St.

MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE

An Autonomous Institute
NBA & NAAC A+ ACCREDITED
Dhulapally, Secunderabad - 500100.

UNIT-I
STORAGE WORKS-RESERVOIRS
Introduction

Water storage reservoirs may be created by constructing a dam across a river, along with
suitable appurtenant structures. Further, reservoirs are also meant to absorb a part of flood water
and the excess is discharged through a spillway. It is also essential to study the relation between
flood discharge, reservoirs capacity and spillway size in order to propose an economic solution
to the whole project. These and topics on reservoir sedimentation have been discussed in this
lesson which shall give an idea as to how a reservoir should be built and optimally operated.
Fundamentally, a reservoir serves to store water and the size of the reservoir is governed by the
volume of the water that must be stored, which in turn is affected by the variability of the inflow
available for the reservoir. Reservoirs are of two main categories: (a) Impounding reservoirs into
which a river flows naturally, and (b) Service or balancing reservoirs receiving supplies that are
pumped or channeled into them artificially. In general, service or balancing reservoirs are
required to balance supply with demand. Reservoirs of the second type are relatively small in
volume because the storage required by them is to balance flows for a few hours or a few days at
the most. Impounding or storage reservoirs are intended to accumulate a part of the flood flow
of the river for use during the non-flood months. In this lesson, our discussions would be
centered on these types of reservoirs.
Types of Reservoirs
1. Flood control: storage capacity is required to be maintained to absorb foreseeable flood
inflows to the reservoirs, so far as they would cause excess of acceptable discharge spillway
opening. Storage allows future use of the flood water retained.
2. Amenity use: this may include provision for boating, water sports, fishing, and sightseeing.
3. Formally, the Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 4410 (part 6)1983 “Glossary of terms
relating to river valley projects -Reservoirs" defines the following types of reservoirs:
4. Auxiliary or Compensatory Reservoir: A reservoir which supplements and absorbed the spill
of a main reservoir.
5. Balancing Reservoirs: A reservoir downstream of the main reservoir for holding water let
down from the main reservoir in excess of that required for irrigation, power generation or
other purposes.
6. Conservation Reservoir: A reservoir impounding water for useful purposes, such as
irrigation, power generation, recreation, domestic, industrial and municipal supply etc.
7. Detention Reservoir: A reservoir where in water is stored for a relatively brief period of
time, past of it being retained until the stream can safely carry the ordinary flow plus the
released water. Such reservoirs usually have outlets without control gates and are used for
 flood regulation. These reservoirs are also called as the Flood Control Reservoir or
Retarding Reservoir.
8. Distribution Reservoir: A reservoir connected with distribution system a water
supply project, used primarily to care for fluctuations in demand which occur
over short periods and as local storage in case of emergency such as a break in a main
supply line failure of a pumping plant.

9 Impounding or Storage Reservoir: A reservoir with gate-controlled outletswherein surface

water may be retained for a considerable period of time and released for use at a time when
the normal flow of the stream is in sufficient to satisfy requirements.
10Multipurpose Reservoir: A reservoir constructed and equipped to provide storage and
releaseofwaterfortwoormorepurposessuchas control, power generation, navigation, pollution
abatement, domestic and industrial water supply, fish culture,recreation, etc.
Selection of site for a Reservoir
The first step in planning the construction of a reservoir with the help of a dam is for the
decision makers to be sure of the needs and purposes for which the reservoir is going to be built
together with the known constraints (including financial), desired benefits. There may be social
constraints, forexamplespeople’s actives maynotallowa reservoirtobebuilt-uptothedesired level or
even the submergence of good agricultural level may be a constraint. Some times, the
construction of a dam may be done that is labor intensive and using local materials, which helps
the community for whom the dam is being built. This sort of work is quite common in the minor
irrigation departments of various steps, especially in the drought prone areas. The Food-for-
Work schemes can be utilized in creating small reservoirs that helps to serve the community. In
a larger scale, similar strategy was adopted for the construction of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam on
the River Krishna, which was built entirely of coursed rubble masonry and using manual labor
inthousands.
The second step is the assembly of all relevant existing information, which includes the
following:
1. Reports of any previous investigations and studies, if any.
2. Reports on projects similar to that proposed which have already been constructed in the
region.
3. A geographical information system (GIS) for the area of interestmaybe
4. Created using a base survey map of the region.
5. Topographical data in the form of maps and satellite pictures, which may be integrated
within theGIS.
6. Geological data in the form of maps and borehole logs, along with the values of relevant
parameters.
7. Seismic activity data of the region that includes recorded peak accelerations or ground
motion record.
8. Meteorological and hydrological data - of available parameters like rainfall, atmospheric and
water temperatures, evaporation, humidity, wind speed, hours of sunshine, river flows, river
levels, sediment concentration in rivers,etc.
9. For water supply projects, data on population and future population growth based on some
acceptable forecast method, industrial water requirement and probable future
industrialdevelopment.
10. For irrigation projects, data on soils in the project area and on the crops already grown,
including water requirement for thecrops.
11. For hydropower projects, data on past demand and forecasts of future public and industrial
demand for power and energy; data on existing transmission systems, including transmission
voltage andcapacity.
12. Data on flora and fauna in the project and on the fish in the rivers and lakes, including data
on their migratory and breedinghabits.
13. Data on tourism and recreational use of rivers and lakes and how this may be encouraged on
completion of the proposedreservoir.
14. As may be noted, some of the data mentioned above would be needed to design and
construct the dam and its appurtenant structures which would help to store water behind the
reservoir. However, there are other data that decides the following:
15. How large the reservoir should be and, consequently, what should be the dam height?
16. What should be the size of the spillway and at what elevation the crest level of the spillway
belocated?
17. How many and at what levels sluices be provided and they should be of whatsizes?
18. Two important aspects of reservoirs planning: Sedimentation Studies and Geological
Explorations are described in detail in the following section.
19. Effect of sedimentation in planning of reservoirs
20. It is important to note that storage reservoirs built across rivers and streams loose their
capacity on account of deposition of sediment. This deposition which takes place
progressively in time reduces the active capacity of the reservoir to provide the outputs of
water through passage of time. Accumulation of sediment at or near the dam may interfere
with the future functioning of water intakes and hence affects decisions regarding location
and height of various outlets. It may also result in greater inflow of into canals / water
conveyance systems drawing water from the reservoir. Problems of rise in flood levels in the
head reaches and unsightly deposition of sediment from recreation point of may also crop up
in course of time. In this regard, the Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 12182 - 1987
“Guidelines for determination of effects o-`f sedimentation in planning and performance of
reservoir” is an important document which discusses some of the aspects of sedimentation
that have to be considered

While planning a reservoir, the degree of seriousness and the effect of sedimentation at the
proposed location has to be judged from studies, which normally combination consists of:

1. Performance Assessment (Simulation) Studieswith varying rate of

sedimentation.
2. Likely effects of sedimentation at damface.
3. In special cases, where the effects of sedimentation on backwater levels are likely to be
significant, backwater studies would be useful to understand the size of river water levels.
Similarly, special studies to bring out delta formation region changes may be of interest. The
steps to be followed for performance assessment studies with varying rates of sedimentation
are as follows:
4. Estimation of annual sediment yields into the reservoir or the average annual sediment yield
and of trap efficiency expected.
5. Distribution of sediment within reservoir to obtain a sediment elevation and capacity curve
at any appropriate time.
6. Simulation studies with varying rates of sedimentation.
7. Assessment of effect ofsedimentation.
In general, the performance assessment of reservoir projects has to be done for varying
hydrologic inputs to meet varying demands. Although analytical probability-based methods are
available to some extent, simulation of the reservoir system is the standard method. The method
is also known as the working tables or sequential routing. In this method, the water balance ofthe
reservoir s and of other specific locations of water use and constraints in the systems are
considered. All inflows to and outflows from the reservoirs are worked out to decide the
changed storage during the period. In simulation studies, the inflows to be used may be either
historical inflow series, adjusted for future up stream water use changes or an adjusted
synthetically generated series.

