet, and nor-
mal diet. Oral rehydration salts (ORS) may be prescribed along with the clear liquid diet.
Diarrhoea may be acute or it may be chronic persisting for a few weeks, result-
ing in nutritional deficiencies.
Clear liquid diet is recommended for diarrhoea patients.
hard stools.
Constipation Constipation is the infrequent or difficult evacuation of
headache,
It is the opposite of diarrhoea. It is often accompanied by loss of appetite,
discomfort, and a coated tongue.
A person may get constipated due to various reasons such as
1. Irregular eating and toilet habits
9. Change in surroundings and food habits
pasta
2. Milk - all milk beverages and all milk 2. All stimulating beverages — alcohol, tea,
products, weak tea coffee, aerated drinks
3. Eggs, lean meat, fish, poultry as protein to

3. All fatty meats
heal ulcers
4. Dehusked pulses, boiled and mashed 4. Whole pulses
5. Stewed fruits, vitamin C for healing 5. Raw fruits
7. Cooking methods — boiling, baking, stewing,

7. Frying, barbecuing, salted, smoked foods
poaching
3. Lack of exercise and poor muscle tone

4, Low-fibre diet and inadequate fluid consumption to prevent passing urine at night
5. Chronic use of laxatives.
Constipation is treated by drinking adequate fluids and increasing intestinal bulk to

stimulate evacuation. Care should be taken to increase the fibre content of the diet
gradually to prevent bloating and cramps caused by excessive fibre intake. Regular
meal timings and exercise is also necessary.
Liver Disorders
The liver is the main organ associated with our digestive system. It is a complex
organ performing hundreds of functions related to nutrient metabolism, bile pro-
duction and excretion, and detoxification of poisonous substances.
Jaundice, a yellow pigmentation of the skin and tissues, is a common symptom of
liver disorders caused due to elevated levels of bile pigments. When the liver cells are
damaged due to agents such as micro-organisms, toxins, alcohol, and obstruction of bile,
the diet needs to be modified to give rest to the organ and protect and repair liver cells.
Common liver disorders are:
1. Hepatitis or inflammation and degeneration of liver cells. It is an infectious
disease which may be viral or drug induced. Type A hepatitis is caused
due to consumption of contaminated food or water mainly due to sewage
contamination.
Modified Diets 331
Table 22.8 High-fibre, moderate-fat diet for constipation
. Fluids — at least 1.5 litres 1. Refined cereals — rice, seived

2. Cereals —- whole grain cereals, flours
millets, oats 2. Dehusked pulses
3. Pulses with husk—rajmah, 3. Castor oil
ground nuts, peas
4. Fruits — raw and cooked fruits
and vegetables, guavas, figs,
pears, apples, citrus fruit
5. Milk, butter milk, butter,
ghee
6. Soups, tea, coffee
7. Green leafy vegetables,
salads
Use fruits and vegetables
with edible skin and peel
2. Cirrhosis is a chronic liver disease involving destruction of liver cells, often

associated with chronic alcoholism.
3. Hepatic coma is a serious liver disease with high levels of ammonia in blood
in which liver cells fail to function.
Liver disorders are treated by giving an appetizing protein-rich diet (except in
hepatic coma) high in carbohydrate with a moderate restriction in fat. Adequate bed
rest is also essential to regenerate damaged liver cells.
Symptoms of liver disorder (hepatitis) are nausea, vomiting, anorexia or loss of
appetite, fever, abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhoea, and jaundice.
Because of these symptoms, the diet should progress in the following manner.
1. Parenteral fluids in case of severe vomiting and diarrhoea
Clear fluid diet
Full fluid diet
Soft low-fibre diet
dl High-protein, high-carbohydrate, low-to-moderate fat diet
ASS
cae
mee
Kidney Disorders
The kidneys are the main organs for excretion of nitrogenous wastes arising from
protein metabolism. Urea, which is formed from the breakdown of food and tissue
proteins, is excreted by the kidneys via the urine.
The main function of the kidneys is to maintain the normal composition and vol-
ume of blood and other body fluids. This is achieved by filtering blood to remove toxic
wastes. Blood is filtered through the millions of nephrons which are present in each
kidney. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and is made up of a
glomerulus or a filter and a long winding tubule that opens into a collecting duct
where urine is collected. Approximately 150 to 180 litres of blood is filtered by the
kidneys.
In kidney disorders, the waste products of protein metabolism, fluids and electrolytes
may accumulate in blood, or proteins may get filtered into the urine.
Common kidney disorders are:
Nephrosis or nephrotic syndrome It is a condition in which proteins are filtered into
the urine due to injury to the glomerulus. Accumulation of body fluids is also seen.
Renal failure The kidneys fail to function normally and waste material accumulates
in blood resulting in uremia (excess urea in blood) and ultimately coma.
Kidney stone Kidney stones or calculi form in any part of the kidney or urinary tract
causing extreme pain. They form when concentration of salts in urine is high or fluid
intake is less resulting in precipitation of salts in the form of crystals or stones.
Foods allowed will depend on the nature of mineral, e.g., calcium oxalate, calcium
phosphate, and uric acid stones. If the body loses protein, the protein content of the
diet will need to be increased. If urea accumulates in blood, the protein content of the
diet will have to be reduced. Fluids and electrolytes need to be controlled if there is
water retention. ,
In kidney disorders like liver disorders, nutrients have to be modified depending
on the symptoms and nature of the disorder. :
Table 22.9. High-protein, high-carbohydrate, low to moderate fat diet
. Nutritious beverages . Strongly flavoured

