Samara University

College of Social Science and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature

Module Name: Basic Writing Skills

Course code: Enla-2011
Credit hours: 3
ECTS: 5
Delivery Mode: semester based

Compiled By:
Mesele T. (MA in ELT)

Feb, 2022 G.C

Afar, Ethiopia

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 Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences
1.1. The what of a sentence
Dear learners, please define a sentence using your own words.

___________________________________________________________________________
A sentence is a group of words that tells a complete thought. A sentence always tells who or what
and what is or what happens.
A sentence is a word or a set of words expressing a statement, a question or an order. It
usually contains a subject and a verb. In written English, sentences begin with a capital letter
and end with a period (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark. The sentence should
have a noun or pronoun and a verb. In general, a sentence needs to make sense, must have a
logical word order, can be short or long, and should be acceptable to native speakers of the
language.
Simple examples of a sentence:
• The baby cried.
• Are you a student?
• She has gone.
• Everyone laughed.
• Ethiopia is in the east of Africa.
• Run!
• Wait!
1.2. Constituent elements of a sentence
Every sentence has two basic parts: a subject and a predicate.

1. Subject- is a noun, noun phrase or pronoun representing the person or thing:

a) That performs the action of the verb. (‘I’ in “I sat down.”)

b) About which something is stated (‘the house’ in “The house is very old.”)
c) In a passive sentence that is affected by the action of the verb (‘the tree’ in “The tree was
blown down by the storm.”)
2. Predicate –is the part of a sentence that says something about the subject. It contains a verb
that makes a statement about the subject of the verb, such as ‘Went home’ in “Abel went
home.”

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 Simple subject and simple predicate
The simple subject is the key noun or pronoun or (word or group of words acting as a noun) that
tells what a sentence is about. The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase that expresses the
essential thought about the subject of the sentence.

Simple subject Simple Predicate

 Haile G/Selassie will run.

 Birds are singing.
 She plays.
Complete subjects and complete predicates
In most sentences the meaning of the simple subject and the simple predicate is expanded or
modified by the addition of other words and phrases. The complete subject consists of the simple
subject and all the words that modify it. The complete predicate consists of the simple predicate or
verb and all the words that modify it or complete its meaning.

Complete subject Complete Predicate

Ethiopian legend Haile G/Selassie will run a marathon to set a new record.
Black birds with curved beaks were singing outside the mosque.
The small girl plays football every day.
Compound subjects and compound predicates
A compound subject is made up of two or more simple subjects that are joined by a conjunction
and have the same verb.

 Orange and banana are my favorite fruits.

 David or Julia will give me some money.
A compound predicate is made up of two or more verbs for the same subject.

You should leave at six O’clock and arrive by mid night.

The snow fell throughout the night and blanketed the area.

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1.3. Sentence Types (Based on Their Structures)
There are billions of sentences out there that we might have to understand. All these sentences fall
into just four categories.

They are:
A. Simple Sentence
B. Compound Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
D. Compound-Complex sentence

A. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause. It is a sentence containing one main
clause and no subordinate clause. Usually, simple sentences contain one subject and one verb.
Note what the definition does not say. It does not say that a simple sentence is short or easy to
understand. It does not say anything about phrases. A simple sentence can have forty-seven
phrases, but only one independent clause.
Example: Kids love television.
I usually study hard my courses, regularly attend classes and properly work on my
assignments to pass my exams.
Does this seem a normal activity?
I like simple sentences. (That's easy enough. It is obviously one independent clause.)
But look at this:
Example: Being an English teacher with a desire for syntactical simplicity, I like simple sentences.
(It is longer, more challenging and contains bigger words, but it is still a simple sentence.)
Look at this:
Example: Being an English teacher with a desire for syntactical simplicity, I love to read simple
sentences upon getting up and before going to bed. (Amazingly, it is still a simple sentence. I am
piling on phrase after phrase, but the sentence still contains only one independent clause.)

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B. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses (main clauses). It consists of at
least two main clauses connected with a semicolon or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction. The
most common coordinating conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
Example: I love my students, and my students love each other.

(The independent clauses are underlined. This sentence contains no dependent clauses)
Sometimes a compound sentence contains more than two independent clauses.
Example: I love my students; my students love each other, and we all love one another.
Sometimes longer linking words can be used.
Example: I can name several conjunctive adverbs; consequently, my friends are
impressed.
C. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses. The most common type of complex sentence uses adverb clauses. Adverb clauses
contain subordinating conjunctions such as: while, although, after, because, if and before.
Example: Because life is complex, we need to struggle hard to overcome such complexity.
(The independent clause is underlined. The dependent clause is italicized.)
Example: Because people know that I am an English teacher, they make allowances for
how I dress and what I say.
(This sentence contains four dependent clauses. The independent clause is underlined. Note that two
of the dependent clauses are inside and part of the independent clause.)
D. Compound complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.
Example: Because I am a University student, some people expect me to speak perfectly, and
other people expect me to write perfectly.
(The dependent clause is underlined, and the independent clauses are in bold.)

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1.4. Sentence Kinds (Based on Their Functions)
a. Declarative Sentence
b. Interrogative Sentence
c. Exclamatory Sentence
d. Imperative Sentence
e. Optative sentence
A. Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence makes a statement; it gives information, expresses/describes ideas, things,
events, persons or places. A declarative sentence ends with a period.
Example: The house will be built on a hill.
B. Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It usually needs answer from another body. An
interrogative sentence ends with a question mark.
Example: How did you find the card?
C. Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling, emotion, and excitement or admire. An
exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark.
Example: The monster is attacking!
What a sunny day!
D. Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives a command or order to do something.
Example: Dani, try the other door.
Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence (you) is understood.
Example: Look in the closet. (You, look in the closet.)
E. Optative sentence
An optative sentence is a sentence that expresses wish, pray or desire.
Example:
- May my son stand first in the class!” (Pray)
-May the police arrest the thieves! (Pray)
-Would that your father was here today! (Wish)
-Would that I were on leave today! (Wish)
-Would that I were rich! (Wish)

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1.5. Faulty Sentences
Faulty sentences are those which different errors or problems that may create communication barrio
among the communicators.
1.5.1. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that:
(a) Lacks a subject,
(b) Lacks a verb or
(c) Is a dependent (subordinate) clause unattached to a complete sentence?
It therefore fails to express a complete thought or to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand
by itself. A fragment begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, like a complete sentence,
but it is not complete.
Example: Nega called me yesterday. Calls me every night. (The underlined part lacks a subject.)
Nega, a friend I have known since 1986 (E.C) and excellent at math. He asked (s@me) if I
had finished writing my thesis. (The underlined part lacks a verb)
I planned to fill out the scholarship forms that evening. Because the deadline was
approaching. (The underlined part is a subordinate clause unattached to the complete
sentence.)
There are several reasons why a group of words seem to act like a sentence but not have ability to
make it as a complete thought.
i. Locating something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of phrases, but
lacking a proper subject-verb relationship with an independent clause.
Example: In Ethiopia, just before the fall of Dergue. (There are no subject and verb.)
ii. Describing something, but there is no subject-verb relationship.
Example: Working far into the night in an effort to raise her children.
iii. Having subject-verb relationship, but still missing an important part of a verb string.
Example: Some of the students working in IT laboratory. (It misses auxiliary verb.)
iv. Having a subject-verb relationship, but being subordinated to another idea by a
dependent word.
Example: Even though he had good arguments.

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Questions to be asked to spot ‘fragments’
1. Is there a subject? To find the subject, one has to ask “who, or what” is performing the
action of the sentence.
2. Is there a verb? To find the ‘verb,’ look for a word that conveys what is happening, what has
happened, or what will happen.
3. Is the word group merely a subordinate clause or a phrase?
We should either attach the fragment to a nearby sentence or turn the fragment into a complete
sentence.
1.5.2. Run-On Sentences: A run-on sentence (also known as a fused sentence) consists of two or
more complete thoughts placed within the same sentence without any punctuation to
separate them. Each thought could stand alone as a separate sentence.
We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone, so people can
understand us. However, when we write no one can hear us, so we sometimes must break our
sentences into shorter units.
A run-on sentence is long, confusing sentence whose parts are not connected closely enough.
A. Fused sentence: refers to sentence errors committed when two sentences are written as one
sentence with no punctuation mark and coordinating conjunction between them.
Example: Run-on: Political science is a difficult course I am thinking of dropping it and
taking it next year.
Correct: Political science is a difficult course. I am thinking of dropping it and
taking it next year.
How to Correct Run-On Sentence
We may use five basic ways of correcting a run-on sentence.
1. Using period and capital letter
 Create two separate sentences. End the first thought with a period and begin the next with a
capital letter.
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend. I probably will not have much time to work.
2. Using semicolon
 Determine the independent clauses. Separate those two or more independent clauses with a
semicolon.
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend; I probably will not have much time to work.

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3. Using comma
 Join the two thoughts by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, nor,
so, or yet.)
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend, so I probably will not have much time to work.
4. Using subordinate clauses
 Subordinate one thought to the other. To do this, make one thought into a dependent clause by
adding a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.
Example: Since my friend will visit me this weekend, I probably will not have much time to work.
5. Using conjunctive adverb
 Determine the independent clauses. If there are only two independent clauses, separate them
with a semicolon, conjunctive adverb, and comma.
Conjunctive adverbs are however, consequently, therefore, hence, thus, as a result, etc.
Example: the boy ate his dinner; however, his sister played quietly in the corner.
Exceptions to the rules
 Short, closely related independent clauses in a sequence can be joined by a comma only.
Example: he came, he saw, he conquered.
 If the second independent clause is a tag question, a comma may be used between the
clauses.
Example: He answered the questions, didn’t he?
B. Comma Splices
A comma splice (or comma fault) is a frequently committed type of grammatical error. It contains
two independent clauses joined by a comma (the coordinating conjunction is missing).
You can spot a comma splice by looking at your use and placement of commas. If you see a comma
between two independent clauses but no coordinating conjunction after the comma, then you have
spotted a comma splice. However, having two independent clauses together leaves the writer with
two options:
o To write them as separate sentences, or
o To join them (by comma and coordinating conjunction)
The separated clauses may require period (.), question mark (?), or exclamation mark (!) depending
on the sentence types. The second clause begins with capital letter.