Procedure for planning a new reservoir

The standard procedure that needs to be carried out for planned storages requires an assessment
of the importance of the problem to classify the reservoir sedimentation problem as
insignificant, significant, or serious. Assessment of reservoir sedimentation problem, in a
particular case may be made by comparing the expected average annual volume of sediment
deposition with the gross capacity of the reservoir planned. Iteration is more than 0.5 percent per
year, the problem is usually said to be serious and special care is required in estimating the
sediment yields from the catchment. If it is less than 0.1 percent per year, the problem of
siltation may be insignificant and changes in reservoir performance. For cases falling between
these two limits, the sedimentation problem is considered significant and requires further studies.

The following studies are required if the problem is insignificant

1. No simulation studies with sediment correlation are necessary.

2. The feasible service time for the project may be decided. Sediment distribution studies to
ensure that the new zero-elevation does not exceed the dead storage level may be made.
3. In the above, the following terms have been used, which are explained below:
4. Feasible Service Time: For a special purpose, the period or notional period for which a
reservoir is expected to provide a part of the planned benefit in respect of storage in the
reservoirs being impaired by sedimentation. Customarily, it is estimated as the time after
which the new zero elevation of the reservoir would equal the sill of the outlet relevant for
the purpose.
5. New Zero Elevation: The level up to which all the available capacity of the reservoir is
expected to be lost due to progressive sedimentation of the reservoir up to the specified time.
The specified time should be any length of time such as Full Service Time, Feasible Service
time,etc.
6. Full-Service Time: For a specified purpose, the period or notional period for which the
reservoir provided is expected to provide, a part of the full planned benefit inspite of
sedimentation.
Zones of Storage of a reservoir
Reservoir storage zone and uses of reservoir the storage capacity in a reservoir is nationally
divided into three or four parts (Figure 1) distinguished by corresponding levels.
These specific levels and parts are generally defined as follows
Full Reservoir Level (FRL): It is the level corresponding to the storage which includes both
inactive and active storages and also the flood storage, if provided for. In fact, this is the highest
reservoir level that can be maintained without spillway discharge or without passing water
downstream through sluice ways.
Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level below which the reservoir will not be
drawn down so as to maintain a minimum head required in power projects.
Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below the level, there are no outlets to drain the water in the
reservoir by gravity.

Maximum Water Level (MWL): This idthe water level that is ever likely to be attained during
the passage of the design flood. It depends upon the specified initial reservoir level and the
spillway gate operation rule. This level is also called sometimes as the Highest Reservoir Level
or the Highest Flood Level.
Live storage: This is the storage available for the intended purpose between Full Supply Level
and the Invert Level of the lowest discharge outlet. The Full Supply Level
is normally that level above which over spill to waste would take place. The minimum operating
level must be sufficiently above the lowest discharge outlet to avoid vortex formation and air
entrainment. This may also be termed as the volume of water actually available at any time
between the Dead Storage Level and the lower of the actual water level and Full Reservoir
Level.
Dead storage: It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge outlet from
the reservoir. It may be available to contain sedimentation, provided the sediment does not
adversely affect the lowest discharge.
Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: This is required as a reserve between Full Reservoir Level
and the Maximum Water level to contain the peaks of floods that might occur when there is
insufficient storage capacity for them below Full Reservoir Level.
Some other terms related to reservoirs are defined as follows:
Buffer Storage: This is the space located just above the Dead Storage Level up to Minimum
Drawdown Level. As the name implies, this zone is a buffer between the active and dead storage
zones and releases from this zone are made in dry situations to cater for essential requirements
only. Dead Storage and Buffer Storage together is called Interactive Storage.
Within-the-Year Storage: This term is used to denote the storage of a reservoir meant for
meeting the demands of a specific hydrologic year used for planning the project.
Carry-Over Storage: When the entire water stored in a reservoir is not used up in a year, the
unused water is stored as carry-over storage for use in subsequent years.
Silt / Sedimentation zones: The space occupied by the sediment in the reservoir can be divided
into separate zones. A schematic diagram showing these zones is illustrated in Figure 2 (as
defined in IS: 5477).
Freeboard:It is the margin kept for safety between the level at which the dam would be
overtopped and the maximum still water level. This is required to allow for settlement of the
dam, for wave run up above still water level and for unforeseen rises in water level, because of
surges resulting from landslides into the reservoir from the peripheral hills, earthquakes or
unforeseen floods or operational deficiencies.
Reservoir Yield
The functions of reservoirs are to provide water for one or more of the following purposes.
Reservoirs that provide water for a combination of these purpose, are termed as „Multi-Purpose‟
reservoirs.
1. Human consumption and/or industrial use:
2. Irrigation: usually to supplement insufficient rainfall.
3. Hydropower: to generate power and energy whenever water is available or to provide
reliable supplies of power and energy at all times when needed to meet demand.
4. Pumped storage hydropower schemes:in which the water flows from an upper to a lower
reservoir, generating power and energy at times of high demand through turbines, which
may be reversible, and the water is pumped back tothe upper
Reservoir when surplus energy is available. The cycle is usually daily or twice daily to meet
peak demands. Inflow to such a reservoir is not essential, provided it is required to replace water
losses through leakage and evaporation or to generate additional electricity. In such facilities, the
power stations, conduits and either or both of the reservoirs could be constructed underground if
it was found to do so.
1. The storage of reservoir includes the Active Storage (or Conservation Storage) and the
Buffer Storage.
2. Active or conservation storage assures the supply of water from the reservoir to meet the
actual demand of the project whether it is for power, irrigation, or any other demand water
supply.
3. The active or conservation storage in a project should be sufficient to ensure success in
demand satisfaction, say 75 percent of the simulation period for irrigation projects, whereas
for power and water supply projects success rates should be 90 percent and 100 percent
respectively. These percentages may be relaxed in case of projects in drought prone areas.
The simulation period is the feasible service period, but in no case be less than 40 years.
Storage is also provided to satisfy demands for maintaining draft for navigation and also
maintaining water quality for recreation purpose as envisaged in design.
4. Live storage capacity of a reservoir is provided to impound excess waters during periods of
high flow, for use during periods of low flow. It helps the usage of water at uniform or
nearly uniform rate which is greater than the minimum flow live storage has to guarantee a
certain quantity of water usually called safe (or firm) yield with a predetermined reliability.
Though sediment is distributed to some extent in the space for live storage, the capacity of
livestorageis generally taken as the useful storage
i. between the full reservoir level and the minimum draw-down level in the case of power
 projects and dead storage in the case of irrigation projects.
5. The design of the line storage include certain factors, of which the most important in the
availability of flow, since, without an adequate flow, it is not possible to cope up with the
demand at all periods and seasons throughout the year. When adequate flow is available,
there may still be certain problems like the possible maximum reservoir capacity from
physical considerations may be limited and then this becomes the governing criteria. Even if
an adequate reservoir capacity may be possible to be built, the governing factor may have to
be based on the demand.
6. For fixing the live storage capacity, the following data should be made use of.
7. Stream flow data for a sufficiently long period at the site;
8. Evaporation losses from the water-spread area of the reservoir and seepage lossesand also
recharge into reservoir when the reservoir is depleting;
9. The contemplated irrigation, power or water supply demand;
10. The storage capacity curve at the site.
11. Stream flow records are required at proposed reservoir site. In the absence of such records
the records from a station located upstream or downstream of the site on the stream or .on a
nearby stream should be adjusted to the reservoir site. The run off records are often too short
to include a critical drought period. In such a case the records should be extended by
comparison with longer stream flow records in the vicinity or by the use of rainfall run off
relationship.
12. The total evaporation losses during a period are generally worked out roughly as the
reduction in the depth of storage multiplied by the mean water-spread area between the full
reservoir level and the minimum draw-down level. For accurate estimation, monthly working
tables should be prepared and the mean exposed area during the month is found out and the
losses should be then worked out on the basis of this mean exposed area, and the evaporation
data from pan evaporimeter at the reservoir site. The details are expected to be covered in the
draft „Indian Standard criteria for determination of seepage and evaporation losses including
the code for
minimizingthem.Intheabsenceof‟actualdatathesemaybeestimatedfromtherecordsofan
existing reservoir with similar characteristics, like elevation, size, etc, in the neighborhood.
13. Of the various methods available for fixing the live storage capacity, the Working Table
method may be used which is prepared on the basis of preceding long term data on discharge
observation at the site of the proposed reservoir, inclusive of at least one drought period. A
typical format for carrying out the working table computation is given in the following table:
14. The working table calculations may be represented graphically by plotting the cumulative
net reservoir inflow exclusive of upstream abstraction as ordinate against time as abscissa.
This procedure is commonly called the Mass Curve Technique, where the ordinate may be
denoted by depth in centimeters or in hectare meters or in any other unit of volume.
Discharge, with units of 10 days or a month may be used culmination in the mass curve. A
segment of the mass curve is shown in Figure 3.
The difference in the ordinate at the end of a segment of the mass curve gives the inflow volume
during that time interval. Lines parallel to the lines of uniform rate of demand are drawn at the
points b and c of the mass curve. At d, the following inferences can be made:
Estimation of Capacity of Reservoir using mass curve
The inflow rate between a to b is more than the demand rate and the reservoir is full.
1. Reservoir is just full as the inflow rate is equal to the demand rate.
2. Reservoir storage is being drawn down between b and c since the demand rate exceeds the
inflowrate.
3. Draw down, S, is maximum at c due to demand rate being equal to inflow rate.
4. Reservoir is filling or in other words draw down is decreasing from c to das the inflow rate is
more than the demand rate.
5. Reservoir is full at d and from d to b again the reservoir is over flowing because the inflow
rate exceeds the demand rate. The greatest vertical distance, S at c is the storage required to
make up the proposed demand.
6. The withdrawals from the reservoir to meet the irrigation demand are generally variable and
in such cases the demand line becomes a curve instead of a straight line. The demand mass
curve should be super-imposed on the inflow mass curve on the same time scale. When the
inflow and demand mass curves intersect, the reservoir may be assumed to be full. For
emptying conditions of the reservoir the demand curve would be above the inflow curve and
the maximum ordinate between the two would indicate the live storage capacity required.
7. Fixation of Live Storage Capacity for a Given Demand
8. Lines parallel to the demand lines are drawn at all the peak points of the mass inflow curve
exclusive of upstream abstraction obtained from a long run off record on 10-day (or monthly
basis as shown in Figure 4. When the demand line cuts the mass curve the reservoir may be
assumed to be full. The maximum ordinate between the demand line and the mass curve will
give the live storage to meet the required demand. The vertical distance between the
successive lines parallel to the demand line represents the surplus water from the
reservoirOnce it is decided to build a reservoir on a river by constructing a dam across it, it
 is necessary to arrive at a suitable design capacity of the reservoir. As has been discussed in
section 4.5.1, the reservoir storage generally consists of their main parts which may be
broadly classified as:
1. Inactive storage including dead storage
2. Active or conservation storage, and
3. Flood and surcharge storage.
4. In general, these storage capacities have to be designed based on certain specified
considerations, which have been discussed separately in the following Bureau of Indian
Standard codes:
5. IS: 5477 Fixing the capacities of reservoirs- Methods (Part 1): 1999 General requirements
6. (Part 2): 1994 Dead storage
7. (Part 3): 1969 Line storage
8. (Part 4): 1911 Flood storage
The data and information required for fixing the various components of the design capacity of a
reservoir are as follows
1. Precipitation, run-off and silt records available in the region;
2. Erodibility of catchment upstream of reservoir for estimating sediment yield;
3. Area capacity curves at the proposed location;
4. Trap efficiency;
5. Losses in the reservoir
6. Water demand from the reservoir for different uses;
7. Committed and future upstream uses;
8. Criteria for assessing the success of the project;
9. Density current aspects and location of outlets;
10. Data required for economic analysis; and
11. Data on engineering and geological aspects.