vegetables
. Soft-cooked cereals and “Enedtodds
pulses
3. Fruits . Food with high-fat content
. Vegetables . Nuts and oilseeds
. Milk and milk products . Rich desserts and pastries
. Spicy and highly seasoned
. Lean meat, fish, poultry
foods
. Eggs
. Jam, jelly, sugar
. Simple desserts
Modified Diets 333
SSUSGSE SRSSSS
SS SSS SSSSSSSS TST
TSE
TY a ARDEA TINM WELBONSELIG TROY EAH OLEH ETTORE
SIO TIE RE UTE LILI
SUMMARY
A well-planned balanced diet can not only promote and preserve good health but
can also act as a therapeutic aid in restoring health. A diet which is planned for
treatment of a disease is a therapeutic diet. There are many types of therapeutic
diets with modifications in nutrient content, quantity, consistency or texture, and
special method of feeding. The aim of diet therapy is to treat deficiency, diseases,
alter nutrient requirements according to the body’s ability to metabolize nutrients,
to give rest to the body or to an organ, and to change body weight.
The normal balanced diet is the basis for planning modified diets. Modified
diets include the liquid diets — clear liquid and full liquid diets, the soft diet, light
diet, pureed diet, mechanical soft or dental soft diet, and bland diet. Nutrient
content is modified to treat nutrient deficiencies or adapt to the body’s ability to
metabolize nutrients. Modifications in quantity and special methods of feeding
by a nasogastric tube or by intravenous fluids in case of patients who are too ill
to eat or in cases when an organ needs rest are also used as part of the treatment.
Special diets for diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and atherosclerosis — all
lifestyle diseases; for fevers and infections; gastrointestinal disorders; cardiovascular
diseases; and kidney and liver diseases have also been outlined for ready reference.
ene POLISH A AEN SI SDE STITT FLARE EAR LL RRL LE LES MLE A LEE HP TET MUTE TELE EETARR LTT ELLE TETLEELTEM IIE LEME
KEY TERMS
Clear liquid diet A diet comprising of clear liquids foods, or commercial formulas may be purchased. A
<
without milk which provides fluids and electrolytes nasogastric tube is used for feeding. Formulas should
and few calories. be smooth and free flowing.
Convalescence The period during which the clinical Full fluid diet A diet comprising of liquids and solids
symptoms of disease have gone but the person is not which liquify at body temperature and is generally
fit to resume normal work and needs rest and proper milk based.
nourishment. Gastritis Inflammation of the stomach.
Diverticulosis Tiny sacs or pouches in the colon called Nasogastric tube A flexible plastic tube inserted
diverticula which when inflammed cause diverticulitis. through the nose into the stomach through which
Enteral Any feeding involving the gastrointestinal a formula containing nutrients in required amounts
is fed. Used for persons who cannot chew or
tract. Term used specially for tube feeding when
swallowing food is difficult due to obstructions in the swallow.
oesophagus, surgery, etc. . Parenteral Method of feeding via the peripheral
veins when the intestine is not functioning.
Flatus Gas produced by bacterial fermentation of
indigestible carbohydrate in the colon. Protein hydrolysates Partially broken down proteins
in the form of small peptides and amino acids used in
Formula feeding Feeding the patient a nutritionally
formula feeding.
adequate meal which is made by blending ordinary LEAL TIIE ELE pense IR ERO UT ELBURN SR SOLAN ETT EIT ML MECN ON
ET CPR ETE LER EILE LLP EM LELE LE ILLES pa RRR LSESEIU
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Answer briefly.
Why do calorie needs increase when suffering from fever?
Why is fat restricted in liver disorders?
i Why is protein restricted in kidney failure?
Why does blood sugar increase in diabetes mellitus?
Why is strong tea or coffee not served to peptic ulcer patients?
Match the following disease in column I with a suitable answer from column II
I II
Disease Symptom
a Diabetes 1 Atheroselerosis
b Hepatitis 2 Rise in body temperature
c. Cardiovascular disease 3 Dermatitis
d. Peptic ulcer 4 Hyperglycemia
e. Fever 5 Pain in the spinal cord
6 Jaundice
7 Dementia
8 Burning, gnawing pain in the stomach
Describe the following and state when it is prescribed.
Bland diet
Clear liquid diet
i Full liquid diet
Low residue diet
Classify the various types of modified diets and state the basis for classification.
Apart from diet, what are the other factors responsible for cardiovascular
diseases?
What foods need to be restricted in a low-sodium diet. List any ten foods.
Define atherosclerosis and hypertension, and diabetes mellitus.
How would you modify a diet to prevent constipation? What other advice
would you give the person?
List ten popular items on a typical Indian restaurant menu, which are suit-
able for a diabetic individual.
NEED FOR SERVING NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH-SPECIFIC MEALS
ood provided by residential institutions such as boarding schools, college hos-

tels, hospitals, and old-age homes are probably the only source of nutrition
and must be adequate. The list of residential institutes is long, and it is the
responsibility and moral obligation of the caterer to provide nutritionally adequate
meals to the residents. Sample menus based on the principles of meal planning and
RDAs should be provided to the caterer to ensure that the meal is balanced as well as
attractive, appetizing, and affordable. Correct cooking practices should be followed to
prevent losses of heat-labile nutrients, oxidative losses as well as leaching losses. While
selecting commodities, fruits and vegetables at the proper stage of maturity, which are
fresh and intact, should be purchased. If convenience foods are to be purchased, their
cost should be considered. The food standards laid down by the government for
various commodities should be checked especially for compulsory standards. For

example, the Fruit Product Order for processed fruit and vegetable products such
as tomato sauce, pineapple slices in syrup, and sweet corn cream style. Just plan-
ning balanced meals is not sufficient. The nutrients present in the food should be
conserved while preparing food, and cooking practices which enhance nutrients
should be observed.
Eating out has become a way of life. In the past, people ate in restaurants to cele-
brate a special occassion or it was the weary traveller on the look out for bed and
board. Today, practically everybody who steps out of the house for work, education,
or business has at least one main meal away from home. A number of food joints to
suit every strata of society have mushroomed in towns and cities. Many of these
places are unlicenced, with the food handler having little or no knowledge about
nutrients and nutrition, health and disease. The purpose of eating is to satisfy the
hunger pangs and tickle the taste buds. What the consumer looks for today is cost and
convenience, the majority paying little heed to the oil bubbling and frothing in the
frying pan, or to the indiscriminate addition of ajinomoto to make vegetarian food
more flavourful. To make quick money, hygienic practices are ignored or sufficient
investments in proper storage and cooking equipments is not made leading to the
vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition affecting work efficiency and productivity.
The need for nutritious meals, each meal meeting one-third of RDA, is necessary
for the growth and well-being of the individual and the nation. Different require-
ments based on age, gender, activity, and physiological state should be provided.
Nutritional education and awareness of the community at large is necessary. People
should be more particular about what they eat and where they eat. This is particu-
larly necessary to combat the lifestyle diseases to which youngsters are falling prey.
Some common practices which reduce the nutritional value of food and are
harmful to health are:
1. Buying poor quality fruits and vegetables in bulk because of lower rate
2. Improper storage leading to further loss of nutrients
3. Faulty cooking practices such as using excess water and then evaporating it
to get correct consistency; cutting and then washing vegetables
Overcooking and discarding cooking water (pot liquor)
Soaking vegetables in water
Cooking in an open pan
Keeping hot food hot over extended service period
Repeated reheating of entire food instead of reheating quantity required
AAS
CON Adding alkali to hasten softening of pulses and vegetables, and to preserve
green colour
10. Discarding water while boiling rice (rice should always be cooked by absorption
method)
New Trends in Nutrition 337
11. Indiscriminate use of preservatives