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Example:
Comma Splice: The average person watches fifteen hours of television a week, my parents allow
my brother only two hours a week.
Correct: The average person watches fifteen hours of television a week, but my parents allow my
brother only two hours a week.
Comma Splice: I got up late this morning, I didn’t have time for breakfast.
Correct: I got up late this morning. I didn’t have time for breakfast.
I got up late this morning; I didn’t have time for breakfast.
I got up late this morning, so I didn’t have time for breakfast.
To Sum up
Comma splices are serious grammar errors at the sentence level. Often, they will not obscure the
meaning of a sentence: the reader can still understand the writer’s message.
We may send a message to our readers that we are not competent writers. This undermines our
credibility, and our readers will not take our message as seriously as it should be taken.

1.5.3. Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is meant
because words are left out. It is not clearly and logically related to the words it modifies.
A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the word it is meant to describe.
Other wise, the modifier is said to be dangling, and the sentence takes unintended meaning.
Dangling modifiers create confusion and some times unintentional humor. To avoid dangling
modifiers, make sure that each modifier has a clear antecedent. A dangling modifier cannot be
corrected by simply moving it to a different place in a sentence.
In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence, although it can also
come at the end.
Example
Dangling: Walking to the movies, the cloudburst drenched me.
Correct: Walking to the movies, I was drenched by the cloudburst.
Dangling: Flood damage was visible crossing the river. [The modifier makes it sound as
though the flood damage was crossing the river.]
Correct: Flood damage was visible as we cross the river.

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Dangling: Taking the exam, the room was so stuffy that Paula almost fainted. (Who took the exam?
The answer is not room but Paula. The subject Paula must be added.
Correct: Taking the exam, Paula found the room so stuffy that she almost fainted.
There Are Two Ways to Revise Dangling Modifiers
1. Add a word or words that the modifier clearly describes. Place the new material just after the
modifier, and rearrange other parts of the sentences as necessary.
Dangling: While watching television the cake burned.
Correct: While watching the television Sarah burned the cake.
2. Change the dangling modifier to a subordinate clause.
Dangling: While watching television the cake burned.
Correct: While Sarah was watching television, the cake burned.

1.5.4. Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is simply a word, a phrase, or a clause describing something, but not placed
near enough to the word it is supposed to modify.
Misplaced modifiers, because of awkward placement, do not describe the words the writer intended
them to describe. Misplaced modifiers often confuse the meaning of the sentence.
Misplaced: I saw a dress in a magazine that cost $ 1200 [Did the magazine or the dress
cost$ 1200?]
Correct: In magazine, I saw a dress that cost $ 1200.
Kinds of Misplaced Modifiers
i. Misplaced adjectives
These are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the intended
meaning.

Misplaced adjective: The child ate a cold dish of cereal for breakfast this morning.

Correct: The child ate a dish of cold cereal for breakfast this morning.

iii. Placement of adverbs

This can also change the meaning in sentences.

Example: Just Kasa was picked to host the program. (Only Kasa was picked, no one else.)

Kasa was just to host the program. (Kasa was picked now.)

Kasa was to host just the program. (Kasa hosted only the program, nothing else.)
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Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness depends upon
what the writer has in mind.

iv. Misplaced phrases

These may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.
To fix such problem, we put the phrases next to the word they are supposed to modify.

Example:

Misplaced phrase: They saw a fence behind the house made of barbed wire.

Correct: They saw a fence made of barbed wire behind the house.

v. Misplaced clauses

These may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make a
sense. To fix errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to
modify.

Misplaced clause: The waiter served a dinner roll to the woman that was well buttered.

Correct: The waiter served a dinner roll to the woman that was well buttered.

To avoid misplaced modifiers in general, be sure to place the modifier immediately before or after
the word or words it modifies. Or to avoid them, place words as close as possible to what they
describe.
Caution!
In correcting a misplaced modifier, don’t create a sentence with two possible meanings.
Example: The teacher said on Monday she will return our essay.
a. The teacher said she will return our essay on Monday. (The essay will be returned on Monday.)
b. On Monday the teacher said she will return our essay. (The teacher spoke on Monday.)

To Sum up
Here are some tips to help you avoid misplaced modifiers:
a. Check to see if your modifiers are close to the subject they are referring to.
b. Be careful with the placement of limiting modifiers (almost, even, hardly, just, merely,
nearly, and simply.). These modifiers must be placed right next to the words they modify.
c. Check to see if modifiers that describe verbs are close to the verbs.

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1.5.5. Agreement Errors
A verb must agree with its subject in number. A subject that refers to one person, place, or thing is
called a singular subject. A subject that refers to more than one thing is called a plural subject.
Guidelines
1. A singular subject must be used with a singular verb.
The dog wants to go jogging with me.
2. A plural subject must be used with a plural verb.
The dogs want to go jogging with me.

Mistakes to Watch for

Subject-verb agreement errors often occur in the following situations:
1. with compound subjects (two or more subjects)
Incorrect: Samuel and Sarah wants to buy a car.
Correct: Samuel and Sarah want to buy a car.
2. When the verb comes before the subject
Incorrect: There is four gas stations on the main street.
Correct: There are four gas stations on the main street.
3. When a word or phrase comes between the subject and the verb.
Incorrect: The woman standing in the waves with the other swimmers win a prize for
her endurance.
Correct: The woman standing in the waves with the other swimmers wins a prize for her
endurance.
4. with indefinite pronouns: treat the pronoun as singular if it refers to something that cannot be
counted. Treat the pronoun as plural if it refers to more than one of something that can be counted.
Incorrect: Everybody wish to become a millionaire.
Correct: Everybody wishes to become a millionaire.
1.5.6. Faulty Parallelism
Parallelism means that words, phrases or clauses in a series should have similar grammatical
form. Keeping corresponding parts of a sentence parallel in structure and length will make your
writing clearer and easier to read or understand.

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Items to be parallel in a sentence
1. Words in series: When two or more nouns, verbs, or adjectives appear together in a
sentence, they should be parallel in grammatical form. Verbs should be in the same tense.
Incorrect: All night long the music from the next apartment was banging, thumping, and
pounded so loudly that I couldn’t sleep.
Correct: All night long the music from the next apartment banged, thumped, and
pounded so loudly that I couldn’t sleep.
2. Phrases
Incorrect: My sister likes wearing crazy hats, dressing in funky clothes to go to classic
music.
Correct: My sister likes wearing crazy hats, dressing in funky clothes, and going to
classic music.
3. Clauses
Incorrect: While Almaz studied Math and worked on Psychology, her husband was watching
the baby.
Correct: While Almaz studied Math and worked on Psychology, her husband watched
the baby.
1.5.7. Faulty reference of Pronouns
This fault occurs when pronouns are not correctly used. A pronoun depends for its
meaning upon its antecedent, the noun or other pronoun to which it reference. If the
antecedents of the pronouns in a given writing are not clear, the writing will not be
clear. To avoid faulty reference of pronouns, each pronoun should refer to a single
antecedent. Pronouns can, of course, refer to compound antecedents in such sentences
as:
Saron and Melat both believed they had performed well.
(Here the pronoun ‘they’ refers to ‘Saron and Melat’.)
However, if a pronoun can refer to either of two possible antecedents, it will be
ambiguous, and readers will not know which antecedent intended.
AMBIGUOUS: Arthur went with John to the airport, where he took a plane to
Phoenix.

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 [Who took the plane to Phoenix, Arthur or John?]
CLEAR: After going to the airport with John, Artur took the plane to Phoenix.
OR: After Arthur went to the airport with him, John took the plane to Phoenix.
Exrcise: Rewrite the following sentences by correcting the faulty references.
1. Martha told Senait that she should have written her a letter.
2. When the new Minister met the regional leader, he looked unhappy about the
appointment.
3. The new couple and invited guests are entertaining themselves in the shore of
the lake. Their close friends are escorting them.
4. Listening is one of the four skills which some people need to work at harder than others.
1.5.8. Shift in point of view
In sentence construction, we should be consistent in subject, person, number, tense,
mood and voice.
Example: They finished their work and go out to play tennis. (Faulty tense
agreement)
They finished their work and went out to play tennis. (Effective)
Exercise: Correct the following constructions.
1. After he presented his paper, questions were raised.
2. After the papers were bound, they distributed them among the seminar
participants.
3. If one does physical exercise regularly, they will be healthy.
4. She returned from work at 5:00 p.m. and starts cooking food.
5. Boil the water for ten minutes, add tea inti the boiling water, and then you must
wash the cups with warm water. (Shift from imperative mood to indicative
mood)
6. If someone studies the lesson regularly, they can pass the exam.
7. She got up, washed her hands, and she was given her breakfast.

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 8. He has cut down drinking too much alcohol as they have become a threat to his
survival.
1.6. Punctuation and capitalization (Mechanics)
We can divide them as internal and end punctuation marks:
A. Punctuation Marks
Punctuation is the use of standard marks and signs in writing to separate words into sentences,
clauses, and phrases in order to clarify meaning. The marks or signs are called punctuation marks.
Punctuation marks are signals to readers. When you speak, you can pause, stop, or change your tone
of voice to make your meaning clear. You cannot do this when you write. When writing, you must
use punctuation marks such as commas and question marks to make your meaning clear.

The use of punctuation marks can be very complex. Each punctuation mark can be used in many
ways. Here are the punctuation marks that are most commonly used when writing and the most
typical way or ways they are used.

1. Period (.)

- Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence (a sentence which states an idea).
Example: That was a wonderful movie.

- Use a period to end an abbreviation.

Example: I think that Mr. Williams is a great teacher.

2. Question Mark (?)

- Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence (a sentence which asks a question).
Example: Did you like that movie?

3. Comma (,)

- Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series.

Example: My history class meets each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

- Use a comma to separate independent clauses in a sentence.

Example: We wanted to go to the beach, but it rained that day.

- Use a comma after introductory words or phrases in a sentence.

Example: Certainly, I have my homework right here.

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- Use a comma to set off dates and addresses.
Example: My friend Jane, who was born June 18, 1992, lives in Akron, Ohio.

4. Semicolon (;)

- Use a semicolon when two independent clauses in a sentence are not separated by a conjunction
(such as "and").
Example: I like pizza; Carlos also likes pizza.

- Use a semicolon between independent clauses in a sentence that are separated by any of the
following transitional words or phrases: accordingly, consequently, for example, for instance,
furthermore, however, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, and therefore.
Example: I planned to study Saturday morning; however, the power in our house went out due to a
storm.

- Use a semicolon when the items in a series of items contain commas.

Example: I have lived in Los Angeles, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Trenton, New Jersey;
and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

5. Colon (:)

- Use a colon before a list that is preceded by a complete independent clause. Some form of the
word "follow" is often used in such a case.
Example: On our next vacation, we plan to visit the following countries: England, France, Italy,
and Greece.

- Use a colon to divide hours from minutes.

Example: I have an appointment with the doctor at 10:30 tomorrow morning.