These aspects are explained in detail in the following sections.

Precipitation, Run-Off and Silt Record

The network of precipitation and discharge measuring stations in the catchment upstream and
near the project needs to be considered to assess the capacity of the same to adequately sample
both spatially and temporally the precipitation and the stream flows.
The measurement procedures and gap filling procedures in respect of missing data as also any
rating tables or curves need to be critically examined so that they are according to guidelines of
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Long-term data has to be checked for internal
consistency between rainfall and discharges, as also between data sets by double mass analysis
to highlight any changes in the test data for detection of any long-termtrends as also for
stationary. It is only after such testing that the data should be used for generating the long term
inflows of water (volumes in 10 days, 15 days, and monthly or yearly inflow series) into the
reservoir.
Sufficiently long term precipitation and run-off records are required for preparing the water
inflow series. For working out the catchment average sediment yield, long-term data of silt
measurement records from existing reservoirs are essential. These are pre- requisites for fixing
the storage capacity of reservoirs.
If long term run-off records are not available, concurrent rainfall and run-off data may be used to
convert long term rainfall data (which is generally available in many cases) into long-term run-
off series adopting appropriate statistical/conceptual models. In some cases regression analysis
may also be resorted to for data extension.

Estimation of average Sediment Yield from the catchment area above the reservoir
It is usually attempted using river sediment observation data or more commonly from the
experience of sedimentation of existing reservoirs with similar characteristics. Where
observations of stage/flow data isavailable for only short periods, these have to be suitably
extended with the help of longer data on rainfall to estimate as far as possible sampling errors
due to scanty records. Sediment discharge rating curve may also be prepared from hydraulic
considerations using any of the standard sediment load formulae, such as, Modified Einstein’s
procedure,young’sstreampoweretc.Itisalsonecessarytoaccountforthebedloadwhichmay not have
been measured. Bed load measurement is preferable and when it is not possible, it is often
estimated as a percentage generally ranging from 5 to 20 percent of the suspended sediment
load. However, actual measurement of bed load needs to be undertaken particularly in
caseswherehighbedloadsareanticipated. Toassessthevolumeofsedimentthatwould
deposit in the reservoir, it is further necessary to make estimates of average trap efficiency of the
reservoir and the likely unit weight of sediment deposits, along with time average over the
period selected. The trap efficiency would depend on the capacity inflow ratio but would also
vary with the locations of controlling outlets and reservoir operating procedures. Computations
of reservoir trap efficiency may be made using the trap efficiency curves such as those
developed by Brune and by Churchill (see IS: 12182-1987).

Elevation Area Capacity Curves

Topographic survey of the reservoir area should form the basis for obtaining these curves, which
are respectively the plots of elevation of the reservoir versus surface area and elevation of the
reservoir versus volume. For preliminary studies, in case suitable topographic map with
contours, say at intervals less than 2.5 m is not available, stream profile and valley cross sections
taken at suitable intervals may form the basis for computing the volume. Aerial survey may also
be adopted when facilities are available.
Reservoir Sedimentation in Reservoirs
Sedimentation of a reservoir is a natural phenomenon and is a matter of vital concern for storage
projects in meeting various demands, like irrigation, hydroelectric power, flood control, etc.
Since it affects the useful capacity of the reservoir based on which projects are expected to be
productive for a design period. Further, the deposited sediment adds to the forces on structures
in dams, spillwaysetc.

The measurement of sediment yield is done as follows:

Measurement of sediment yields

The sediment yield in a reservoir may be estimated by any one of the following two methods:
1. Sedimentationsurveysofreservoirswithsimilarcatchmentcharacteristics,or
2. Sediment load measurements of the stream.