12. Re-using oil repeatedly for deep fat frying without adding fresh oil, or straining
out food particles in oil
13. Using trans fats for better texture in baked products
14. Frying moist foods in fat without coating the food
15. Using ajinomoto (MSG) in all preparations to bring out the flavour of food.
Ajinomoto is used in soups in place of stock. Permitted level in food is 1%
16. Indiscriminate use of food colours not permitted under PFA act 1954 in
products. For example, use of artificial red colour in tandoori chicken is not
permitted by law.
17, Switching off the deep freezer at night to save on power consumption can affect
the quality of deep frozen foods. This is done by some unscrupulous traders.
Even refreezing food which has once thawed can affect not only the nutritive
value and freshness but also the microbiological safety of the food.
Foods served in restaurants are often spicy with little attention to cooking procedures
to retain nutrients. Water soluble nutrients are often discarded along with the water in
which vegetables are soaked or boiled. Rice is cooked by the throw-away method, dis-
carding the little vitamin B, or thiamine remaining after rice is polished. The Indian
gravies are rich in fats apart from the cooking medium such as coconut paste, coconut
milk, cashew paste, poppy seeds, sesame seeds, cream, and butter which are used to
finish the product. Snacks are mostly deep-fried, and cheese and paneer are popular
ingredients in many preparations. There is no doubt that the calorie and fat content of
a restaurant meal is very high specially in saturated fats, cholesterol, and monosodium
glutamate. Both the chef and the consumer have to be alert and make wise choices
from options on the menu, opting for salads, fruit salad, and vegetables with minimal
gravy. The method of cooking used also influences the caloric content to a great extent.
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FAST FOOD AND JUNK FOOD

The fast food industry is growing rapidly all over the world to provide a quick meal
to the customer at an affordable cost and in very little time. In India the fast food
industry comprises mainly of Udupi restaurants serving south Indian and Punjabi
snacks and popular regional cuisine as well as the multi-national companies
(MNCs) such as McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Subway,
Dominos, and Barista which have franchises in major cities of India. Many products
have been modified to suit the Indian palate and respect religious sentiments. Many
of these provide take-away or drive-thru services as well as a seating area to eat food
on the premises. Modern commercial fast food is often highly processed and pre-
pared in an industrial fashion. Most items on the menu are prepared at a central
supply facility and then shipped to individual outlets where they are reheated/cooked
or assembled in a short time. The central kitchen ensures consistency in product

quality and ability to deliver the order quickly to the customer eliminating labour
and equipment costs in the individual restaurants. i
Since the fast food concept relies on speed, uniformity, and low cost, fast food
items need additives and processing to ensure flavour, consistency, and freshness of
the product. This processing often reduces the nutritive value of food. Many popu-
lar fast food items are unhealthy and excessive consumption can lead to obesity.
These foods adversely affect the eating habits and health of children who prefer
burgers, french fries, and Coke to a traditional hot meal at the table. Local cuisines
Table 23.1. Nutritive value of some fast food items
McDonald's Cheese- 330 45

burger
O-Fish
McDonald's French
Fries (large)
McDonald's Diet
Coke
Pizza Hut Pan 280 130 610 11

Pizza Pepperoni
Pizza Hut Stuffed

Cheese Crust
Se
Pizza Hut Spaghetti
with Meat Balls
WwW
Bread (1 slice)
KFC Chicken Breast a A aa

to 135 |4116
116 |
(6 pieces)
Cream Pie (1 slice)

Table 23.2 Types of convenience foods
Category 1: Basic product

The product needs some preparation before Shelled green peas
cooking
Category 2: Ready-to-cook product

The product needs no further preparation before Frozen green peas
cooking
oa Kk wh ee se eS
Category 3: Ready-to-use product
The product must be prepared and heated Instant tomato soup powder
Category 4: Precooked product

This is a prepared dish which needs to be heated Paneer Makhanwala
before consumption
Category 5: Table-ready product

The packet can be opened and consumed as it is Potato chips
are dying a slow death as people are forgetting the richer, more varied, and nour-
ishing tastes of freshly harvested seasonal food. Some fast food chains are offering
healthy alternatives of fresh fruit and salads and low-fat items in their menu.
However, these foods are still high in fat and cholesterol and refined cereals. South
Indian fast food snacks are fermented food combinations which are more nutritious
than their Western counterparts. They are a blend of cereal and pulses and are non-
greasy, easy to digest, and safe to eat.
NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF NEWLY LAUNCHED PRODUCTS

A wide variety of convenience foods are available and new products in attractive
packages are being launched everyday to meet the growing demands of working
women, single families, the elderly and commercial establishments who are too
busy to invest valuable time and labour in pre-preparations. The newly launched
products in the market can be categorized under five heads, namely:
Basic product
Ready-to-cook product
Ready-to-use product
Precooked product
Table-ready
oO product
In short these products are at the basic level cleaned, washed, peeled, and cut
or ready-to-use, ready-to-eat, or ready-to-serve. Although these products are
VBIERGYA.NI
MICROWAVE RECIPE
Take 300gms (3cups) ofbasmati riceina microwave bow! Add6 cups ofwater and salt (aspertaste)
and letitremain for half anhour. Cover and cook on micro 880 w for 18mins, Take another microwave bowl
and put int 388 gms ofchopped vegetables (eg. potato, cauliflower, peas, french beans, capsicum, carrot
ete.) and theentire packet ofParampara ¥eg Biryani Mix and 2 cups (300 mi} ofwater and mix itwell. Cover
and Cook onmicro 880w for10mins. Newspread thecooked
riceonitandadd cashew nuts, raisins and
pure ghee, Cover andkeepthisonmicro 458w. for8 mins. Delicious Veg Biryaniisready. (for 4 persons)
NOTE : Do not add anything else. This mix contains off and sait too.
oo WBE ES Wiel (Se. ane, Gerwe, Fev, Bea, Ren Prd, ior aD) 9 Ba GPR(224 FA.)
oR Tey at ah Pee wr Be Bar F aed} are Pener 9 fea aw wa) 300m (34)
TARA IRS THER (FUR AS She), WS ae Rage) IN Vag, Suwa gehs
Brame
1A 3HtaOR90 fire resWR Rene hor eakh dee ! (v cafe a fe 1)
TER: RA Seen Parl Hhorexa Fh see 8 aa A aes y wR Ba HH
INGREDIENTS:
Onion, Retined OW, Garlic, Ginger,
Coriander
leaves, Mint, Green Chilly,
Hydrogenated Vegetable fat, Chilty,
Salt, Spices, Corlandes, Suger, Lemon
(AllIngredients
inthis mix are
pure vegetarian)
Net Wt. : 100 g
STORE IN COOL PLACE
Best Betore : within 5 months from
the date ofpacking
2g
Manufactured by : Date of Packing :
PARAMPARA
FOOD PRODUCTS | patch No. :
OFFICE ; 99 Panch Pandav Soc., Retail
Gokhale Nagar, Pune -411 053,(india) taxes’
Phone : 5676968 Fax : 5675216 ee ee )
E-mail : parampra @satyam.net.in PUNE
FACTORY : Survey No. 27/1/2/2, ae es
Kharadi,
Pune - 411 014. (india) OUT OF PUNE
Rs.
Fig. 23.1 Ready-to-cook product