6. Exclamation Point (!) (sometimes called an Exclamation Mark)

- Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence to show strong emotion.

Example: I am very upset with him!

- Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence for emphasis.

Example: I have to go home right now!

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- Use an exclamation mark after an interjection at the start of a sentence (an interjection is a word
used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion).
Example: Wow! That test was harder than I expected.

7. Apostrophe (')

- Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or letters in a contraction.

Example: I don't think she will win the election.

- Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show possession.

Example: Please take good care of Brad's dog.

 Use punctuation marks to make the meaning of what you write as clear as possible.

B. Capitalization
Capitalization is the process of making capital the letter (s) of words based on the rules of particular
language.

1. The first word of every sentence is capitalized.

Example: We enjoyed reading the book.
2. The first-person singular pronoun I is always capitalized.
Example: My brother and I picked up the papers.
3. The first, last, and important words in a title of a book, magazine, song, movie, or other work are
capitalized.
Example: She saw Snow White when she was five years old.
4. Proper nouns are capitalized:
 Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors
Corporation.
 Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, Lake Erie,
the Northeast, the South end. However, we do not capitalize compass directions or locations
that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city; we're leaving the Northwest and
heading south this winter. When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize attributive words
when they precede place-names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the opposite happens
when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack mountains. When a term is
used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a proper noun, do not capitalize it,
as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the Sahara Desert."

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  Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however, capitalize earth,
moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other (capitalized)
celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is further from Earth to Mars
than it is from Mercury to the Sun.
 Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even when it
is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
 Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of seasons
(spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by spring, we'll
be back up north."
 Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
 Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish, French, Native
American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)
 Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity, Christians,
Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.
 Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101. (However, we would write: "I'm taking courses
in biology and earth science this summer.")
 Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.

5. Names of relationships only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name are
capitalized. (Often this means that when there is a modifier, such as a possessive pronoun, in front
of such a word, we do not capitalize it.)

Example: Let's go visit Grandmother today. Let's go visit my grandmother today.

I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my U?ncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.

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 Unit Two
Writing Effective Paragraphs

2. Definition of a paragraph

A paragraph can be defined as a distinct section of a piece of writing. It consists of several related
sentences and deals with one controlling idea. This controlling idea is called the topic or the theme
of the paragraph. The main function of a paragraph is to develop support exemplify, or explain this
theme. There is no rule for the length of paragraphs. It may be short or long according to the need. A
paragraph consists of a single sentence or of many sentences.

It is essential to develop the ability to write effective paragraphs. As the writing needs to be
purposeful, precise and reader oriented, it is important to compose paragraphs that are clear,
cohesive, concise and result oriented.

Essentials of Paragraph Writing

a. Presentation of single idea

b. A sequence of well connected sentences
c. Thematic unit within the paragraph
d. Conciseness and exactness
2.1. Structure of a Paragraph
The paragraph can be divided into three sections or structures. These are: Introduction, body, and
conclusion.

The introduction briefly states the content of the paragraph and enables a reader to establish
his/her expectation of what is to come.
The body is the main part of the paragraph, which is developed sequentially.
The conclusion is the part wherein the writer summarizes what he /she has already discussed in
the main part and finishes his/her presentation of idea.

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The following paragraph is an example.

My village is famous for several natural features. First, it is noted for the Bisil River, which is wide
and beautiful. On either side of this river, which is about 90 feet wide, are many trees which have
long branches that can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and
cover the riverbanks like golden snow. Second, on the other side of the village is a hill called Tulu
Niti, which is unusual because it is very steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is not
dangerous because there are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used from miles away. The
third amazing feature is the big old tree. This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably
about three hundred years old. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my village a
famous place.

The introduction is, my village is famous for several natural features . From this the reader knows that
the writer will discuss the various natural features that make the village famous.

In the body, the writer lists and explains the natural features of the village; the reader becomes
familiar with what the writer mentions to be the features of the village that are amazing and make
the village unique.

In the conclusion – the final sentence of the paragraph–the writer repeats the idea he stated in the
introduction, clarifying the point of the paragraph.

The two basic parts of a paragraph

Almost every effective paragraph consists of two basic parts:

(1) A point is made, and
(2) Evidences are provided to support the point. This means a point is advanced and
supported with specific reasons, details, and facts.
Many paragraphs are made up of these two basic parts. The point is usually expressed in one
sentence called main idea, or topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph contain specific
details that support or develop the main idea sentence.
The Topic sentence
Topic sentence means a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. The main idea of a
paragraph is expressed by one sentence is called a “topic sentence”. The purpose of the paragraph or the

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subject of the paragraph is clearly mentioned by a topic sentence. Topic sentence should be written in a
simple manner. It should concentrate the theme of the paragraph.

The topic sentence usually corresponds to major subdivisions of the outline and states the subject
the paragraph will cover. If any paragraph starts with a good topic sentence, a reader can very
rapidly get the gist of a text by reading only the first line of each paragraph. An effective way to
begin writing a technical report is to develop a series of topic sentences from the outline. Later the
idea of each topic sentence can be developed into a paragraph, and the first draft of the text is done.

Supporting sentences
Supportive sentences play very important role in paragraph development. Proper balance of topic and
supporting sentence is needed in an ideal paragraph. Supportive sentences support topic sentence. By
small supporting sentences, the related explanation and information can be written.
Concluding sentence
Concluding sentence restates the topic sentence creatively, and brings a strong sense of closure to
the paragraph

Sample paragraph
Although I love movies, going to see them drives me slightly crazy. For one thing, getting to the
theatre means that I have a thirty-minute drive down a congested highway. Then, with a popular
movie, I usually have to wait in a long line at the ticket booth. Another problem is that the theatre
itself is seldom a pleasant place to be. A nasty smell suggests that there has been no fresh air in the
theatre since it was built. Half of the seats seem to be falling apart. And the floor often has a sticky
coating that gets on your shoes. The worst problem of all is some of the other moviegoers. Kids run
up and down the aisle. Teenagers laugh and shout at the screen. People of all ages loudly drop
soda cans and popcorn tubs, cough and burp, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of
your seat. All in all, I would rather stay at home and wait for the latest movie hits to appear on TV
in the safety and comfort of my own living room.

Notice what the details have done. They have provided you, the reader with the basis for
understanding why the writer makes the point that s/he does. Through specific evidence, s/he has
explained and communicated successfully her/his idea that movie going can be a hassle.

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Note on Formality
In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs are different from ordinary
writing in that certain kinds of expressions are not allowed.
Too Informal Formal (Acceptable)
don’t do not
doesn’t does not
aren’t are not
weren’t were not
can’t can not
won’t will not
 The first line of every paragraph is indented. Or, if an essay has more than one paragraph, there
should be space between two paragraphs.
2.2. Characteristics of Good Paragraph
Paragraph can create important document, reports, proposal letter etc. The writing should be
precise, correct, purposeful, clear, concise and meaningful. The following attributes/tips will help to
create a good paragraph. A paragraph develops just ONE idea. Every sentence in a paragraph says
just one thing about the topic of the paragraph. The information that comprises your paragraph
should always have relationships to this controlling idea. In other words, your paragraphs should
remind your reader, at every possible point, that there is a recurrent relationship between your
controlling idea and the information in each paragraph. The controlling idea functions like a
seed through which your paper, and your ideas will grow.
a. Unity
All the sentences in a paragraph should refer to the main idea of a paragraph. Therefore a unified
paragraph has all the sentences in that are related to the main point. Or in other words, all the
sentences in the paragraph explain about the topic sentence of the paragraph.
b. Cohesion
This refers to the link between sentences in a paragraph. Cohesion between sentences in a paragraph
is kept through transition words, synonyms and pronoun references.

Using Transition Words

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Transition words allow readers to move from one detail to another. They show how details relate to
one another. You might think of them as words that guide and signal. They guide the reader through
the paragraph and signal what is to follow. Especially, transitions can:
a. Show the order in which actions, steps or thoughts take place.
b. Show the relationship that one thought or action has to another.
c. Help introduce a number of details or thoughts on the same subjects. Transitions help move
the reader smoothly through a paragraph and they serve as sign post to guide the reader from
one thought to the next.

Here are some common transitional words and phrases:

Time sequence or step: First, next, last, always, second, till, after,, during, eventually, finally, later,
meanwhile, Soon, then, suddenly, currently, after, afterward, before, now, until.
Spatial arrangement: above, below, next to, in front of, beside, inside, outside, to the west, (north,
south, east,) of, beneath, nearby, on the other side of, etc.
Least to most or order of importance: Most, above all, especially, even more, etc.
To add a number of ideas together: additionally, also, another, first, finally, in addition, on top
of, one, other, second, third etc.
To show relationships between thoughts in a paragraph: as a matter of fact, as you can see, by
the way, consequently, despite, for example, furthermore, however, incidentally, in fact, in spite of,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, therefore, etc.
Example
I have so many things to do when I get home today. First, I have to take my dog, Othello, for a 432
walk. Next, I should do my homework for my sociology class and study the chapter on franchise for
Business. After that I should do some laundry, since my sock drawer is empty. Then, my brother is
coming over to fix the tailpipe on my car. Afterward, we will probably order a pizza for speedy
dinner.

Transitional words are sometimes called signal words. These signal words help the writer to show
the direction of his/her so that the reader can easily grasp the idea of the writer. They are like sign
posts on the road that guide the traveler. Common signal words show emphasis, addition,
comparison or contrast, illustration, and cause and effect.
c. Coherence

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The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite
plan for development. Coherence means sticking together. A paragraph is coherent when the
sentences are woven together or flow into each other.

Chronological – arranged in time sequence

Spatial- arranged based on the place of events

Emphatic- link through expressions which show emphasis such as the following
important to note especially valuable a vital force
most of all most noteworthy above all
a significant factor remember that a central issue
a primary concern the chief out come a distinctive quality
the most substantial issue the principal item especially relevant
a key factor pay particular attention to should be noted
the main value the chief factor
d. Completeness
Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through evidence
and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea. A well-developed
paragraph has the following qualities:
 It provides enough supporting points for the main point or idea expressed in the topic
sentence to be clearly understood
 It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative.
 It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared up with a little
more details or additional examples.
 It concludes with a sentence that clearly “wraps up” the paragraph and relates to the topic
sentence in some manner.

Sample paragraph
There are plenty of things to do tonight besides watching a television. We can invite the neighbors
over and play gin rummy. We can catch up on some reading we have been putting off. We can build
a fire in the fireplace, roast marshmallows and popcorn. We can get out the old monopoly board
and play a few hours. We can even get out the paintbrushes and repaint the hallway as we have
been threatening to do for months.
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The main point of the paragraph –that there are plenty to do tonight-are supported by a number of
specific examples: play gin rummy, read, roast marshmallows, play monopoly board, or paint. Five
alternatives to watching television are presented in support of the topic sentence.