Reservoir Sedimentation Survey

1. The sediment yield from the catchment is determined by measuring the accumulated
sediment in a reservoir for a known period, by means of echo sounders and other electronic
devices since the normal sounding operations give erroneous results in large depths. The
volume of sediment accumulated in a reservoir is computed as the difference between the
present reservoir capacity and the original capacity after the completion of the dam. The unit
weight of deposit is determined in the laboratory front the representative undisturbed
samples or by field determination using a calibrated density probe developed for this
 purpose. The total sediment volume is then converted to dry- weight of sediment on the basis
of average unit weight of deposits. The total sediment yield for the period of record covered
by the survey will then be equal to the total weight of the sediment deposited in the reservoir
plus that which has passed out of the reservoir based on the trap efficiency. In this way,
reliable records may be readily and economically obtained on long-term basis.
2. The density of deposited sediment varies with the composition of the deposits, location of
the deposit within the reservoir, the flocculation characteristics of clay content and water, the
age of deposit, etc. For coarse material (0.0625 mm and above) variation of density with
location and age may be unimportant.
3. Normally a time and space average density of deposited materials applicable for the period
under study is required for finding the overall volume of deposits. For this purpose the
trapped sediment for the period under study would have to be classified in different
fractions. Most of the sediment escape front getting deposited into the reservoir should be
front the silt and clay fractions. In some special cases local estimates of densities at points in
the reservoir may be required instead of average density over the wholereservoir.
4. The trap efficiency mainly depends upon the capacity-in-flow ratio but may vary with
location of outlets and reservoir operating procedure. Computation of reservoir trap
5. Efficiency may be made using trap efficiency curves, such as those developed by Brune and
by Churchill (see IS: 12182-1987).

6. Sediment Load Measurements

7. Periodic samples front the stream should be taken at various discharges along with the
stream gauging observations and the suspended sediment concentration should be measured
as detailed in IS 4890: 1968. A sediment rating curve which is a plot of sediment
concentration against the discharge is then prepared and is used in conjunction with stage
duration curve (or flow duration) based on uniformly spaced daily or shorter time units data
in case of smaller river basins to assess sediment load. For convenience, the correlation
between sediment concentrations against discharge may be altered to the relation of
sediment load against run-off for calculating sediment yield. Where observed stage/flow data
is available for only shorter periods, these have to be suitably extended with the help of
longer data on rainfall. The bed load measurement is preferable. How- ever, where it is not
possible, it may be estimated using analytical methods based on sampled data or as a
percentage of suspended load (generally ranging from 10 to 20 percent). This should be
added to the suspended load to get the total sediment load.

The rate of sedimentation will depend largely on the annual sediment load carried by the stream
and the extent to which the same will be retained in the reservoir. This, in turn, depends upon a
number of factors such as the area and nature of the catchment, level use pattern (cultivation
practices, grazing, logging, construction activities and conservation practices), rainfall pattern,
storage capacity, period of storage in relation to the sediment load of the stream, particle size
distribution in the suspended sediment, channel hydraulics, location and size of sluices, outlet
works, configuration of the reservoir, and the method and purpose of releases through the dam.
Therefore, attention is required to each one of these factors for the efficient control of
sedimentation of reservoirs with a view to enhancing their useful life and some of these methods
are discussed in the Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 6518-1992 “Code of practice for control
of sediment in reservoirs”. In this section, these factors are briefly discussed.
There are different techniques of controlling sedimentation in reservoirs which may broadly be
classified as follows:
1. Adequate design of reservoir
2. Control of sediment inflow
3. Control of sediment deposition
4. Removal of deposited sediment

Each of these methods is briefly described as follows:

Design of reservoirs
The capacity of reservoirs is governed by a number of factors which are covered in IS: 5477
(Parts 1 to 4). From the point of view of sediment deposition, the following points may be given
due consideration:
1. The sediment yield which depends on the topographical, geological and geo- morphological
set up, meteorological factors, land use/land cover, intercepting tanks, etc
2. Sediment delivery characteristics of the channel system
3. The efficiency of the reservoir as sediment rap
4. The ratio of capacity of reservoir to the inflow
5. Configuration of reservoir
6. Method of operation of reservoir
7. Provisions for silt exclusion

The rate of sediment delivery increases with the volume of discharge. The percentage of
sediment trapped by a reservoir with a given drainage area increases with the capacity. In some
cases an increased capacity will however, result in greater loss of water due to evaporation.
However, with the progress of sedimentation, there is decrease of storage capacity which in turn
lowers the trap efficiency of the reservoir.
The capacity of the reservoir and the size and characteristics of the reservoir and its drainage
area are the most important factors governing the annual rate of accumulation of sediment.
Periodical reservoir sedimentation surveys provide guidance on the rate of sedimentation. In the
absence of observed data for the reservoir concerned, data from other reservoirs of similar
capacity and catchment characteristics may be adopted.
Silting takes place not only in the dead storage but also in the live storage space in the reservoir.
The practice for design of reservoir is to use the observed suspended sediment data available
from key hydroIogica1 networks and also the data available from hydrographic surveys of other
reservoirs in the same region. This data be used to simulate sedimentation status over a period of
reservoir life as mentioned in IS 12182:1987.
Control of sediment inflow
There are many methods for controlling sediment inflows and they can be divided as under:
1. Watershed management/soil conservation measures to check production and transport of
sediment in the catchment area.
2. Preventive measures to check inflow of sediment into the reservoir. The soil conservation
measures are further sub-dividedas:
3. Engineering,
4. Agronomy, and
5. Forestry.
6. The engineering methods include:
7. Use of check dams formed by building small barriers or dykes across stream channels.
8. Contour bounding andtrenching;
9. Gully plugging;
10. Bank protection.
11. The agronomic measures include establishment of vegetative screen, contour farming, strip
cropping and crop rotation.
12. Forestry measures include forest conservancy, control on grazing, lumbering, operations and
forest fires along with management and protection of forest plantations.
13. Preventive measures to check inflow of sediment into the reservoir include construction of
by- pass channels or conduits.

Check Dams
Check dams are helpful for the following reasons:
1. Theyhelparrestdegradationofstreambedtherebyarrestingtheslopefailure;
2. They reduce the velocity of stream flow, thereby causing the deposition of thesediment
load.
Check dams become necessary, where the channel gradients are steep and there is a heavy
inflow of sediment from the watershed. They are constructed of local material like earth, rock,
timber, etc. These are suitable for small catchment varying in size from 40 to 400 hectares. It is
necessary to provide small check dams on the subsidiary streams flowing into the main streams
besides the check dams in the main stream. Proper consideration should be given to the number
and location of check dams required. It is preferable to minimize the height of the check dams.
If the stream ha, a very-steep slope, it is desirable to start with a smaller height for the check
dams than may ultimately be necessary.
Check dams may generally cost more per unit of storage than the reservoirs they protect.
Therefore, it may not always be possible to adopt them as a primary method of sediment control
in new reservoirs. However, feasibility of providing check dams at a later date should not be
overlooked while planning the protection of-a new reservoir.
Contour Bunding and Trenching
These are important methods of controlling soil erosion on the hills and sloping lands, where
gradients of cultivated fields or terraces are flatter, say up to 10 percent. By these methods the
hill side is split up into small compartments on which the rain is retained and surface run-off is
modified with prevention of soil erosion. In addition to contour bunding, side trenching is also
provided sometimes.
Gully Plugging
This is done by small rock fill dams. These dams will be effective in filling up the gullies with
sediment coming from the upstream of the catchment and also prevent further widening of the
gully.
Control of sediment deposition
The deposition of sediment in a reservoir may be controlled to a certain extent by designing and
operating gates or other outlets in the dam in such a manner as to permit selective withdrawals of
water having a higher than average sediment content. The suspended sediment content of the
water in reservoirs is higher during and just after flood flow. Thus, more the water wasted at
such times, the smaller will be the percentage of the total sediment load to settle into permanent
deposits. There are generally two methods: (a) density currents, and (b) waste-water release, for
controlling the deposition and both will necessarily result in loss of water.
Density Current
Water at various levels of a reservoir often contains radically different concentrations of
suspended sediment particularly during and after flood flows and if all waste-water could be
withdrawn at those levels where the concentration is highest, a significant amount of sediment
might be removed from the reservoir. Because a submerged outlet draws water towards it from
all directions, the vertical dimension of the opening should be small with respect to the thickness
of the layer and the rate of withdrawal also should be low. With a view to passing the density
current by sluices that might be existed, it is necessary to trace the movement of density currents
and observation stations (consisting of permanently anchored rafts from which measurements
could be made of temperature and conductivity gradient from the surface of the lake to the
bottom, besides collecting water samples at various depths) at least one just above the dam and
two or more additional stations in the upstream (one in the inlet and one in the middle) should be
located.
Waste-Water Release
Controlling the sedimentation by controlling waste-water release is obviously possible only
when water can be or should be wasted. This method is applicable only when a reservoir is of
such size that a small part of large flood flows will fillit.
In the design of the dam, sediment may be passed through or over it as an effective method of
silt control by placing a series of outlets at various elevations. The percentage of total sediment
load that might be ejected from the reservoir through proper gate control will differ greatly with
different locations. It is probable that as much as 20 percent of the sediment inflow could be
passed through many reservoirs by venting through outlets designed and con- trolled.
Scouring Sluicing
This method is somewhat similar to both the control of waste-water release and the draining and
flushing methods. The distinction amongst them cares the following:
1. The waste-water release method ejects sediment laden flood flows through deep spillway
gates or large
2. under sluices at the rate of discharge that prevents sedimentation.
3. Drainage and flushing method involve the slow release of stored water from the reservoir
through small gates or valves making use of normal or low flow to entrain and carry the
sediment, and
4. Scouring sluicing depends for its efficiency on either the scouring action exerted by the
sudden rush of impounded water under a high head through under sluices or on the
scouring action of high flood discharge coming into the reservoir.
5. Scouring sluicing method can be used in the following:
6. Smallpowerdamsthatdependtoagreatextentonpondagebutnotonstorage;
7. Small irrigation reservoirs, where only a small fraction of the total annual flow can be
stored;
8. Any reservoir in narrow channels, gorges etc., where water wastage can be afforded;
9. and
10. When the particular reservoir under treatment is a unit in an interconnected systems that
the other Reservoirs can supply the water needed.
Trap Efficiency
Trap efficiency of reservoir, over a period, is the ratio of total deposited sediment to the total
sediment inflow. Figures 1 and 2 given in Annex A of IS 12182 cover relationship between
sedimentation index of the reservoir and percentage of incoming sediment and these curves may
be used for calculation of trap efficiency.