industrially prepared often under strict regulation and control and sometimes bac-
teriologically safer than fresh goods, if they are not stored under temperature-
controlled storage during retailing, their nutritive value and overall quality can be
grossly affected.
Many products launched in the market make health claims which at times could
be misleading. Convenience is not the main criteria, but meeting the day’s nutri-
tional needs should be checked. Some newly launched products based on soy pro-
teins, flax seeds, carotene, and vitamin E rich oils have distinct benefits while other
foods such as non-dairy creams have both advantages because of no cholesterol and
disadvantages because of fatty acid composition of vegetable oils used. Bakery
shortenings in the market are specifically designed for a particular product and the
ready products are of superior quality but the trans-fatty acids present in these fats
are harmful to health.
Trans-Fatty Acids
These are geometrical isomers of unsaturated fatty acids that assume a saturated fatty
acid-like configuration. Trans-fatty acids are commercially introduced agents created
by partial hydrogenation of the essential fatty acid thereby reducing their content in
the fat. Their use has been eliminated from retail fats and spreads in many parts of
the world, but are still used in baked goods and deep-fat fried fast foods. |
They are popular in the food industry because they have a high melting point
compared to the cis-form and help in making crisper puff pastry and other baked
products. However, clinical studies have demonstrated that they are more athero-
genic than saturated fatty acids. They increase the LDL cholesterol or bad choles-
terol and decrease the HDL cholesterol or good cholesterol affecting the ratio of
LDL to HDL cholesterol thereby increasing the risk of coronary heart diseases.
Apart from industrially hardened oils, dairy and meat fats are also a source of trans-
fatty acids.
The type of fats consumed in the diet is more important than the total amount of
fat consumed. While the intake of saturated fatty acids need to be reduced in the
diet, both mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids need to be increased and the total
fat intake should be restricted to 30% of total energy for greater cardiovascular pro-
tection. This can be achieved through appropriate admixtures of different oils or
through genetic modification of oilseed crops.
Disadvantages of consuming ready-to-serve and ready-to-cook foods:
1. They have high calorie content because of high percentage of fat and carbo-
hydrates.
2: Trans fats and saturated fats (hydrogenated fats) are used for better
organoleptic qualities.
Sodium content of ready mixes is high. Salt used in imported products is not
iodized.
The proportion of protective and regulatory nutrients is extremely small as
the vegetable content is low. They are deficient in most vitamins, minerals,
protein, and fibre.
Many foods contain artificial preservatives, colour, and taste enhancers, i.e.,
additives which may cause allergic reactions in some individuals.
Ready-to-use products are often very expensive as compared to fresh,
wholesome, and nutritious preparations.
Packaging, storage, and damage to container during transport may adversely
affect the quality.
Most of them do not provide a full meal and are lacking in proteins, vita-
min A, vitamin C, B-complex vitamins, vitamin E, and essential minerals
and fibre.
If precooked meals or table-ready snacks have to be consumed, check nutrition
facts on label before purchasing. Check fat and sodium content as well as adequacy
of protein before selecting the meal. Follow manufacturer’s instructions and add
Nutritional and product evaluation of newly launched products
Table 23.3a Dairy-free whip topping and cooking cream
Stability
Consistency
Economical
Fresh taste
Design decoration
Calorie content
Cholesterol
Curdling
Ec ale oe
a
<a:
Total carbohydrate (g)
Fibre (g)
2
esaeee
Vitamin A ara ess
i
ene
1 REET HygrmUreay
feo otan botoo onetope
Newly launched products lay emphasis on a low or zero cholesterol content.
fresh/processed fruits, vegetables, and low-fat milk or yoghurt to supplement the.

precooked meal and enhance its nutritional adequacy.
Role of Phytochemicals
A number of newly launched products have included phytochemicals (‘phyto’ is aFarm
Greek word meaning ‘plant’) in their composition. Phytochemicals are biologically

active, naturally occurrin chemical components in plant foods. They are beneficial to
health as they reduce the risk of cancer and other chronic diseases. They influence hor-
monal and enzymatic processes but their exact mechanism is not yet known. These
chemical compounds are not proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, or fibre
but are non-nutrient chemicals found in plants such as the plant pigments flavonoids,
carotenoids, anthocyanin, lycopene, indoles, terpenes, sulfides, and phytoestrogens.
These phytochemicals were earlier thought to be ‘associated food factors’ in
plants which might be as nutritionally important as vitamins and minerals. Today
Antimicrobial Effect on
properties Phe rile immune system
Phytochemicals
Cipotesterch 5dil ae Anticarcinogenic

lowering effect
property
Fig. 23.2 Functions of phytochemicals
these ‘associated food factors’ are called phyto nutrients. They may provide many
added nutritional benefits and can help reduce our risk of developing chronic
health conditions such as heart diseases, stroke, cataract, Parkinson’s disease, or
even cancer.
They are present in abundance in parsley, broccoli, alfalfa, watercress, spinach,
carrots, acerola cherries, kelp, soya beans, turmeric, yellow corn, tomatoes, cranber-
ries, blue berries, garlic, onions, flax seeds, walnuts, etc.
Since these phytochemicals are found widely distributed in fruits and vegetables,
a generous intake of fruits and vegetables containing phytochemicals is a better
option instead of consuming phytochemicals in the form of nutrient supplements or
added in multivitamin pills.
SIGNIFICANCE OF NUTRITIONAL LABELLING