2.3. Basic Types of a Paragraph

2.3.1. Expository Paragraph
Expository paragraph presents information on a specific topic; its purpose is to explain.
Expository writing usually does not include opinions, judgments, or arguments. It contains an
introductory sentence with a main idea, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. You
generate ideas and organize them as you do for other types of paragraph.

Depending on your topic, you may need to obtain additional information about your topic through
reading or research. Although you may have general information about your topic, you may need to
locate specifics-facts, statistics, or examples to support your main points.
Sample Expository Paragraph
Field trip remains my favorite outdoor education of all time due to all of the memorable activities
we experienced. For instance, I was able to touch and hold a wide variety of animals that I had
never seen until I visited their science center. One animal was a blue skinned that reminded me of
leather because it was dry and smooth. Yet its fur was also the softest that I had ever felt. I would
have never guessed that a reptile and a mammal would have anything in common, but their bodies
were pleasing to the touch in different ways! In addition, I also was able to scale to great heights
when I visited the high ropes course deep in the forest. I realize now that even something difficult
can be fun. I hope to use this thought in other areas of my life because now I might achieve even
more than before. Finally, I loved splashing around Lake Abaya with my partner. The direction on
how to hold the row and how to steer were not that hard, but actually doing it on the lake was
difficult. In general, I have learned from this trip that there are many opportunities out there for us
to experience and that we should take advantage of them to create lifelong memories.
Techniques of Expository Paragraph Development
A. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. A definition limits the
thought by classifying it generally and specifically, by telling what it is not or by determining its
precise meaning by fixing its denotation and connotation

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Definition is a method of explaining a word’s meaning. When you use definition to explain, be sure
to:
 Identify the term you are defining;
 Place the term in the general group and offer a distinguishing characteristic;
 Use one or more examples to classify, explain what the term is not, trace the term’s meaning
over time, or use description to develop your definition;
 Use transitional words and phrases to connect your ideas.
Sample paragraph

The word ethnicity has come to have many different meanings during the years of the ethnic revival.
It is not that the word means nothing, but it means whatever the user wants it to mean. Sometimes it
stands for “minority groups”, and refers primarily to black, and brown, Native American and Asian
American, as in “ethnic studies” programs at universities. Other times, it is a code word for
Catholics, as in “the white ethnic backlash” or white ethnic opposition to the candidate because of
his Baptist religion.” When the national news magazines or journals of opinion speak of ethnicity,
they mean Catholics, as when the nation announced Daniel P. Moynihan as “ ethnicity” when I use
the word, I normally refer simply to the variety of American subcultures, whether that variety be
based on race, religion, nationality, language or even region.

B. Exemplification
Another technique of paragraph or essay development is illustration or exemplification. The method
of illustration tries to make a general idea clear by providing specific examples and statistical data
that substantiate it. The writer illustrates the topic sentence with detail examples. Examples are
specific details that explain a general idea or statement. To develop a paragraph or essay using
examples, be sure that:

 Your examples are relevant and sufficient;

 Each example is as specific as possible;
 It is clear how each example illustrates your main point;
 You use transitional words and phrases to connect your idea.
Sample paragraph

The ability to write well-organized paragraph is essential to a student’s success in almost all
university courses. For instance, a student presents his/her ideas in a logical order and clear
language in order to receive a good evaluation of his/her work. Likewise, to write successful
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answers to essay questions on examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions
according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly, when a student writes a
report or term paper for different courses, style and organization are often as important as content
to inform and persuade his/her readers. Clearly, skill in paragraph writing is crucial to success in
most university subjects.

C. Classification

Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to make the
relationships among members of the group. Or in other words, it is a method of explaining or
examining a topic by organizing its parts into categories. Classification, definition and
illustration are the three most important method of paragraph development in scientific
descriptions. For instance, a good way to discuss reptiles is to arrange them into categories:
crocodiles, alligators, snakes, turtles, tortoises, and lizards. Breaking down your subject into
categories helps to organize your paragraph For example, you might explain discrimination by
classifying some types: racial, gender, and age.
Sample paragraph
News papers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and completeness
of information in them. News papers in the first category have more information and truth. Those in
the second category do not have much information and sometimes they hide the truth. News papers
in the first category have news collected from different parts of the country and also from different
countries. They also have a lot of sports and business news and classified ads. The information they
give is clear and complete, and it is supported by showing pictures. The best known example of this
category is the Indian Express. Important news goes on the first page with big headlines,
photographs from different angles and complete information. Unlike news papers in the first
category, news papers in the second category do not give as much information. Therefore, news
papers in the first group are more popular than those in the second group.

D. Cause and Effect

The writer may develop his ideas in a paragraph in another way: by going from cause to effect to
from effect to cause. This method helps to develop a statement by giving an account of the causes
and effects of an event or situation. Cause and effect paragraphs and essays are concerned with
why events and actions occur and what happens as a result. To write an effective topic sentence or
thesis statement, you need to:

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  Clarify the cause-and-effect relationship;
 Decide whether to emphasize causes or effects;
 Determine if the events are related or independent.

Sample paragraph

I decided to attend Jimma University for three main reasons. First, and most important to me, I
want to get a high-paying, interesting job that I will enjoy. Right now, the only jobs I can get pay
minimum wage, and as a result, I am working in a restaurant. This kind of job does not make me
proud of myself, and I get bored with routine tasks. Second, my parents have always wanted me to
have a better job than they do, and I know my father will not respect me until I do. A university
degree would make them proud of me. A third reason for attending the university is to make new
friends. It is hard to meet people, and everyone in my neighborhood seems stuck in a rut. I want to
meet other people who are interested in improving themselves like I am. These are the main reasons
for me to attend Jimma University.

E. Comparison and Contrast

Comparison is the process of examining two or more items according to their similarities and
differences or both. Comparison and contrast is a method of analyzing likeness and differences
between two or more subjects. An object or an idea is better understood only when its features stand
next to those of another idea or object. For instance, we appreciate soccer when we compare it with
football; we understand communism when we see it in the light of capitalism.

After you identified the similarities and the differences and drafted your topic sentence, you are
ready to organize your paragraph. There are two ways of organizing comparison and contrast
paragraph:

1. Subject-by-subject organization
2. Point-by- point organization
a) Subject-by-subject organization
In the subject-by-subject method, you write first about one of your subject, covering it completely
and then you write about the other, covering it completely. Ideally, you cover the same points of
comparison and contrast for both and in the same order. Let’s look at the following comparison
between two professors Jira and Hirut: With subject-by-subject organization you first discuss
Professor Jira –his class organization, exams and grading system.
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You can visualize this arrangement as follows:

Subjects' points of comparison and contrast

1. Professor Yakob a) class organization
2. Professor Hirut b) examination
c) grading system
Sample paragraph
Two excellent teachers, Professor Yakob and Hirut, present a study in contrasting teaching styles. Professor
Yakob is extremely organized. He conducts each class the same way. He reviews the assignment, lectures
about the new chapter, and explains the next assignment. He gives essay exams, and they are always based
on important lecture topics. Because the topics are predictable, you know you are not wasting your time
when you study. Professor Yakob’s grading depends half on class participation and half on the essay exams.
Professor Hirut, on the other hand, has an easy-going style. Each class is different and seems to reflect
whatever she thinks will help us understand what she is teaching. Her classes are fun because you never
know what to expect. Professor Hirut gives both multiple-choice and essay exams. These are difficult to
study for because they are unpredictable. Our final grade is based entirely on the exams, so each requires a
lot of studying beforehand. Although each professor teaches very differently, I am figuring out how to learn
from each particular style.
b) Point by point organization
In the point-by-point organization, you discuss both of your subjects together for each point of
comparison and contrast. For the paragraph on professors Jira and Hirut, you would talk about how
each organizes his or her class, then what kinds of exams each gives, and then the grading system,
and so on. You can visualize this organization as follows:

Points of comparison/contrast Subjects

a) Class organization 1. Professor Yakob
2. Professor Hirut
b) Examination 1. Professor Yakob
2. Professor Hirut
c) Grading system 1. Professor Yakob
2. Professor Hirut
If your paragraph focuses only on similarities or only on differences, then arrange your points in a
least-to-most or most-to-least pattern.
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Sample paragraph
Professor Yakob and Professor Hirut demonstrate very different teaching styles in how they operate their
classes, how they give exams, and how they grade us. Professor Yakob’s classes are highly organized; we
work through the lesson every day in the same order. Professor Hirut uses an opposite approach. She
creates a lesson to fit the material, which enables us to learn most. Their exams differ too. Professor Yakob
gives standard, predictable essay exams that are based on his lectures. Professor Hirut gives both multiple-
choice and essay exams, so we never know what to expect. In addition, each professor grades differently.
Professor Yakob counts class participation as half of our grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably
well on the exams, you will probably pass the course. Professor Hirut, on the other hand, counts the exams
100 percent, so you have to do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique, enjoyable
teaching style, and I am learning a great deal from each.

Each method of organization uses different transitions in different places. If you choose a subject-
by-subject organization, you will need the strongest transition in the middle of the paragraph, when
you switch from one subject to another. You will also need a transition each time you move from
one point to another while still on the same subject.

F. Process
A process paragraph or essay describes how something is done or how something works. A “how -
to” paragraph, for example, may explain how to change a flat tire, aid a choking victim, or locate
reference books in the library? A “how-it-works” paragraph may explain the operation of pump,
how the human body regulates temperature, or how children acquire speech. When you are
describing a process, write about one that you are familiar with, preferably something you have
done often or have a complete understanding of. Both “how-to” and “how-it- works” paragraphs
describe steps that occur only in a specified order.