Losses in Reservoir
Water losses mainly of evaporation and seepage occur under pre-project conditions and are
reflected in the stream flow records used for estimating water yield. The construction of new
reservoirs and canals is often accompanied by additional evaporation and infiltration. Estimation
of these losses may be based on measurements at existing reservoirs and canals. The measured
inflows and outflows and the rate of change of storage are balanced by computed total loss rate.
The depth of water evaporated per year from the reservoir surface may vary from about 400 mm
in cool and humid climate to more than 2500 mm in hot and arid regions. Therefore, evaporation
is an important consideration in many projects and deserves careful attention. Various methods
like water budget method, energy budget method, etc may be applied for estimating the
evaporation from reservoir. However, to be more accurate, evaporation from reservoir is
estimated by using data from pan-evaporimeters or pans exposed to atmosphere with or without
meshing in or near the reservoir site and suitably adjusted.
Seepage losses from reservoirs and irrigation canals may be significant if these facilities are
located in an area underlain by permeable strata. Avoidance in full or in part of seepage losses
may be very expensive and technical difficulties involved may render a project unfeasible.
These are generally covered under the conveyance losses in canals projected on the demand side
of simulation studies.

Demand, Supply and Storage

The demand should be compared with supplies available year by year. If the demand is limited
and less than the available run-off, storage may be fixed to cater to that particular demand which
is in excess of the run-off. The rough and ready method is the mass curve method for initial
sizing.
Even while doing the above exercise, water use data are needed to assess the impact of human
activities on the natural hydrological cycle. Sufficient water use information would assist in
implementing water supply projects, namely, evaluating the effectiveness of options for demand
management and in resolving problems inherent in competing uses of water, shortages caused
by excessive withdrawal, etc. Water demands existing prior to construction of a water resource
project should be considered in the design of project as failure to do so may result in losses apart
from legal and social problems at the operation stage.

Committed and future upstream uses

The reservoir to be planned should serve not only the present day requirements but also the
anticipated future needs. The social, economic and technological developments may bring in
considerable difference in the future needs/growth rate as compared to the present day
need/growth rate. Committed and upstream future uses should also be assessed in the same
perspective.

Criteria for assessing the success of the project

Water Resources Projects are to be designed for achieving specified success. Irrigation projects
are to be successful for 75 percent period of simulation. Likewise power projects and water
supply projects are to be successful for 90 percent and nearly 100 percent period of simulation
respectively.

Density Current aspects and location of outlets

Density current is defined as the gravitational flow of one fluid under another having slightly
different density. The water stored in reservoir is generally free from silt but the inflow during
floods is generally muddy. There are, thus two layers having different densities resulting in the
formation of density currents. The density currents separate the water from the clearer water and
make the turbid water flow along the river bottom. The reservoir silting rate can be reduced by
venting the density currents by properly locating and operating the outlets and sluice ways.

Data Required for Economic Analysis

Economic Analysis is carried out to indicate the economic desirability of the project. Benefit
cost ratio, Net benefit, Internal Rate of Return are the parameters in this direction. It is desirable
to have the benefit cost ratio in the case of irrigation projects and flood mitigation projects to be
above 1.5 and 1.1 respectively. Benefit functions for reservoir and water utilization for
irrigation, power, water supply etc., are also to be determined judiciously. Cost benefit functions
are obtained as continuous functions using variable cost/benefit against reservoir storage/net
utilization of water and from benefit functions the benefit from unit utilization of water can be
determined. The spillway capacity has to be adequate to pass the inflow design flood using
moderation possible with surcharge storage or any other unobstructed capacity in the reservoir
without endangering the structural safety as provided elsewhere in the standard. In the event of
the inflow design flood passing the reservoir, the design needs to ensure that dam break situation
does not develop or induce incremental damage downstream.