Convenience foods form a significant part of the food supplies which are purchased
both for home or commercial foods. They not only save consumer’s time in the
kitchen and reduce costs due to spoilage but have been developed specifically to
preserve the oversupply of agricultural products so as to stabilize the food markets
in developed countries.
Because of advances in food preparation technology these foods have a longer
shelf life and attractive appearance, they are at a premium among people with little
cooking experience, the elderly, single people, and professional women who do not
have the time for elaborate pre-preparations and cooking.
Today, even food service establishments depend on convenience foods for
quicker service with minimum processing space. Since these foods are being fre-
quently used, it is necessary that apart from the net weight and cost of the pack,
the consumer is aware of the nutritive value of the product and the percentage of
RDAs received by consuming the product. This is of special importance ta peo-
ple on a weight reduction diet, a diabetic diet, a hypertensive diet, or an athero-
sclerotic diet. Convenience foods are often high in fat, trans fats, salt, and refined
carbohydrates. People who are sensitive or allergic to certain foods or additives
must study the labels very carefully, and this is another reason why nutritional
labelling is very important.
Prncor cubes cook ed ath COT;
= =
Fig. 23.3. Precooked products form a popular part of the meal in India and abroad
The consumer purchases a product based on the attractive packaging and cost,
the need felt for purchasing a product, and the special information mentioned on
the label. The health conscious consumer will focus his attention on the information
provided on the label.
Some countries have their own set of standards as far as nutritional labelling is
concerned. The US FDA has its own nutritional labelling regulations and if con-
venience food has to be exported to the US, the label should specify the nutrients
and be in accordance with the standards laid down by US FDA. Nutrition facts
and health claims are closely regulated in the United States.
Nutritional labelling is necessary for foods which are a meaningful source of
calories or nutrients. All nutrients need not be mentioned on the label, for example,
B-complex vitamin content need not be mentioned. Nutrition facts are required
for those foods which supply:
1. 2% or more of the RDA per serving, for example, vitamin A, vitamin C, iron,
or calcium
2. More than 40 kcal per serving or more than 0.4 kcal per gram
Fig. 23.4 Format for nutrition facts: Paneer kadhai
Serving size: 100 g

Servings per packet: 3
Amount per serving

Calories (kCal/kJ): 176/739
Calories from fat: 134
% Daily value*
Total fat
Saturated fat
Cholesterol
Sodium
Total carbohydrate
Fibre
Sugars
Protein
Vitamin A Vitamin C
Calcium lron
*Per cent daily values are based on a 2,000 calories diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending
on your calorie needs.
2,000 2,500
Total fat (less than) 65 g 80g

Saturated fat (less than) 20 g 25g
Cholesterol (less than) 300 mg 300 mg
Sodium (less than) 2,400 mg 2,400 mg
Total carbohydrate 300 g 3156
Dietary fibre 25-8 20 g
Proteins 50 g 65 g
Calories per gram

Fat: 9 Carbohydrates: 4 Proteins: 4
3. More than 35 mg of sodium per serving.

The format for the nutrition facts is fixed and any other health claim made by the
manufacturer should be mentioned on any other part of the label. Nutrition infor-
mation for any health claim is mandatory.
All nutrients are expressed in their prescribed units and as a percentage of the
RDA for a diet providing 2,000 kcal and 2,500 kcal. For example, the total daily
value for fat is 65 g on a 2,000 kcal diet or 30% kcalories from fat which is equal to
600 kcal. One standard serving of paneer kadhai contains 15 g of fat which means
135 kcal from fat or 23% of the daily value
15g
65g X 100 = 23%
Similarly, one serving of paneer kadhai provides 3 g fibre which is 12% of the
daily value
25
3g xX 100 = 12%
The daily values are the RDA for nutrients and on the label, the nutrition facts need
to be expressed as a percentage of daily values prescribed for a 2,000 and a 2,500
kcalorie diet. The US FDA has fixed the serving size for various food items and the
serving size in the packet is no longer at the discretion of the product manufacturer.
Various health claims such as fat-free, cholesterol-free, and sugar-free are made
by product manufacturers. In order to use these terms, values have been set for the
content of nutrient present and accordingly terms such as free, light, low, and high
are used to describe these products.
Any declaration on the label which is not according to law will be deemed to be
misbranded.
If a product is commonly combined with other ingredients, e.g., a biryani masala
mix and the directions for preparation and addition of other ingredients is men-
tioned then the nutritional facts may be mentioned on the basis of the product
alone. For example, it can be on the basis of nutrient value of masala mix alone, or
Fig. 23.5 Some health claims

7
Cholesterol-free Less than 2 mg cholesterol and no claims for fat

Fat-free Less than 0.5 g fat
Low fat Less than 3 g fat
Light one-third calories of reference product
Sugar-free Less than 0.5 g of sugar
Calorie-free Less than 5 kcal
High fibre More than 5 g fibre
on the basis of the final product, i.e., ready biryani with all added ingredients men-
tioned in the recipe. The additional ingredients and method of cooking on a burner
or in a microwave oven should be clearly specified in the recipe.
Some declarations are voluntary such as the declaration of potassium, soluble fibre,
insoluble fibre, stearic acid, sugar, alcohol, other carbohydrates, and B-complex vitamins.
Nutrition facts for nutrients present in small quantities can be mentioned as follows:
1. Nota significant source — less than 2% RDA for calcium, iron, vitamins A and C
Fibre, carbohydrate sugar, protein
>0.5 g = to be mentioned as zero