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 Sample “How-to do” paragraph
In trying to make wise and correct decisions about the ice-cream cone in your hand, you should always keep
the objectives in mind. The main objective, of course, is to get the cone under control. Secondarily, one will
want to eat the cone calmly and with pleasure. Real pleasure lies not simply in eating the cone but in eating
it right. Let’s assume that you have darted to your open space and made your necessary emergency repairs.
The cone is still dangerous-still, so to speak, “live.” But you can proceed with it in an orderly fashion. First,
revolve the cone through the full three hundred and sixty degrees, snapping at the loose gobs of ice cream;
turn the cone by moving the thumb away from you and the forefinger toward you, so the cone moves
counterclockwise. Then, with the cone still “wound,” which will require the wrist to be bent at the full right
angle toward you, apply pressure with the mouth and tongue to accomplish overall realignment,
straightening and settling the whole mess. Then, unwinding the cone back through the full three hundred
sixty degrees, moving any trickles of ice-cream. From here on, some supplementary repairs may be
necessary, but the cone is now defused.
“How-it-works” model paragraph
Hibernation is a biological process that occurs most frequently in small animals. The process enables
animals to adjust to a diminishing food supply. When the outdoor temperature drops, the animal’s internal
thermostat senses the change. Then the bodily changes begin to occur. First, the animal’s heartbeat slows,
and slowed breathing reduces oxygen intake. Metabolism is the n reduced. Food requirements become
minimal. Finally, the animal falls into sleep-like state during which it relies on stored body fat to support life
functions.

G. Narration
The events in a narrative paragraph should usually be arranged in chronological order- the order in
which they happened. Sometimes you may want to rearrange events to emphasize a point. If you
do, make sure the sequence of events is clear enough for the reader to follow. A clear well-written
narrative should provide sufficient detail to allow your readers to understand fully the situation you
are writing about. Try to answer for your reader most of the following questions:
1. When did it happen? 4. What events occurred?
2. Who was involved? 5. Why did they happen?
3. Where did it happen? 6. How did they happen?

Chronological order

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This is the usual way of organizing ideas in narration. The ideas are organized in the sequence
according to what happened first, then, second, third, etc. until the final outcome.

Sample paragraph
There was a robber who roamed the countryside. He pillaged and killed passers- by. The king, have
heard this, sent out his soldiers. They caught him and brought him in chains to the king who
sentenced him to death. As they took him to the place were to be beheaded, the old father of this
robber was following him in tears. When the robber caught sight of his father, he asked to say a few
words to him before his death. Once he got close to his father, he tried to hit him, but he failed to
do so because his hands were tied together. So, he began to inflict upon him a terrible bite with his
teeth. All the people around him shouted: “Really this bandit deserve death since he even wanted to
kill his father.” But, he told them: “it is not I who deserves death but my father.” When in my
childhood I began stealing corn and grain, he praised me instead of punishing me and accustomed
me to robbery. For this reason, I became a bandit and thus reached this hour of my death. Had my
father punished me at the appropriate time, I would not have come to this end. Having said this, he
was beheaded, but all those who had children understood the seriousness of the matter.

H. Description
Description helps the reader visualize the topic. Descriptive writing creates impression. Descriptive
paragraph creates an impression, and enables your reader to visualize your topic sentence. To write
effective descriptions, you have to:

 Establish a dominant impression, and express this impression in your topic sentence;
 Select relevant and sufficient details to support your dominant impression;
 Use exact, colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses;
 Organize your details logically;
 Use transitional words and phrases to link your details.
All the details in a descriptive paragraph must be relevant to and helpful in creating your dominant
impression.

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Sample paragraph
The rent cottage was charming because it was old–fashioned and modern at the same time. The
bedrooms had colorful patchwork quilts on the beds and antique pictures on the walls, but the
mattresses were brand new and extremely comfortable. The reading lights were of the same,
efficient, up-to-date style I have at home. On entering the living room, one’s immediate desire was
to fling oneself on the huge sofa. An old-fashioned radio, hooked rugs, and a handmade
checkerboard combined with the wood-burning fireplace to create a rustic atmosphere. From the
modern redwood deck I had a peaceful view of the quite, secluded lake. The cottage took me back in
time in the best ways.

2.3.2. Narrative Paragraph

Narration is the telling of a story. It normally involves a discussion of events that are true or real,
events that take place over a period of time. Narration helps a writer explain things.

Writers who use narration usually rely on descriptive details to advance their stories. Moreover,
there always must be some purpose in the telling, a purpose that goes beyond mere enjoyment of the
story itself. Consequently, narration in a paragraph advances a topic sentence or main idea. For
example, if you had to write a paragraph on the happiest event in your life, you might choose to
narrate the day your team won the state championship. You would establish your topic sentence-
your main point-quickly, and then go on to tell about the event itself. In short, you would use
narration as a means to an end-to make a significant statement about an important moment in your
life.

Normally in a narrative you would start at the beginning and move to the end, or from past to present,
or from old to new. But there are many other ways to relate events in the narrative paragraph. For
instance, you could begin a paragraph on the death of someone important to you by detailing the
day of the funeral. For beginners, this flashback technique often causes very confused writing, but
skilled writers know how to “jump around” in time without confusing the reader, blurring the topic
sentence, or destroying the progression of the paragraph.

Narrative paragraph requires a careful selection of details. Certain moments within any time order
are more important than others, and these crucial moments will be emphasized and developed fully

34
by a good writer. Other moments, significant, but less important than the main moments, will take
up less space, while unimportant items will be eliminated entirely. However, the writer must
connect each event in the time span to other events that come before or after. Here transitions of
time words like ‘afterwards’, ‘soon’, ‘a day later’, ‘suddenly’, etc. serve as bridges to connect the
various moments in the narrative pattern.

There are other aspects of narration, too. For example, you must select a point of view for your
story-whether presenting events through your own eyes or from a more objective or detached
position. You must also decide on the value of dialogue (recording of conversations). Finally, you
must be aware that other techniques of prose writing (like description) can reinforce your narrative
pattern. Fortunately, most individuals have basic storytelling ability and know how to develop
stories that make a point. Once you master narration as a writing pattern, you will be able to use it
in a variety of situations.
Sample Narrative Paragraph
My parents divorce was the saddest day of my life. I will never forget the day that it happened. It is
all the more sad because my parents were married for about 13 years. I walked into our kitchen,
and my mother and sister were crying because my sister had found out that my dad was having an
affair with his secretary. At the time, my dad did not realize that my sister was home. My father
picked up the phone to call his mistress; my sister picked up the phone to call her friend, and she
heard his explicit conversation; she told my mother. My mother did not want to mention anything,
yet. However, my sister and I, in anger, blurted out to my father what was revealed. After my sister
repeated word for word of what she heard, my father panicked and admitted it. And thus, the word
"divorce" took place. As soon as I heard the word "divorce," I cried and I cried, and my dad tried to
hug me, but I pushed him away. I knew in that one instant that my life changed, it shifted, but of
course I was too young to understand how or why. It was a moment that I will regret forever, and it
was beyond my control. I truly was happy with my family, but now it is over, and I should have
appreciated more. Every time my dad asked me to do something, I always said no, I am busy. I did
not mean to be this way, but I was, and I can never go back.
2.3.3. Descriptive Paragraph
Since a writer’s main purpose is to explain things clearly, description is an important aid to good
writing. Descriptive details are necessary to create a visual impression of an object or a scene. As a
technique in writing, description matches the sort of details we see in vivid and effective

35
photographs. Good descriptive writers help the reader to see objects, scenes, and even moods by
means of language.

Descriptive paragraphs reflect the following key qualities, which should be observed in all good
descriptive writing. First description relies on a basic talent that we all have -the ability to see,
touch, taste, hear or smell various elements in the world. Talented descriptive writers refine the
power of their five senses in order to recreate people, places, things, emotions, and ideas. Second, in
descriptive writing, the writer must select details carefully. There might be thousands of details in
any given scene, but clearly a writer cannot present all of them. Instead, the writer must choose only
those details most useful in painting a picture for the reader. Third, writers must organize their
descriptions carefully. With description, the writer must decide on a perspective (for instance, top to
bottom, left to right, front to back, and he/she moves carefully from detail to detail. The descriptive
writer has a “camera eye” that ranges over its subject in a careful, consistent way. Fourth,
descriptive writing creates a “dominant impression” of its subject. This main impression arises from
the writer’s focus on a single subject, and from the feelings that the writer brings to that subject.
Finally, descriptive writing offers a thesis or main idea concerning its subject, as does all sound
writing. In short, description makes a point.

Sample Descriptive Paragraph

Most students like the freedom they have in college. Usually college students live on their own, in
the dormitory or in an apartment. This means they are free to come and go as they like. Their
parents cannot tell them when to get up, when to go to school, and when to come home. It also
means that they are free to wear what they want. There are no parents to comment about their hair
styles or their dirty jeans. Finally, they are free to listen to their favorite music without interference
from parents.
List of Vocabulary Items for Describing People and Creating Cohesion
1. Physical Appearance
a) Age: young, old, elderly, middle aged, teenager, adult, in the early/late 30’s/5o’s
b) Body build
Thin, plump, fat, buck teeth, crooked teeth, toothless, dentures, two front teeth are missing,
extremely fat, frail, skinny, bonny, slim
c) Weight: fat, bonny, slim, thin, skinny, overweight, plump, stocky, tiny
d) Height: Medium, tall, short, squat, dwarf, rather tall/short, tallish

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e) face/facial appearance: Long face, round face, long nose, flat nose, flaring nostrils, hooked,
somewhat pointed, rather broad, long lobed, almost lob less, sticking out, thin face, full lips,
thin lips, honest looking, beard, moustache, baby face, old, foolish, cruel, dimple, handsome,
beautiful, gorgeous, wrinkled, lined, spots
Shape of face: oval, long, round
f) Distinctive features: beard, mustache, scar, pointed chin, double chin, cleft in the chin, long
chin, round chin, square jaw, beauty spot, dimple, wrinkle, side bums
g) Ears: pointing ears, thin, wide/narrow, thick (full), large/small
h) Eyes: sparkling eyes
Eye color: brown, gray, blue
i) Nose: pointing, hook, short, flat, turned up, thick
j) Forehead: protruded, low, wide, narrow
k) Shoulder: broad, narrow
l) Cheek: chubby, clefted, pointed chin
m) Skin color: brown, dark, chocolate, pale tanned
n) Hair: blonde, long, wavy, kinky, short, receding balding, a fringe, crew cut, shoulder length,
waist, plaits, pony tail, dark, fairly dark, shiny, bald, thinning, receding
Hair color: dark, white, gray, mousey, golden
2. Behavior/Personality: sociable, reserved, modest, shy, moody, kind/sympathetic, crooked,
foolish, pigheaded, rational(critical), irrational, greedy(miser), meek(lively), cheerful, patient,
indifferent, lonely, aggressive, quick-tempered, pessimist, self centered, weak (feeble),
strong/determined, committed/gossiper, courageous, ambitious, dogmatic, un deciding, ill-
motivated, forgiving, introvert, extrovert, open-minded, boyish, girlish, monkish, old, descent,
authoritarian, friendly, all knowing, cruel, flexible, diehard, alert, calculative, genuine, cynical,
confident, cheat, daring, rude, optimism, suspicious, curious, eager, drinker, boast, passionate,
polite, coward, silent/harmless/talkative, principled, vagabond, ungrateful, wishy-washy,
unreliable/reliable, chicken-hearted, honest, proud, womanizer, superiority/inferiority, complex,
orator, showy, intelligent, good-looking, over confident, attractive, untidy, timid looking, bad
tempered, generous, conceited, cruel looking, calm, conservative, fashionable, agreeable
3. Dressing Style: conservative, fashionable, scruffy, shabby, neat
Kinds of dresses/Shoes: shorts, sneakers, sandals, jersey, jacket, slippers, pajama, suit, scarf,
overcoat