Data on Engineering and Geological Aspects

Under engineering and geological aspects the following items of work shall invariably be carried
out:
1. Engineering
2. Preliminary surveys to assess the catchment and reservoir,
3. Control surveys like topographical surveys,
4. Location of nearest Railway lines/Roads and possible access, and
5. Detailed survey for making area capacity curves for use in reservoir flood routing.
6. Geology
7. General formations and foundation suitability;
8. Factors relating to reservoir particularly with reference to water tightness;
9. Contributory springs;
10. Deleterious mineral and salt deposits; and
11. Location of quarry sites,etc.
12. Important aspects of the methods are briefly described in the subsequent sections.
13. Fixing of Inactive Storage including Dead Storage
14. Inactive storage including dead storage pertains to storage at the lowest level up to which the
reservoir can be depleted. This part of the storage is set apart at the design stage for
anticipated filling, partly or fully, by sediment accumulations during the economic life of the
reservoir and with sluices/outlets so located that it is not susceptible to full depletion. In case
power facility is provided, it is also the storage below the minimum draw down level
(MDDL).
15. Sill level of lowest outlets for any reservoir is fixed from command considerations in case of
irrigation purposes and minimum draw down level on considerations of efficient turbine
operation in the case of power generation purpose. The lowest sill level should be kept above
the new zero elevation expected after the feasible service period according to IS 12182
which is generally taken as 100 years for irrigation projects and 70 years for power projects
supplying power to a grid.
16. By providing extra storage volume in the reservoir for sediment accumulation, in
17. Addition to live storage, it is ensured that the live storage although it contains sediment, will
function at full efficiency for an assigned number of years. The distribution pattern of
sediments in the entire depth of a reservoir depends upon many factors, such as slope of the
valley, length of reservoir, constriction in the reservoir, particle size of the suspended
sediment and capacity inflow ratio, but the reservoir operation has an important control over
the factors. However, the knowledge of the pattern is essential, especially, in developing
 areas, in order to have an idea about the formation of delta and recreational spots.
18. The dead storage of a reservoir depends upon the sediment yield of the catchment.
Life of Reservoir
The most practical means of maintaining the storage capacity are those designed to prevent
accumulation of permanent deposits as the removal operations are extremely expensive, unless
the material removed is usable. Therefore, the redemption of lost storage by removal should be
adopted as a last resort. The removal of sediment deposit implies in general, that the deposits are
sufficiently compacted or consolidated to act as a solid and, therefore, are unable to flow along
with the water. The removal of sediment deposits may be accomplished by a variety of
mechanical and hydraulic or methods, such as excavation, dredging, siphoning, draining,
flushing, flood sluicing, and sluicing aided by such measures as hydraulic or mechanical
agitation or blasting of the sediment. The excavated sediments may be suitably disposed off so
that, these do not find the way again in thereservoir.
Excavation
The method involves draining most of or all the water in the basin and removing the sediment
by hand or power operated shovel, dragline scraper or other mechanical means. The excavation
of silt and clay which constitute most of the material in larger reservoirs is more difficult than
the excavation of sand and gravel. Fine-textured sediment cannot be excavated easily from
larger reservoirs unless it is relatively fluid or relatively compact.
Dredging
This involves the removal of deposits from the bottom of a reservoir and their conveyance to
some other point by mechanical or hydraulic means, while water storage is being maintained.
Dredging practices are grouped as:
1. Mechanical dredging by bucket, ladder,etc;
2. Suction dredging with floating pipeline and a pump usually mounted on abarrage;
3. Siphon dredging with a floating pipe extending over the dam orconnectedto an
4. Opening in the dam
5. Usually with a pump on a barrage.
Draining and Flushing
The method involves relatively slow release of all stored water in a reservoir through gates or
valves located near bottom of the dam and the maintenance thereafter of open outlets for a
shorter or longer period during which normal stream flow cuts into or directed against the
sediment deposits. Therefore, this method may be adopted in flood controlreservoirs.
Sluicing with Controlled Water
This method differs from the flood sluicing in that the controlled water supply permits choosing
the time of sluicing more advantageously and that the water may be directed more effectively
against the sediment deposits. While the flood sluicing depends either on the occurrence of flood
or on being able to release rapidly all of a full or nearly full supply of water in the main reservoir
is empty. The advantage of this method is that generally more sediment can be removed per unit
of water used than in flood scouring or draining and flushing.
Sluicing with Hydraulics and Mechanical Agitation
Methods that stir up, break up or move deposits of a sediment into a stream current moving
through a drained reservoir basin or into a full reservoir will tend to make the removal of
sediment from the reservoir more complete. Wherever draining, flushing or sluicing appear to be
warranted, the additional use of hydraulic means for stirring up the sediment deposits, or
sloughing them off, into a stream flowing through the reservoir basin should be considered. It
has, however, limited application.
Reservoir operation
The flow in the river changes seasonally and from year to year, due to temporal and spatial
variation in precipitation. Thus, the water available abundantly during monsoon season becomes
scarce during the non-monsoon season, when it is most needed. The traditional method followed
commonly for meeting the needs of water during the scarce period is construction of storage
reservoir on the river course. The excess water during
the monsoon season is stored in such reservoirs for eventual use in lean period. Construction of
storages will also help in control of flood, as well as generation of electricity power. To meet the
objective set forth in planning a reservoir or a group of reservoirs and to achieve maximum
benefits out of the storage created, it is imperative to evolve guidelines for operation of
reservoirs. Without proper regulation schedules, the reservoir may not meet the full objective for
which it was planned and may also pose danger to the structure itself.
Control of flood is better achieved if the reservoir level is kept low in the early stages of the
monsoon season. However, at a later stage, if the anticipated inflows do not result the reservoir
may not get filled up to FRL in the early stages of monsoon, to avoid the risk of reservoir
remaining unfilled at later stage, there may be problem of accommodating high floods occurring
at later stage. In some cases while planning reservoirs, social and other considerations
occasionally result in adoption of a plan that may not be economically the best.
Operation of Single Purpose Reservoirs
The common principles of single purpose reservoir operation are given below:
1. Flood control- Operation of flood control reservoirs is primarily governed by the available
flood storage capacity of damage centers to be protected, flood characteristics, ability and
accuracy of flood/ storm forecast and size of the uncontrolled drainage area. A regulation
plan to cover all the complicated situations may be difficult to evolve, but generally it should
be possible according to one of the following principles:
2. Effective use of available flood control storage: Operation under this principle aims at
reducing flood damages of the locations to be protected to the maximum extent possible, by
effective use of flood event. Since the release under this plan would obviously be lower than
those required for controlling the reservoir design flood, there is distinct possibility of
having a portion of the flood control space occupied during the occurrence of a subsequent
heavy flood. In order to reduce this element of risk, maintenance of an adequate network of
flood forecasting stations both in the upstream and downstream areas would be absolutely
necessary.
3. Control of reservoir design flood: According to this principle, releases from flood control
reservoirs operated on this concept are made on the same hypothesis as adopted for
controlling the reservoir design flood, that is the full storage capacity would be utilized only
when the flood develops into the reservoir design flood. However, as the design flood is
usually an extreme event, regulation of minor and major floods, which occur more often, is
less satisfactory when this method is applied.
4. Combination of principle (1) and (2): In this method, a combination of the principles
The principle (1) is followed for the lower portion of the flood reserve to achieve the
maximum benefits by controlling the earlier part of the flood. Thereafter releases are made
as scheduled for the reservoir design flood as in principle (2). In most cases this plan will
result in the best overall regulation, as it combines the good points of both the methods.
5. Flood control in emergencies: It is advisable to prepare an emergency release schedule that
uses information on reservoir data immediately available to the operator. Such schedule
should be available with the operator to enable him to comply with necessary precautions
under extreme flood conditions.
6. Conservation: Reservoirs meant for augmentation of supplies during lean period should
 usually be operated to fill as early as possible during filling period, while meeting the
requirements. All water in excess of the requirements of the filling period shall be
impounded. No spilling of water over the spillway will normally be permitted until the FRL
is reached. Should any flood occur when the reservoir is at or near the FRL, release of flood
waters should be affected, so as not to exceed the discharge that would have occurred had
there been no reservoir. In case the year happens to be dry, the draft for filling period should
be curtailed by applying suitable factors. The depletion period should begin thereafter.
However, in case the reservoir is planned with carry- over capacity, it is necessary to ensure
that the regulation will provide the required carry-over capacity at the end of the depletion
period.
7. Operation of multipurpose reservoirs: The general principles of operation of reservoirs with
these multiple storage spaces are described below:
8. Separate allocation of capacities- When separate allocations of capacity have been made for
each of the conservational uses, in addition to that required for flood control, operation for
each of the function shall follow the principles of respective functions. The storage available
for flood control could, however be utilized for generation of secondary power to the extent
possible. Allocation of specific storage space to several purposes with the conservation zone
may sometimes be impossible or very costly to provide water for the various purposes in the
quantities needed and at the time they are needed.
9. Joint use of storage space- In multi-purpose reservoir where joint use of some of the storage
space or storage water has been envisaged, operation becomes complicated due to competing
and conflicting demands. While flood control requires low reservoir level, conservation
interests require as high a level as is attainable. Thus, the objectives of these functions are
not compatible and a compromise will have to be effected in flood control operations by
sacrificing the requirements of these functions. In some cases parts of the conservational
storage space is utilized for flood moderation, during the earlier stages of the monsoon. This
space has to be filled up for conservation purpose towards the end of monsoon
progressively, as it might not be possible to fill up this space during the post-monsoon
periods, when the flows are insufficient even to meet the current requirements. This will
naturally involve some sacrifice of the flood control interests towards the end of the
monsoon.
10. Operation of system of reservoirs
11. It is not very uncommon to find a group or „system‟ of reservoirs either in a single river or
in a river and its tributaries. An example of the former are the dams proposed on the river
Narmada (Figure 7) and an example of the latter are the dams of the Damodar Valley project
(Figure 8).
12. In case of system of reservoirs, it is necessary to adopt a strategy for integrated operated of
reservoirs to achieve optimum utilization of the water resources available and to benefit the
best out of the reservoir system.
13. In the preparation of regulation plans for an integrated operation of system of reservoirs,
principles applicable to separate units are first applied to the individual reservoirs.
Modifications of schedule so developed should then be considered by working out several
alternative plans. In these studies optimization and simulation techniques may be extensively
used with the application of computers in water resources development.