>1g = to be mentioned as less than one gram
For labelling a product as fresh would mean it has not been frozen, heat-processed,
or otherwise preserved in any Way
LAS
RA LS EL UU SU UE TESS TESST PLEIN
BELETT RM IRL EERIE SU SRA ST ES SETS LSE IRSA SLE PEL TOMES PLS LSS MSE WRESTTELEIL SEE SEMIS TE ETETRL NL IEE,
SUMMARY
Food provided by residential institutions is probably the only source of nutrition for
the residents, and needs to meet the RDAs for the residents. If a single meal is
served it should provide one-third the RDA, which means food should be selected,
stored, prepared, and served keeping nutrient retention in mind, and. cooking prac-
tices which enhance the nutritive value should be followed. All this is necessary
because eating out has become a way of life and more of a compulsion than a
choice. The caterer or food manufacturer should know that many nutrients can be
lost through faulty cooking practices and it is the moral responsibility of the cater-
er to ensure that food served is wholesome and safe.
The consumer is gaining awareness about nutrition and health and is making wise
choices as far as food is concerned, to keep lifestyle-related diseases away. Fast foods
which are highly processed are very convenient for a meal but the heaith benefits of
many such items is limited as they lack essential nutrients and food groups such as
vitamins, minerals, and fibre. Most fast foods are rich in fats and refined carbohydrates.
Nutritional evaluation is the need of the hour and many factors should be con-
sidered before selecting food products. A wide range of processed foods is available,
but reading the nutritive value mentioned on the label should become a matter of
habit before making a choice.
Bie TE SIMUL
REEL LEITH SEE LSU LT NET EL ELLIE LN AEE SH EER UMREET LEE LETTE FECTS
c<EY TERMS
cerola cherry One of the richest source of vitamin C. Junk food These are processed foods that are low in
ast food These are processed foods available in mar- ‘healthy nutrient content.
ket that require little or no preparation before con- Phytochemicals A large group of chemicals present
sumption. in plants which are biologically active and affect
hormonal and enzymatic processes in the body other Trans-fatty acids Geometrical isomers of unsaturat-
than the six nutrients. ed fatty acids that assume a saturated fatty acid like
Precooked product A convenience food which is configuration giving the fat a higher melting point
already cooked and only needs to be heated before and making the baked product crisper.
it is served.
SELL ETE SSS SSS SEES UR PSST MES IITTIRUPATI eEET
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Ql Why is it necessary to mention nutrient facts on the label?
Q2 Which are the nutrients that must be disclosed on a food label?
QO3 Discuss the nutritive value of fast foods and foods served in restaurants.
O4 What influence does cooking have on the nutritive value of food?
Q5 Discuss the concept of fast foods and the factors influencing the growth of
this section of the industry.
Q6 List the various categories of convenience foods giving a suitable example
for each category.
Q7 Why is a knowledge of nutrition and food processing essential for people
who prepare or manufacture food?
Index
A B
Absorption 178 Bacterial synthesis 237
Acid modified starch 54 Balanced diet 280, 318
Acrolein 17, 88 definition 283
Activity level 268, 290 steps in planning 297
Additives 4, 6 Basal Metabolic Rate 266
Adenosine Triphosphate 184, 263 factors affecting 267
Adhesion 20 test 267
Adolescence Basic food groups 283, 295
favourite foods 310 foods included 288
nutritional needs 309 guidelines 288
Agar 59, 193 Beri-beri 239
Aging 311 Bile 224
Alcohol 191 Biological value 198
beverages 192 Biotin 242
Alcoholometers 10 Bitot spots 235
Algin 59 Blanching 130
Amino acids 196 Bland diet 321
classification 197 Body Building Food Group 284
definition 208 Body Mass Index 270
essential 196 Boiling point 15
formula 196 Bomb Calorimeter 265
nonessential 197, 208 Bone and Vitamin.A 235
synthetic 203 Bow legs 310
Amla 244
Bran 193
Amylopectin 46
Amylose 45
classification 113
Anabolism 180
detrimental effects 119
Anaemia
prevention of 114
B-complex 239
role of 118
definition 246
Buffers13
hypochromic 246
Bulimia 311
megaloblastic 241, 246
pernicious 242, 246 C
Angular Stomatitis 240
Anorexia nervosa 311 Cake 76
Antagonist 237, 246 Calciferol 236
Antioxidants 215, 237, 246 Calcium 236, 250, 254
Arachidonic acid 224 absorption 250
Artificial sweeteners 56, 191 deficiency 251
Aseptic Packaging 164 functions 250
Ascorbic acid 243 sources 250
Ascorbic acid Browning 118 Calorimeters 278
Atherosclerosis 224, 327 Calorimetry 263
Autoclave 15 Canning 130
Auto-oxidation 89 Caramelization 56, 117
Avidin 242 Carbohydrates 39, 181
Index 351
classification 41, 42, 182 Coronary Heart Disease 224

complex 183 Cretinism 256
deficiency 187 Crosslinked starch 55
definition 40 Cyanocobalamin (By) ) 241
digestion 182
excess 187 D
functions 186 Deamination 208
simple 183 Deficiency
sources 185 definition 179
uses 58 Dehydration 229
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) 55 Dementia 241
Cardiovascular diseases 326 Denaturation 67
Carotene 234, 246 Density 10
sources 235 Dermatitis 241
Casein 70 Dextrin 43, 53, 183
Caseinogen 34 Diabetes mellitus 324
Catabolism 180 Diarrhoea 241, 328
Cell 179 Diet
Cellulose 183 bland 32i
Cereal and Millets clear fluid 320
group 284 definition 170
Cheilosis 240, 246 full liquid 320
Chemical preservation 134 high fibre 322
Chinese Restaurant Syndrome 107 light 321
Chloride 257 low fibre 322
Cholecalciferol 236 mechanical soft 321
Cholestesol 218 modified 318
content in food 221 modified fat 327
Chylomicrons 21, 220, 224 peptic ulcer 330
Cirrhosis 330 pureed 321
Clear fluid diet 326 sodium restricted 329
Cobalt 257 Diet therapy 319
Cocoa butter 224 purpose 319
Coenzyme 239, 240, 246 Dietary fibre (see fibre) 193
Cofactor 259 Dietetics 319
Cold Sterilization 137 Difference Tests 146
Collagen 208, 246 Digestion 175
Colloids 24 factors affecting 177
Colloidal Systems 26 Digestive System 177
Colostrum 307 Disaccharides 183
Compression 20 Dispersions 25, 36
Connective tissue 77 Diverticulosis 333
Constipation 329 Dry ice 6
Contamination 122 Duodenum 179
Controlled Atmosphere 134
Convalescence 333 E
Convenience foods 4, 339 Eczema 224
Cooking 131 Edible films 166
benefits of 312 Egg 71
effect on nutrients 312 composition 71
Cook-Chill 125 cookery 72
Cook-Freeze 126 foams 73
Copper 257
352 Index
Elasticity 21 sources 188