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4. Talent: inventor, artist, singer, scientist, orator, footballer (star), academician, dentist, surgeon
5. Hobby: reading, swimming, stamp collecting, watching film, traveling, riding, writing, walking,
gambling, playing games, listening to music, hunting, dancing, drinking, mountaineering,
gardening, painting, fishing, visiting, appreciating nature (place), feeding and playing with pets
Linking Devices:
a) Time
later on, afterward, years ago, second, third, finally, today, tomorrow, then, further, furthermore,
mean while, earlier, before, next, often, in the first place, yesterday, suddenly in the past, sometime,
later, previously, former, when, at last, etc.
b) Illustration
for example, for instance, to illustrate, as a matter of fact, in fact, namely, that is, etc.
c) Addition
similarly, furthermore, moreover, too, besides, above all, what is more, on top of this/that, also,
again, in addition, as well, etc.
d) Explanation
that is, in other words
e) Reinforcement
indeed, in fact, above all
f) Logical result
so, consequently, accordingly, due to this/that fact, therefore, as a result, thus, hence/because of this,
owing to this/that reason
g) Contrast
but, yet, in spite of the fact, on the other hand, conversely, on the contrary, still, however,
nevertheless, despite the fact
h) Concession
granted, admittedly, however, nonetheless, only, still, yet, at any rate, in spite of, after all, on the
other hand, to be sure, no doubt, nevertheless, not withstanding, it is true that, although, in any
case, all the same, despite that, at the same time
i) Summary
in short, altogether, then, to conclude, in brief, overall, therefore, to sum up, thus, in conclusion
j) Conclusion

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finally, consequently, as a result, hence, in conclusion, therefore, accordingly, thus, to conclude, to
sum up, all in all, for this/that reason
k) Chronology
first, next, at the outset, at last, later, soon, finally, meanwhile, in/at the beginning, at/in the end
l) Similarity(comparison)
similarly, in the same way, correspondingly, likewise, like, granted, not withstanding
m) Reason
as, because, since, for, due to this/that reason
n) Correlatives
neither…nor, either…or, such…as, both…and, not only…but also, whether or not, so…that
o) Subordinators
unless, who, what, that, which
p) Emphasis/Clarification
after all, anyway, at any rate, at least, indeed, to be sure, of course
q) Inference
then, otherwise, else, in that case, in other words, if so/not, that/this implies, my conclusion is…
r) Reformulation
this means, to put it (more)simply in other words
s) Replacement
again, rather, on the other hand…, another possibility would be…, alternatively,
better/worse(still) ...., the alternative is..

2.3.4. Argumentative Paragraph

Argumentation in prose is an attempt to convince the reader to have the opinion you have on a
subject; frequently, it also involves an effort to persuade the reader to act in a particular manner. In
a formal argument, you can use, according to your purpose, all the prose strategies and principles of
sound composition practiced until now.

You can see how important it is to state your thesis very clearly in argumentation, and to support
your main point with convincing minor points. You have to make these points according to reason,
and you need to arrange them so they have the greatest effect on your reader. Moreover, in any
prose, writers of argument must offer the reader particulars of details, whether sensory, quoted,

39
statistical, or based upon historical evidence. Finally techniques of comparison, process analysis,
description, narration, cause and effect, and definition, all can help strengthen an argument.

Although argumentation reflects all these earlier prose techniques, it is important for you to
understand the special characteristics of this method. To begin with although argumentation as a
written form is often emotional, it differs sharply from those little battles and those major
disagreements with friends over coffee or in hallways outside class.

In written arguments, writers always should keep clearly in mind the point they wish to make, and
should not lose sight of it. They may try to convince readers that some issue requires action or, they
may try to convince readers that something is true (“wives are taken for granted”). Whatever the
point writers always offer their reasons for their beliefs in a logical way, without losing command
of their subject and without attacking anyone personally: they may though attack some one’s ideas
or attitudes.

The main point in an argument often termed the major proposition is an idea that is debatable or
can be disputed. Once you state clearly and carefully your major proposition at the outset of the
writing, you must then proceed to convince readers about the position that you have taken. There
are basic strategies to succeed in this goal, beginning with the ordered presentation of reasons to
defend the major proposition. We term these reasons minor propositions-in other words, assertions
designed to support your main argument. To support each minor proposition, the writer must offer
evidence in the form of facts, statistics, and testimony from authorities, and personal experience. In
addition to presenting your own argument logically and convincingly, you must also recognize and
deal with opposing arguments, a technique called refutation. Obviously, there has to be more than
one side to any debatable issue, and you have to take this fact into account.
Sample Argumentative Paragraph
I am against smoking Marijuana because it can cause two very detrimental conditions: paranoia
and laziness. First, I believe that people should not smoke marijuana because reaching a state of
paranoia can cause a person to act irrationally, which can lead to huge mistakes and regret. For
example, one day my friend smoked some pot. Soon after, he started complaining about his heart
racing, and was sweating excessively. Out of panic, he ran down the street crying and claiming that
people wanted to kill him. The police soon arrested him on suspicion of drug use. Second,
marijuana causes laziness, which prevents people from living up to their full potential. For
instance, I once watched a movie about a guy who smoked Marijuana regularly. He became so lazy
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that he failed out of school. Furthermore, he was fired from his job because he always called in sick
when he was really stoned and lethargic (slow and lazy). In summation, marijuana may make some
people feel good, but I completely disagree with smoking it because of its long-term effects that are
devastating for your mental health and energy level.

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 Unit Three
Writing Effective Essay
3.1. What of an Essay
An essay is a piece of writing, usually from a writer’s personal point of view. The essay is, first and
foremost, essentially true, a piece of non-fiction. It can be literary criticism, political manifestos,
observations of daily life, recollections, reflections of the writer and learned arguments.

Words are collections of sounds; sentences are collections of words; paragraphs are collections of
sentences; and essays are collections of paragraphs. But so are many other forms of writing such as
that found in novels, magazines, and newspapers.

All essays have definable beginnings, middles, and endings, unlike some forms of writing such as
newspaper stories. In addition, essay is built around a central idea, normally referred to as thesis
statement. Basically, the thesis statement is the glue which binds the essay together. It is the point of
the essay. It is what the essay is about, what it intends to show, prove, or do: the controlling
purpose.

Length should never be a primary consideration when creating an essay. More relevant is the idea
that the essay should be long enough to completely discuss, argue, prove, or relate the main idea of
the essay, the thesis statement. The well-written essay has completeness, a wholeness about it that
announces.

In recent times, essays have become a major part of a formal education. Higher institution students
are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and essays are often used by
universities in selecting applicants. In both secondary and tertiary education, essays are used to
judge the mastery and comprehension of material. Students are asked to explain, comment on, or
assess a topic of study in the form of an essay. Academic essays are usually more formal than
literary ones. They may still allow the presentation of the writer's own views, but this is done in a
logical and factual manner, with the use of the first person often discouraged.

As a general rule, an essay's primary function is to express the point of view of its writer. For
example, someone who is particularly passionate about a religious or political issue may write an
essay to support his or her position, especially when the issue is a controversial one. Of course, not

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all essays are argumentative in nature. The function for each, however, is the same--to express a
point of view.

3.2. Basic Essay Structure

Knowing how to organize your ideas in an essay is very important for academic success. Usually,
academic essay has a similar format. It is at least five paragraphs long although often it is much
longer. Also, the basic structure of each of these paragraphs is the same as that which we have
already studied.

The most common size for an essay is five paragraphs. The introductory first paragraph should be
just long enough to give the reader insight into the topic. The body is generally comprised of three
paragraphs. Each paragraph should focus on a separate thought, and more paragraphs can be added
as needed. Like the introduction, the conclusion is typically only one paragraph in length. While
five paragraphs is the norm, the word count can vary greatly, depending upon the complexity of the
topic.

The basic essay should be organized in the following five paragraph structure:
 Introduction
 Body Paragraph One
 Body Paragraph Two
 Body Paragraph Three
 Conclusion
This list is a basic guideline by which to structure all your essays. Obviously, they can vary in
length and in paragraph number. However, within the confines of this skeletal structure, is
everything you will in order to write a successful essay. Let us go piece by piece through this basic
structure to examine the elements of this style.
a. The Introduction

The Introduction consists of an opening line. This opening line can be a generalization about life
that pertains to your topic. It can also be a quotation. Another way into the introduction is to start it
with a little anecdote (or story). Once you have "introduced" the introductory paragraph with a
generalization, quotation, or anecdote, you can write vaguely for a few sentences or simply jump
into the crust of the idea. When you feel you are ready to introduce the specific focus of the essay,
then you write the thesis statement. The thesis statement should generally come at the end of the

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Introductory Paragraph. If you are writing about a particular book, author, or event, you should
name it (in entirety) in the thesis statement. You should also list your argument with its supporting
evidence in this sentence. Essentially, the thesis statement is your tagline for the essay and the final
sentence of the introduction.

The first paragraph of the academic essay is the one that is usually the most different from the basic
paragraph that we have studied. A basic paragraph has a topic sentence as its first sentence,
followed by supporting sentences with supporting details, and these (sometimes) followed by a
concluding sentence.

In the multi-paragraph academic essay, however, the structure is a little different. Like the basic
paragraph, the introductory paragraph opens with a very general statement about the topic, and is
often followed by some supporting examples, but the paragraph then finishes with a narrow
statement (Thesis Statement) about the topic. Here is a short example of an introductory paragraph:

Throughout human history, the physical universe has often presented dangers to explorers. For
example, when primitive humans left their tribal villages to search for food and water, they risked
death or injury from dangerous animals. Later, when people sailed the oceans in search of new
lands for settlement or trade, many died in terrible storms. Similarly, the ocean of outer space has
many dangers, but it also has several unique challenges for explorers.

Notice how the first sentence, throughout human history, nature has often presented dangers to
explorers, is a very general statement about the topic, which is dangers in exploration. The next two
sentences give some supporting examples of this initial sentence. However, the third sentence of the
paragraph gives an example that contrasts in some way with the previous two sentences. Then, the
final sentence does something new: it introduces a specific example of the general topic. This
specific topic is the main thesis of the entire essay; that is, the rest of the essay will focus on this
specific topic, which in this case is several unique challenges for explorers.