Types of Dams
Below are the types of dams based on different criteria. Types of dams on the basis of materials
used in dam construction:

1. Rigid Dams (Concrete dams, steel dams, timber dams etc)

2. Non-Rigid dams (rockfill dams)
Classification of dam types with respect to size/height of the dam
1. Low dam / Small damMedium dams
2. High dam / Large dams
Classification of dam according to its purpose/use
1. Water supply dam/Irrigation dams
2. Power dams
3. Multipurpose dams
4. Flood control dams
Classification of Dams According to Location
On-Channel: Dam is constructed across the main water feeding river. Examples
Tarbela, Mangla, Simly, Hub dam. To increase the water availability water from
other rivers may be diverted to the dam through feeder channels e.g. Kurram Tangi
dam.
Off-Channel:
Dam is constructed on a channel having much smaller flow. Major storage water is transferred
from a different nearby river. This is done due to non-availability of suitable/economic dam site
on the major flow river. Example Akhori dam, Replacement dams for Mangla and Tarbela.

Classification of Dams According to Release Pattern Storage dam: Water is stored and later
released through an outlet for consumptive or non-consumptive purposes as per
requirements.Recharging dam There is no outlet provided to release water and all incoming
water is retained. The water infiltrates through the foundation and/or dam body. The main
purpose of the dam is to induce recharge to ground water system in the area. Small release in d/s
channel to allow seepage in the channel bed.
Delay action dam / retarding dam:

These dams are used to retard the peak flow of flash floods. There may or may not be any
control over the outflow. For no control over the outflow the outflow rate varies as function of
storage volume / water depth in the dam. The flood peak is thus considerably attenuated. The
outlet capacity is set that maximum outflow discharge do not exceed the safe capacity of the
downstream river during highest flood. The reservoir empties fully after the flood. For control
on outflow by gates (detention dam) , the flow is released in such a pattern to retain the water for
long time but there is enough storage available to store next flood event. These dams are usually
meant to reduce flood damages as well as to induce maximum recharge in the area. One type of
such dam is a porous dam built of a porous embankment, e.g. stone gabions.

Factors governing selection of type of dam

During the early stages of planning and design, selection of the site and the type of dam should
be carefully considered, It is only in exceptional circumstances that only one type of dam or
appurtenant structure is suitable for a given dam site. Generally, preliminary designs and
estimates for several types of dams and appurtenant structures are required before one can be
proved the most suitable and economical. It is, therefore, important to understand that the
project is likely to be unduly expensive unless decisions regarding the site selection and the type
 of dam are based upon adequate study. The selection of the type of dam requires cooperation
among experts representing several disciplines-including planners; hydrologists; geotechnical,
hydraulic, and structural engineers; and engineering geologists-to ensure economical and
appropriate designs for the physical factors, such as topography, geology and foundation
conditions, available materials, hydrology, and seismicity. Protection from spillway discharges,
limitations of outlet works, the problem of diverting the stream during construction, availability
of labor and equipment, accessibility of the site, physical features of the site, the purpose of the
dam, and dam safety all affect the final choice of the type of dam. Usually, the final choice of
the type of dam is based on a comparison of the costs to construct the various dam types studied.

The following paragraphs discuss important physical factors in the choice of the type of dam. 4.

Topography. -Topographic considerations include the surface configuration of the dam site and
of the reservoir area and accessibility to the site and to construction materials. Topography, in
large measure, dictates the first choice of the type of dam. A narrow stream flowing between
high, rocky walls would naturally suggest a rock-fill or concrete overflow dam. On the other
hand, low, rolling plains would suggest an earth-fill dam. Intermediate conditions might suggest
other choices, such as a composite structure. The point is that topography is of major
significance in choosing the dam type. Topography may also have an important influence on the
selection of appurtenant structures. For example, if there are natural saddles, it may be possible
to locate a spillway through a saddle. If the reservoir rim is high compared with the dam height,
and it is unbroken, a chute or tunnel spillway might be necessary. The spillway considerations
can influence the type of dam. In a deep, steep-walled canyon, it might be more economical to
construct a concrete dam with an overflow spillway than to provide a spillway for a rock-fill
dam

Geology and Foundation Conditions - The suitability of the various types of rock and soil as
foundation and construction materials are geologic questions that must be considered. The
foundation geology at a dam site often dictates the type of dam suitable for that site. The
strength, thickness, and inclination of strata; permeability; fracturing; and faulting are all
important considerations in selecting the dam type. Some of the different foundations commonly
encountered are discussed below.

(a) Rock Foundations, -Competent rock foundations, which are free of significant geologic defects,
have relatively high shear strengths, and are resistant to erosion and percolation, offer few
restrictions as to the type of dam that can be built upon them. The economy of materials or the
overall cost should be the ruling factor. The removal of disintegrated rock together with the
sealing of seams and fractures by grouting is frequently necessary. Weaker rocks such as clay
shales, some sandstones, weathered basalt, etc., may present significant problems to the design
and construction of a dam and may heavily influence the type of dam selected.

(b) Gravel Foundations. -Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earth-fill or rockfill
dams. Because gravel foundations are frequently subjected to water percolation at high rates,
special precautions must be taken to provide adequate seepage control or effective water cutoffs
or seals.

(c) Silt or Fine Sand Foundations. -Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low concrete gravity
dams and earth-fill dams if properly designed, but they are generally not suitable for rock-fill
dams. Design concerns include non-uniform settlement, potential soil collapse upon saturation,
 uplift forces, the prevention of piping, excessive percolation losses, and protection of the
foundation at the downstream embankment toe from erosion.

(d) Clay Foundations. -Clay foundations can be used for the support of earth-fill dams, but require
relatively flat embankment slopes because of relatively lower foundation shear strengths. Clay
foundations under dams can also consolidate significantly. Because of the requirement for flatter
slopes and the tendency for clay foundations to settle a lot, it is usually not economical to
construct a rock-fill dam on a clay foundation. Clay foundations are also ordinarily not suitable
for concrete gravity dams. Tests of the foundation material in its natural state are usually
required to determine the consolidation characteristics of the foundation strata and their ability
to support the superimposed load.

(e) Non-uniform Foundations. -Occasionally, situations occur where reasonably uniform foundations
of any of the types described above cannot be found and where a non-uniform foundation of
rock and soft material must be used if the dam is to be built. Nevertheless, such conditions can
often be counterbalanced by special design features. Even dam sites those are not highly unusual
present special problems requiring the selection of appropriate treatment by experienced
engineers. The details of the foundation treatments mentioned above are given in the appropriate
chapters on the design of earth-fill, rock-fill, and concrete gravity dams.

Materials Available. -Materials for dams of various types that may sometimes be available at or
near the site are: Soils for embankments Bock for embankments and riprap Concrete aggregate
(sand, gravel, crushed stone) Elimination, or reduction of transportation expenses for
construction materials, particularly those used in great quantities, reduces the total cost of the
project considerably. The most economical type of dam is often the one for which a large
quantity of materials can be found within a reasonable distance from the site. The availability of
suitable sand and gravel for concrete at a reasonable cost locally and, perhaps, even on property
to be acquired for the project is a factor favorable to the selection of a concrete structure. The
availability of suitable rock for rock-fill is a factor favorable to the selection of a rock-fill dam.
Every local resource that reduces the cost of the project without sacrificing the efficiency and
quality of the final structure should be used.

Hydrology, -Hydrologic studies examine the project purposes stated in section 4.2 in the
paragraph on storage dams. There is a close relationship between the hydrologic and economic
factors governing the choice of the type of dam and appurtenant structures. Stream flow
characteristics and precipitation may appreciably affect the cost of construction by influencing
the treatment and diversion of water and extending the construction time. Where large tunnels
are required for diversion, conversion of the tunnels to tunnel spillways may provide the most
economical spillway alternative.