Electrolyte 231, 259 Fire point 18
Empty calories 193 Flash point 18
Emulsifying agent 32 Flavin adenine dinucleotide 240
Emulsions 27 Flavin mononucleotide 240
Energy 261 Flavour 103
balance 269 classification 107
cost of activities 274 definition 104
estimation of requirement 273 enhancers 106
forms 11, 262 intensifiers 106
kinetic 11 natural 105
measurement 263 processed 105
potential 11 uses 108
sources 272 Fluorine 255, 256
total requirement 266 Fluorosis 256
Enteral feeding 323 Foam 27, 35
Enzymatic Browning 113 Folic acid 241
Enzyme 179 Food
Epithelial changes 235 additives 4
Erucic acid 224 chemistry 3
Evaluation of food 142 composition table 302
objective 151 definition 169
subjective 143 energy calculations 272
Evaporation 15 fads 162
Eye-changes in Vit A def. 235 functions 169, 171
groups 283, 290
F health 163
FACT scale 145 live 163
Fats and Oils 85, 287 microbiology 6
care of 93 natural 163
classification 86 organic 162
effect of heat 92 physiological function 171
extraction 93 psychological function 172
popular 98 relation to health 170
structure 86 science 2
uses 99 social functon 172
Fatty acids 212, 86 systems 24
classification 212 technology 6
essential 213 Food groups
monounsaturated 213 five food groups 284
omega-3 214 nutritive value 297
omega-6 214 serving size 297
polyunsaturated 213 three food groups 295
saturated 215 Fondue 76
unsaturated 212 Free radicals 214, 237
Fermentation 135 Freeze drying 133
Fevers 325 Freezing 126
Fibre 183 Fructose 42, 183
content in food 189 Full liquid diet 320
functions 188
high fibre diet 322
G
low fibre, low residue 322 Galactose 42, 183
requirement 188 Garden Cress seeds 259
role of 187 Gel 27
Index 353
Gelation 51 Involuntary activities 266

Gelatin 69 Iodine 253, 255
Gelatinization 49 Ton 231
General hospital diet 321 _Tonizing rays 137
Geriatric nutrition 311 Iron 251, 254
Glossitis 240, 246 absorption 252
Glycogen 183, 269 deficiency 253
Gluconeogenesis 193 forms 252
Glucose 42, 183 functions 251
blood 184 sources 253
Gluten 77
Glycemic index 193 J
Glycerides 224 Jaundice 330
Glycerol 87
Joule 263
Glyceryl monostearate (GMS) 34 Junk food 338, 348
Glycogen 43
Glycogenesis 193 K
Glycogenolysis 193
Glycolipids 217 Keratomalacia 235
Goitre 256 Kidney disorders 331
Goitrogens 256 kidney stone 332
Growth 179 nephrosis 332
Gums 57, 59, 183 renal failure 332
Kilocalorie 11, 170, 179, 263
H Kilojoule 263
Kinetic energy 11
Haemoglobin 241 Knock knees 310
Haeme iron 252, 259 Kwashiorkor 206
Health
claims 347 L
definition 170
Labelling 344
Heart diseases
Lactometer 10
risk factors 326
Lactose 43, 183
Hedonic scale 144
Lecithin 34, 162
Hepatic coma 331
Light diet 321
Hepatitis 330
Lignin 183, 193
Hollow calories 193, 273
Line spread test 155
Homeostasis 231
Lipids 85, 210
Honey 56
browning 118
Hormone 180
classification of 86, 211
Humidity 19
deficiency 222
Hydrogenation 95
digestion 219
Hyperglycemia 185
excess 222
Hypertension 258, 327
functions 218
Hypoglycemia 185 invisible sources 222
properties 87
I
RDA 222
IEP (Isoelectric point) 66 sources 221
Impairment 179 structure 86
Infirmity 179 Lipoproteins 216, 224
Insulin 185, 193 Liver Disorders 330
Interstitial fluid 231 cirrhosis 330
Intrinsic factor 242, 246 hepatic coma 331
Inversion 55 hepatitis 330
Invert sugar 193
354 Index
M Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide

phosphate (NADP) 240
Magnesium 258 Night blindness 235
Maillard reaction 115 Non-haeme iron 259
Malnutrition 170 Non-nutritive sweeteners 56
Maltol 108 Non-polar group 27 .
Maltose 43, 183 Non-reducing sugars 45
Manganese 257 Nucleotides 107
Marasmus 206 Nutrient dense foods 273
Margarine 97 Nutrients effect of
Mayonnaise 34 acid 314
Measurements 7 alkali 314
capacity 8 classification 173
length 8 definition 169
volume 8 heat 313
weight 9 milling 316
Meat 77 oxidation 315
cookery 78 processing 315
cured 80 Nutrition
ripening 78 definition 169
tenderness 79 facts 346
Melting point 16 Nutritional Requirements
Meringues 75 adolescence 309
Menu childhood 308
types 293 infancy 307
Menu planning lactation 306
aim 292 old age 312
definition 292 pregnancy 305
factors influencing 293 Nutritional Status 171
Metabolism 178 Nutritive value
Microwave oven 136 calculations 300
Milk 70 enhancement of 314
Milling 137 fast food 338
Minerals 248 junk food 337
classification 249 new products 339, 342
definition 249 reduction in 336
functions (general) 249 Nyctalopia 235
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 165
Modified diets 318 O
classification 319
consistency 320 Obesity 179, 224, 270, 277
Moisture Oedema 230, 246
tests for 153 Old age
Molybdenum 257 changes 311
Monosaccharides 42, 183 Oligosaccharides 43
Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) 107 Omega-3 fatty acids 224
Mucilages 42, 183 Omega-6 fatty acid
ORS 229
N ORT 229
Osmosis 19
Nasogastric tube 333 Osteomalacia 236
Neuritis 246 Osteopenia 311, 317
Niacin 240 Osteoporosis 311, 317
Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide Other fruits and vegetables 287
(NAD) 240 Overnutrition 170
Index 355
Overweight 179, 270, 277 hydrolysates 333