This main thesis functions like the topic sentence of the basic paragraph. It is the most important
sentence of the essay. Notice how the main thesis is worded. It includes the phrase, several unique
challenges. This raises a question in the reader's mind, namely: "What are these challenges?" The
reader will find out what some of the challenges are in the body of the essay, which we will study
next.

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 b. The Body Paragraphs

The body portion of the essay is the largest portion. Typically, it has three paragraphs, but it might
have two paragraphs and of course it can have many more than three. Each of these paragraphs
usually has a topic sentence and several supporting sentences, just like the basic paragraph we have
studied. Here is an example of three body paragraphs (which together continue the essay that we
have started studying above):
i. Body Paragraph One

The Body Paragraph One should open with a transitional sentence. It should lead the reader into the
first piece of evidence you use to support your thesis statement, your argument. It is essentially a
mini-thesis for the paragraph. From the transitional/opening sentence, you can go on to cite
evidence to support your argument. This evidence must all revolve around a single theme and
should come in the form of a quotation (or factual information from a primary source). If you put
too many different themes into one body paragraph, then the essay becomes confusing. Body
Paragraph One will deal with one theme for your argument. You may have several pieces of
evidence to support this one theme, which is absolutely fine. Once you use a piece of evidence, you
have to be sure and write at least one or two sentences explaining why you use it. Then, wrap up the
Body Paragraph with a mini-concluding sentence summing up only what you have discussed in that
paragraph.

One of the challenges that is unique to space is the fact that space is a vacuum, which is a risk for
various reasons. First, in a vacuum there is no atmosphere and therefore no air pressure. Without
air pressure, the human body has no oxygen to sustain itself. After too many minutes without
oxygen, a person would lose consciousness and eventually die. Also, in a vacuum a person's blood
will gradually begin to boil. Finally, without an atmosphere, the rays of the Sun can cause
radiation poisoning.
ii. Body Paragraph Two

Body Paragraph Two should follow the exact same rules as Body Paragraph One. This time, pick
the second theme in support of your thesis argument and cite evidence for it. Again, you must open
this paragraph with a transitional sentence; one leading from the previous theme to the current

45
theme.

Another difficulty that is unique to outer space is the presence of meteors and micrometeors.
These are pieces of rock and metal that are left over from the formation of the solar system. Many
of these objects travel at very high speeds. Under the Earth's blanket of air, people are usually
protected from meteor impacts. However, in space, people and spaceships are vulnerable to
collisions with meteors. It is true that the chance of meteor impacts is relatively small, but if even a
small micrometeor happens to collide with a spacecraft, it could cause serious damage.
iii. Body Paragraph Three

Body Paragraph Three should follow the exact same rules as Body Paragraph One and Two.
Again, you must open this paragraph with a transitional sentence; one leading from the previous
theme to the current theme.

A third special challenge involved with the environment of space involves the fact that it is very
difficult to find life-sustaining water off the Earth. For example, the planet Mercury, which is
closest to the Sun, is too hot to have water, so space travelers must take water from Earth if they
want to visit Mercury. A similar situation exists on the planet Venus, second from the Sun. This
planet is likewise too hot for water to exist. Similarly, the fourth planet, Mars, is too cold and dry,
although there may be some water frozen at the north and south poles of the planet.

(Note that usually we do not put extra spaces between individual paragraphs, as has been done
above. The spaces between the paragraphs above are only for study purposes.)

Recall that the main thesis statement of this essay said, Similarly, the ocean of outer space has
many dangers, but it also has several unique challenges for explorers. You can see how the body of
the essay is organized according to the challenges that are mentioned in the main thesis. The first
body paragraph discusses the dangers of space vacuum, the second body paragraph gives
information about meteors, and the third paragraph mentions the fact that water is very difficult to
find on other planets.
c. The Conclusion

Your conclusion is a wrap-up of the entire essay. It takes your introduction and essentially says to
the reader, "See, I told you so." You should be writing your conclusion with the belief that you have
proven everything you have set out to prove in your essay. You are allowed to be confident here,
46
and you are even allowed to drop little extra pieces of information that make the reader think more
than you previewed in the entire paper. It is also important to have a concluding mini-thesis in this
paragraph. This statement is the closing tag-line, the "see what I just did" idea in every paper. An
essay can be immaculately written, organized, and researched; however, without a conclusion, the
reader is left dumbfounded, frustrated, confused.

It is important to remember that this is a rough sketch by which to write your essays. If your topic is
quite complicated, then you may have infinitely more evidentiary paragraphs than three.
Furthermore, you can expand your individual themes, as well. You can write two or three
paragraphs in support of "theme 1" (or Body Paragraph One). The most important thing to
remember here is consistency. If you have two or three paragraphs in support of one piece of
evidence, then you should have the same amount of paragraphs in support of all sequential facts.
There are other difficulties involved with space exploration, but these are three of the most
important ones. In summary, without adequate air pressure, the unprotected human body may be
seriously harmed in a vacuum. In addition, meteors can threaten human life and damage
spacecraft. Finally, the lack of water in space means that human life may have a difficult time
surviving on other planets. As one can see, the challenges of space travel are rather different from
terrestrial dangers.

Here is another example of a concluding paragraph:

As mentioned above, the Earth's natural environment has often presented dangers to explorers.
Dangerous animals, vast oceans, and violent weather have presented risks to humans. However, the
new frontier of outer space, with its vacuum, meteors, and lack of water, presents unique challenges
to people who desire to explore it.

Here is a diagram of the basic essay guidelines. Remember, "Body Paragraphs" simply stand for
Specific Ideas for your thesis. There can be many more than simply three.
I. Introduction
a. Opening
 Sentence, anecdote, quotation, and generalization
b. Explanation of opening, leading into Thesis Statement
c. Thesis Statement
 General argument

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II. Body Paragraph One
a. Opening Sentence (pertaining to Reason/Theme #1)
 Explanation
b. Evidence A
 Explanation of evidence A
c. Possible evidence B
 Explanation of possible evidence B
d. Mini-conclusion only about Reason/Theme #1
III. Body Paragraph Two
a. Transitional/ Opening Sentence (pertaining to Reason/Theme #2)
 Explanation
b. Evidence C
 Explanation of evidence C
c. Possible evidence D
 Explanation of possible evidence D
d. Mini-conclusion only about Reason/Theme #2
IV. Body Paragraph Three
a. Transitional/Opening Sentence (pertaining to Reason/Theme #3)
 Explanation
b. Evidence E
 Explanation of evidence E
c. Possible evidence F
 Explanation of possible evidence F
d. Mini-conclusion only about Reason/Theme #3

V. Conclusion
a. Transitional sentence wrapping up paper
b. Return to original anecdote/quotation/generalization
c. Reconfirm your argument, recounting how you have proven it
d. Write a mini-thesis, this time with more assertion

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 e. Possibly throw out a new idea (related to your thesis)
f. Optional

3.3. Basic Types of Essay

3.3.1. Expository Essay
Expository essay is aimed at presenting the information based on people’s views. This is an
opportunity for you to express in essay your viewpoint on effectiveness, correctness of data.
Moreover, in expository essay you are able to criticize and analyze, describe and present the
material the way you understand it. If some aspects of an event or specific details are very
important, you may review them in a more detailed way.

Expository writing is designed to display information and to explain any unclear moments.
Exposition means the orderly analysis of available data on the topic with the use of illustrations,
figures, tables or any information that can be supported by quotations from valuable source books,
journal articles or governmental websites.

Introduction usually contains overview of the material presented in the expository essay while
conclusion contains summary of this material. Conclusion of expository writing should not include
any new information; it usually restates ideas presented in a thesis statement at the beginning of
your work.

Sample Expository Essay

My dog is the best pet anyone could have. He is beautiful and easy to care for. Playing with him is
lots of fun. He always takes care of me. There is not a better pet anywhere.

My dog is a beautiful tricolor Sheltie. He is mostly black with white and a bit of brown. Caring for
him is easy because I simply have to make sure he has fresh water and food every day. I exercise
him by throwing his toys. He is a good pet because he is nice looking and does not require much
care.

He is also lots of fun to play with. He loves to play catch. He follows me around the house with a
toy and drops it on my foot so I will kick it. He can catch just about anything, but his favorite is
chasing a Frisbee. I really have fun playing with my dog.

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He, even, takes care of me. He always follows me when I leave a room. When I am sitting on the
couch he plops down right beside me. When we are outside in the woods he always makes sure that
I keep up with the rest of the family. He always watches out for me.

As you can see, my dog is a great pet. I am proud of him and he does not require much
care. Playing with him is always enjoyable. He watches over me and keeps me safe, and is
absolutely the best pet anyone could even have!

3.3.2. Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay mirrors the mood of the writer and conjures images that breathe. It is often
regarded as the most structured form of writing as it is associated with the ability to transfer
emotions to the reader through the use of words. The aim of descriptive essays is to provide a vivid
picture of a person, location, object, event, or debate. It will offer details that will enable the reader
to imagine the item described. A descriptive essay is an essay which is written in a manner which
captures the reader’s attention by vivid examples. When writing a descriptive essay, students must
ensure that it is written using all five senses so that words create a mental picture in the mind of the
reader, and allows him/her to experience what is being described. A good essay arouses the reader’s
senses, and impacts on his/her mind- evoking the correct response.

The writer succeeds if he/she is able to capture the reader’s attention and retain it till the end.
Although one can describe anything under the sun and palm it off as a descriptive essay, the
description must relate to something of consequence, in the sense that it must be purposeful.

A good descriptive essay should lure the reader and entice him to read without stopping. While
details are important, the way they are presented is going to decide whether the readers opt in or
out. Visual skills, words relating to sound, smell and taste predominantly used tend to make the
essay real. Words relating to touch and inner emotions be it disgust or admiration, love or hatred
convey to the reader the intensity and range of feeling. A wider spectrum encompassing all the
senses has a tremendous impact.

Sample Descriptive Essay

Just the night before, my little brother had complained, "Nothing exciting ever happens at our
house." I was not thinking of that, though, when I woke up one Saturday morning and found the
kitchen smelling like a fresh coat of oil paint. Mom and Dad had already gone to work. I touched
one of the cabinets. No wet paint there, just the slightly sticky feel of wood in need of cleaning. I
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opened the front door of our apartment to check where the smell was coming from. Splat! The fumes
hit my face like a splash of gasoline. I caught my breath and slammed the door.