Oxalic acid 250, 259 quality 197, 203
Oxidized starch 54 RDA 204
requirements 204
P sources 205
Packaging new trends in 164 Proteolytic enzymes 208
Pantothenic acid 242 Prothrombin 237
| Parboiling 246 Provitamin (see also precursor) 246
Parenteral feeding 323 Proximate composition 157, 264, 278
Pasteurization 130 Psychological function 172
PCM 206 Ptyalin 182
Pectin 57, 183 Pureed diet 321
Pellagra 241 Pyridoxine (Bg) 242
Penetrometer 153
Peptic ulcer 328
R
Peptidases 208 Radiation 135
Peptide linkage 63, 208 Rancidity 88
pH 14 Recommended Dietary
Phospholipids 34, 216 Allowances (RDA) 173, 281
Phosphorous 236, 251, 254 specific nutrients 281
Photophobia 235, 240 table 174
Photosynthesis 40 Reducing sugars 44
Physical activity 268 Reference man 265
Physiological fuel value 264 Reference woman 266
Physiological function of food 171 Refining 94
Phytic acid 250, 259 Refractometer 10
Phytochemicals 343 Relative density 10
Plasticity 21 Renal threshold 185, 193
Polar group 27 Rendering 94
Polymerization 93 Retrogradation 53
Polysaccharides 45, 183 Reversion 90
Potassium 258 Riboflavin 240
Potential energy 11, 264 Rickets 309, 236
Precursor 234 Rigidity 20
Preference tests 143 Rigor mortis 78
Pregelatinized starch 54 Rhodopsin 234
Preservation methods 124
Preservatives 133 S
Pressing 94 Saccharometer 10
Processing 121 Salinometer 10
common techniques 312 Salt 108
effect on nutrients 139, 312 Satiety value 317
objectives 123 Score cards 148
Profiling 148 Scurvy 243
Protective food group 285 Secondary protective group 287
Proteins 62, 195 Shearing 20
classification 64, 198 Shortenings 96
content of food 206 Shortometer 154
deficiency 206 Smoke point 17
definition 195 Social function 172
digestion 200 Sodium 256
excess 206, 207 restricted flavoring 108
functions 199
356 ~— Index
sources 257 V
Soft diet 320
Vacuum
Sol 27
cooking 128
Solid foam 27
packing 130
Solution 25
Variety 294 ¢
Solvent extraction of fat 94
Viscosity tests for 155
Soufflés 76
Vision and vitamin A 234
Soya foods 161
Vitamin A 234
Specific Dynamic Action 268, 278
deficiency
Sprouting 243
functions
Stabilizers 34
hypervitaminosis
Starch 43, 45, 183
requirement
Starch granules 47
sources
effect of cooking 49
Vitamin B-complex 238
types 52, 54
B, 239
Starch phosphates 55
By 240
Sterilization 15
Bg 242
‘Sucrose 43, 183
By 241
Sugar cookery 55
classification 238
Sugar and Jaggery 287
deficiency 238
Sulphur 257
Vitamin C 243
Sun drying 132
Vitamin D 236
Supplementary foods 307
Vitamin E 236
Surface tension 18
Vitamin K 237
Suspension 25
Vitamins 232
Sweeteners 106
classification 233
Syneresis 53
definition 233
T effect of cooking on 244
fat soluble 234
Taste 103 water soluble 238
Temperature Volume tests for 152
conversions 12 Volumeter 151
for frying 17 Voluntary activities 266
Texture tests for 54 Vulnerable age group 246
Textured Vegetable Proteins (TVP) 82
Thermometers 11 WwW
types of 13 Water
Thiamine 239 balance 229
Thiamine Pyrophosphate 239 deficiency 229
Tissue 179 functions 227
Tocopherol 236 loss 228
Trace elements 249 RDA 230
Trans fatty acids 342 retention 230
Triticale 290 sources 227
Tryptophan 240 Waxy starches 48
Weaning
U definition 317
Ultraviolet irradiation 136 Weights and measures
Undernutrition 170 conversion 21
Underweight 179, 71, 276 Winterization 95
Unmodified starches 54
Z
UV rays 236
Zinc 257
7 a
FE a ae Ta RN TE Ona ee
food science and nutrition

Food Science and Nutrition is a comprehensive textbook designed specially for
students of hospitality studies, hotel management, and catering technology. Divided
into two parts—(a) food science and (b) nutrition—the book presents the fundamental
concepts of food science and nutrition in a manner that students can understand
easily. It also suggests metheds for planning nutritionally balanced meals for all ages,
and discusses menu planning, nutrient enhancement, and diet modifications.
With its practice-oriented approach, the book will fully meet the requirements of
students undergoing undergraduate, diploma, or certificate courses in hospitality
studies, hotel management, and catering technology.
Key Features
m Provides ample examples, review questions, analytical thinking exercises, and
reference charts and tables
m= Emphasizes the importance of both organoleptic quality and health benefits of food
@ Clarifies food facts and exaggerated health claims made by manufacturers
= |t will also be an invaluable reference tool for professionals in planning healthy
meals, by virtue of its reference charts and tables.
Sunetra Roday is a senior member of the faculty at the Maharashtra State Institute of
Hotel Management and Catering Technology (MSIHMCT), Pune. She has been teaching
food science and nutrition for over 26 years.
A post-graduate in foods and nutrition from Lady Irwin College, New Delhi, she has
also a master's degree in tourism management. She has published books on hygiene
and sanitation, cookery, and food preservation. She is actively involved in consultancy
projects, curriculum development, and nutrition counselling.
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
ae
www.oup.com

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‘@)seteyxe

YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. —

Oxford New York

Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press 2007

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

Database right Oxford University Press (maker)

First published 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-56891 1-2

Part! Food Science

Food Science Concepts

8 Browning Reactions 112

19 Energy Metabolism 261

Energy Value of Food

23 New Trends in Nutrition

‘he food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry, is

many organic compounds will decompose, undergoing various chemical reactions,

The Need for Convenience Foods

BASIC SI UNITS OF LENGTH, AREA, VOLUME, AND WEIGHT

‘he SI or International System of measurement is used universally for meas-

Prefixes represent numbers or numerical quantities symbolized by letters.

Fig. 2.1 Single pan weighing scale

Measurement of Weight or Mass

Refractometer reading 28° Brix

Besides checking the purity of milk, ethanol content of alcoholic beverages,

Temperature is measured either in the Celsius or centigrade scale (°C) or in the

Cr. 39. x 5=9C

A probe thermometer A candy thermometer

Acid Neutral Alkali

0 1 ie Set Oe ees BOw TO! TTD. Ag ee

Table 2.1 pH values of some common foods

Strongly acidic Vinegar

Mildly , Egg white

4. Texture of cakes—A significant change in texture is observed with a change in

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES, THEIR DEFINITION AND RELEVANCE

Volatile liquids vaporize easily e.g., petrol and acetone.

Applications of melting point:

CH,O. CO.R CH, OH

Table 2.2 Smoke point of some common fats

A humid atmosphere causes discomfort, headache, and tiredness.

Table 2.3. Conversion of imperial units to metric equivalents

Length 1 inch (in) 2.5 centimetres (cm)

Volume 1 pint 568 millilitres (ml)

Weight 1 ounce (0z.) 28.4 grams (g)

Energy 1 kilocalorie (kcal) 4.2 kilojoules (kJ)

Temperature 32°Fahrenheit (F) 0°Celsius (C)

Ql! Define the following terms:

Why food takes longer time to get cooked at high altitudes.

2200 kCal into kJ

ood served in catering establishments can be divided into two broad

Table 3.1 Size of dispersed particle

True solution Up to one millimicron

Colloidal dispersion | One millimicron up

Coarse suspension More than one

STABILITY OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS

Gel iqui Caramel custard

Emulsion iqui Butter