"Quick," I called to my brother, who was still in his bedroom watching cartoons. "There's a fire
somewhere in the building. Find the cat and get ready to leave." I dialed 911 and tried to answer
the operator's questions as well as I could. "Are the fumes acrid or base?" she wanted to know. I
wished I had paid closer attention in science class. As soon as I hung up, I packed my violin in its
case, and my brother emerged with the cat zipped into his backpack, her two yellow eyes glinting
like gold buttons out the top.

We took a deep breath and started down the five flights of stairs, knocking on each of our
neighbors' doors along the way. Only one grumpy man replied to our warning. "Go away," he
snarled. My brother started whimpering, but I grabbed his hand and told him not to waste his
breath. The air burned like hot sauce in our throats, but strangely, not even a puff of smoke
darkened the bright October light streaming through the skylight.

As soon as we reached the stoop, we ran next door to the Chinese laundry. The familiar smell of
detergent and ironing was as comforting as a mother's hug. The owner, who knew my family well,
frowned and nodded as I explained our sudden appearance.

At last, a fire engine pulled up quietly, like a shiny red school bus. I think my brother was
disappointed that it did not blow its siren. We ran to the curb to talk to the first fireman off the
truck, a huge statue in helmet and uniform puffing a fat cigar. He listened to our story and waved
three more men off the truck. "You two stay here," he ordered, leading his crew armed with
hatchets, extinguishers, and gas meters. He was back within minutes, cigar in hand. "Seems the
man cleaning the furnace had some trouble with the exhaust," he puffed. "Sent the fumes right back
into the system. Just air the place out for a few hours and you will be fine."

He was right. With all the windows open, the kitchen smelled like toast, hot cider and cat food
within minutes. We sat down to breakfast at last, happy for once that nothing exciting usually
happens at our house.

3.3.3. Narrative Essay

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Narrative writing tells a story. The narrative writing could also be considered reflection or an
exploration of the writer’s values told as a story. The writer may remember his or her past, or a
memorable person or event from that past, or even observe the present.

The aim of a narrative essay is to describe a course of events from a subjective vantage point, and
may be written in first-person present or first person past tense. Though not always chronological,
narrative essays do follow the development of a person through a series of experiences and
reflections. The focus of the essay is often to more clearly identify the point of view of the narrator,
and to express common features of subjectivity.

When you are writing a narrative essay, loosen up. After all, you are basically just telling a story to
someone, something you probably do every day in casual conversation. You might even want to
either tape record your story as if you were telling it to someone for the first time or actually tell it
to a friend.

Once you get the basic story down, then you can begin turning it into an essay. If you feel that you
lack life experience, then you may choose to write about someone else or write about an
observation you have made about a recent event. You could write about your children, your parents,
or your favorite sport or hobby. The important aspect to remember is that you should have a
story. In a successful narrative essay, the writer usually makes a point.
Features
1. The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what kind of narrative essay it is
(an event or recurring activity, a personal experience, or an observation), and it should have
a conclusion that makes a point.
2. The essay should include anecdotes. The writer should describe the person, the scene, or the
event in some detail. It is okay to include dialogue as long as you know how to punctuate it
correctly and as long as you avoid using too much.
3. The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your description and thoughts
lead the reader to reflect on the human experience. One of life's lessons is that sometimes
there is no right choice, and that was the point of the essay.
4. The point of view in narrative essay is usually first person "I" which invites your readers
into an intimate discussion.

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 5. The writing in your essay should be lively and show some style. Try to describe ideas and
events in new and different ways. Avoid using clichés. Again, get the basic story down, get it
organized, and in your final editing process, work on word choice.

Sample Narrative Essay

It is hard for me to remember much about my first trip abroad (to Egypt, namely), because it was
about fifteen years ago and I myself was almost a child at that time, so a lot of memories have been
lost somewhere on the way.

But the only thing I remember about that trip is that everything from the very beginning went wrong
– not terribly wrong; it was this mildly frustrating “wrong” that doesn’t actually cause any harm or
problems, but makes the whole experience of something a bit specific – not the way you would like
it to be.

To begin with, the flight was first delayed and then cancelled due to sudden and terrible
deterioration of the weather. Some altercations with the travel agency followed, apologies received,
but we didn’t manage to fly anywhere that day.

When the time finally came, we, surprisingly got to our destination without many problems. They
awaited us in Egypt. What do people usually go to Egypt for? To look at the Pyramids, of course,
and that was the idea of our group, but, due to some problems, we didn’t manage to get to the
necessary excursion. The weather for the entirety of our stay there was rather cloudy (which is
unusual for Egypt), so the usual option of sunbathing was also out of the question for some time.
And, to crown it all, at the day of our departure a terrible, never-ending rain started, which,
according to the owner of our hotel, happened for the first time in the last 17 years.

It is all rather amusing to recall now, but, as you may expect, for the first trip abroad it was rather
disappointing.

3.3.4. Argumentative Essay

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Argumentative essays are most often used to address controversial issues - i.e. serious issue over
which there is some evident disagreement. An argument is a position combined with its supporting
reasons. Argumentative writings, thus, set out a main claim and then provide reasons for thinking
that the claim is true. These are essays in which the writer pulls out the main thesis and outline of a
particular paper, and then writes an essay in his or her own style.

The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one simply
has an opinion, one can argue it effectively, and these folks are always surprised when others don
not agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Additionally, writers of argumentation
often forget that their primary purpose in an argument is to "win" it--to sway the reader to accept
their point of view. It is easy to name call, easy to ignore the point of view or research of others, and
extremely easy to accept one's own opinion as gospel, even if the writer has not checked his or her
premise in a couple of years, or, as is the case for many young writers, never questioned the beliefs
inherited from others.

Quite unlike the ordinary meaning of the word, argument as a term in rhetoric refers to the process
of reasoning by advancing proof. Indeed, academic argument can seem dispassionate if one expects
that all argument is done with raised voices and heated tempers. Though academic argument often
does grow very acrimonious, it is more often the product of careful research and thoughtful
consideration of all the facts that one can acquire about the issue. For centuries therefore
rhetoricians advocated the writing of an argumentative essay as a means of learning how to think.

Argument demands that the writer examine a belief by testing the strength of the reasons for
holding such a belief. Argument of this kind forms a "dialectical structure," a dialog, within the
essay itself. In this dialog, the writer explores several sides of the issue under consideration with the
readers in an attempt to demonstrate why one perspective is the most enlightened. The writer's
analysis of the issues (his/her evaluations of the claims, evidence, assumptions, hidden arguments,
and inherent contradictions) leads the writer to champion one perspective of the subject at hand,
even though reasonable, thoughtful, intelligent people advocate different perspectives.

In short, the writer of an argument essay has several goals: the primary goal is to persuade and
move the audience to accept his/her position on an issue, but that is often a very difficult challenge.
A secondary, and more modest goal, is for the writer to articulate why s/he chooses the stance that
s/he does on an issue. The secondary goal recognizes the fact that to persuade is a difficult objective
but that at least the writer can explain his/her reasoning behind his/her position.
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Features

1. So, what do you write about? Pick a well-defined, controversial issue. Readers should
understand what the issue is and what is at stake. The issue must be arguable. After stating
your thesis, you will need to discuss the issue in depth so that your reader will understand
the problem fully.

2. A clear position taken by the writer. In your thesis sentence, state what your position is.
You do not need to say. The thesis can be modified elsewhere in the essay if you need to
qualify your position, but avoid hedging in your thesis.

3. A convincing argument. An argumentative essay does not merely assert an opinion; it

presents an argument, and that argument must be backed up by data that persuades readers
that the opinion is valid. This data consists of facts, statistics, the testimony of others
through personal interviews and questionnaires or through articles and books, and examples.
The writer of an argumentative essay should seek to use educated sources that are
nonbiased, and to use them fairly. It is, therefore, best to avoid using hate groups as a
source, although you can use them briefly as an example of the seriousness of the problem.
Talk shows fall into the same category as they are frequently opinionated or untrue.

4. A reasonable tone. Assume that your reader will disagree with you or be skeptical. It is
important, therefore, that your tone be reasonable, professional, and trustworthy. By
anticipating objections and making concessions, you inspire confidence and show your good
will.

Some Topics for Argumentative Writing

o Is using animals for scientific experiments right?
o Should sex education be started at a very young age?
o Should gay marriages be legalized?
o Do video games have a negative effect on children's behavior?
o What is the effect of media on young children?
o Is exposure to the Internet at an early age a good idea?
o Are human beings becoming dependent on technology?
o Have cell phones become a nuisance at public places?
o Should people be given capital punishment for rape?

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 o Can human beings be completely held responsible for global warming?
o Should cigarette smoking become illegal like drugs?

Sample Argumentative Essay

Health and Healing at Your Fingertips
Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could
be bad for your health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy
expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to our
confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing is at our fingertips: we
can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.

Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and
scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai
Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in our material world. There is
medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our
brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they
provide. However, there are some “every day complaints” such as back pains, headaches,
insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an
Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the side effects of
these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep
without them. We pay huge amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How
about a safer and more economical way of healing?

When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not need anything except your energy so it is very economical.
As for its history, it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread
particularly throughout America and Western Europe. In quantum physics, energy is recognized as
the fundamental substance of which the universe is composed. Reiki depends on the energy within
our bodies. It is a simple and effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects
and it is scientifically explained.

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Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and
cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of their
lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is very
unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair because of
chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is
common knowledge that except for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also
cannot treat AIDS or cancer. Instead of drugs which are expensive and have many side effects, you
can use your energy to overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of
everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic conditions such as eczema or
migraine are known to have causes such as poor diet and stress. Deep rooted anger or other strong
emotions can contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling
our thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should definitely start learning Reiki and
avoid illnesses before it is too late.

Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends on time. It is even
“lacking time” that causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would it
be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find
time to go to the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than 15
minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully
simple healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is
less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some
complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.

Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What
is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age and experience. It can be used anywhere,
anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last
a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet!

………………………..The End………………………..

References
Davis, J and R, Liss, (2005). Effective Academic Writing 3 the Essay. Oxford University Press.
Langan, J (2005). A Guided Writing to Composition College Writing Skills. Sixth Edition. Boston:
Mcgraw-Hill.

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Rorabacher, L, (1976). A Concise Guide to Composition (3rd Ed). London Harper and Row
publishers.
Savage, A. and M. Shafiei, (2007). Effective Academic Writing 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Savage, A. and P. Mayer (2005).Effective Academic Writing 2 Mcgraw-Hill. Oxford University
Press.
Writer’s Choice: Grammar and Composition

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