Factors affecting Selection of Site for a Dam

1. Topographical situation of the dam site

The topography of the dam site is the first criterion to be taken into consideration in the
selection of the dam type.
2. Foundation and geological structure:
The foundation condition of the dam site is not suitable for each dam type.
3. Location and type of suitable material to be used in dam construction:
There are three types of natural materials required for dam construction. These are
aggregate for rock, concrete for soil, filler and riprap for filling.
4. Transportation facilities :If the dam site is close to existing roads, which reduces the cost of
new road construction. Access to the material quarries is also important when selecting the
dam site.
5. Translate (derivation) conditions: In order to be able to construct the dam under dry
conditions, the upstream and downstream sides of the construction site should be suitable to
be closed with low dams called altitude.
6. Full spillway capacity and location
7. Earthquake
8. Climatic conditions and duration of construction
9. Landslide:Large waves can be created from ground slopes of the dam to the landslide and the
lake.
10. Economic situation of the country
11. Machine Park area availability, types and capacities of machines
 UNIT II
CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM
Basically, gravity dams are solid concrete structures that maintain their stability against design
loads from the geometric shape and the mass and strength of the concrete. Generally, they are
constructed on a straight axis, but may be slightly curved or angled to accommodate the specific
site conditions. Gravity dams typically consist of a non-overflow section(s) and an overflow
section or spillway.
Forces acting on Gravity Dams
The structural integrity of a dam must be maintained across the range of circumstances
or events likely to arise in service. The design is therefore determined through consideration of
the corresponding spectrum of loading conditions. In all foreseeable circumstances the stability
of the dam and foundation must be ensured, with stresses contained at acceptable levels and
watertight integrity essentially unimpaired.

Figure: 2.0 Forces acting on Gravity Dams

Where:
H= Head water depth
H’ = Tail Water depth
FWA= Wave pressure forces
FH = Horizontal hydrostatic force
FS = Silt/sediment pressure force
FEQ = Earthquake/Seismic force
FW = Wind pressure force
FH’ = Tail water hydrostatic force
W = Weight of dam
FOD = Internal pore water pressure
FU = Uplift pressure force [base of dam]
FV = Weight of water above dam [u/s]
FV’ = Weight of water above dam [d/s]

Representation of typical loads acting on Gravity dam Water pressure Water pressure is the
force exerted by the water stored in the reservoir on the upstream and the water depth at the tail
of the dam.
 i. External water pressure load
External water pressure can be calculated by the law of hydrostatics according to which in a
static mass of liquid the pressure intensity varies linearly with the depth of liquid and it acts
normal to the surface in contact with the liquid. For the non-overflow section of the dam water
pressure may be calculated as follows and for the overflow portion the loading will be discussed
in section six of the course.
2
FH = horizontal component of hydrostatic force, acting along a line 1/3 H above the base =wH
3
w = Unit weight of water (=10 kN/m )
Fv = Vertical component of hydrostatic pressure
wH = Weight of fluid mass vertically above the upstream face acting through the center of gravity
of the mass.
ii. Internal water pressure (Uplift Pressure)
Internal water pressure is the force exerted by water penetrating through the pores, cracks and
seams within the body of the dam, at contact surface between the dam and its foundation, and
within the foundation. It acts vertically upward at any horizontal section of the dam as well as its
foundation and hence it causes a reduction in the effective weight of the portion of the structure
lying above this section.
The computation of internal pressure involves the consideration of two constituent elements, i.e,
Hydrostatic pressure of water at a point
The percentage C, area factor, of the area on which the hydrostatic pressure acts both these
elements are discussed below.
Hydrostatic pressure
In practice dams are usually provided with cut-off walls or grout curtains to reduce seepage and
drain to relieve pressure downstream from the cut-off. Actually cut-off and grout curtains may
not be perfectly tight and hence fail to dissipate the head (h1 – h2)
Usually a distribution like 1-2-3-4 is used with 3-4 a straight line as shown in Figure 3.2.
Opinions about the value of uplift reduction factor,  (Zeta), are varied, the tendency is to take:
 = 0.85 (for normal loading cases)
 = 1.00 (for exceptional loading cases like earthquake)
When flow for m u /s to d/s face is allowed W it h u/s effective cut off

Figure: 2.1 Up-lift pressure on gravity dams

 Figure 2.2 Uplift pressure distributions for less tight cut-off.
Uplift area factor, C
The value of area factor for concrete has been determined experimentally by several
investigators. However, for the foundation rock the value of area factor is not determinable
experimentally and hence the same has been estimated on the basis of theoretical considerations.
Some of the earliest investigators recommended, for both concrete and rock, a value of area
factor ranging from one third to two-thirds of the area to be considered as effective area over
which the uplift pressure acts. However, Harza, Terzaghi and Lelivakey have indicated that, for
both concrete and rock, the value of area factor is nearly equal to unity.

Table 3-1Values suggested for uplift area factor are

Value of C Suggested by
0.25 to 0.40 Henry
1.00 Maurice Levy
0.95 to 1.00 Terzaghi

As such the present practice followed in the design of dams is that the uplift pressure is assumed
to act over 100 percent of the area within the body of the dam as well as its foundation. Hence,
under all conditions, the value C = 1.00 is recommended.
Wight of Structure
For a gravity dam the weight of the structure is the main stabilizing force, and hence the
construction material should be as heavy as possible.
Structure self weight is accounted for in terms of the resultant, W, which acts through the
centroid (centre of gravity) of the cress-sectional area. The weight of the structure per unit
length is
W=c*A
Where: c is the unit weight of concrete
A is the cross-sectional area of the structure
3
The unit weight of concrete may be assumed to be 24 kN/m in the absence specific data from
laboratory test trials. For final designs the specific weights shall be based on actual test data.
Where crest gates and other ancillary structures or equipments of significant weigh are present
they must also be accounted for in determining the weight of the structure.
It is essential to make sure that the actual specific weight obtained for the construction material
is more than or at least equal to that assumed in the design.
Earth and silt pressure
The gradual accumulation of significant deposits of fine sediment, notably silt, against the face
of the dam generates a resultant horizontal force, F s. The magnitude of this force in additional to
water load, FWH, is a function of the sediment depth, h s, the submerged unit weight, ss, and the
active pressure coefficient, Ka, and is determined according to Rankine‟s formula.
2
Fs = Kass hs Where Ka = (1-sin) / (1+sin)
angle of internal friction of material.
Wind pressure
When the dam is full, wind will act only on the downstream face, thus contributing to stability.
When the dam is empty, wind can act on the upstream face, but the pressure is small compared
to the hydraulic pressure of the water. Hence for gravity dams wind is not considered. For
buttress dams, wind load on the exposed buttresses has to be considered.
Wave pressure and wave height
Wave exerts pressure on the upstream face. This pressure force, F wvdepends on fetch (extent of
the water surface on which the water blows) and wind velocity. It is of relatively small
magnitude and, by its nature, random and local in its influence. An empirical allowance for
wave load may
be made by adjusting the static reservoir level used in determining FWV. According to Molitor
the following formula could be used to determine the rise in water level,hw
for f 32km
for f 32km
0
1/4
hw .763 0 .032 vf 0 .271 f
hw 0
.032
Where: hw in meters
v wind velocity in km/hr and
f fetch in km

Figure 2.3 Wave configuration and wave pressure on a gravity dam for high dams the wave
pressure is small compared to other forces.
 The point of application of Fwvcan be taken as 3/8hw from the still water level. The wave rides
up higher on inclined dam faces as compared to the vertical one.
Earthquake forces
Dynamic loads generated by seismic disturbances must be considered in the design of all major
dams situated in recognized seismic “high risk” regions. The possibility of seismic activity
should also be considered for dams located outside those regions, particularly where sites in
close proximity to potentially active geological fault complexes.
Seismic activity is associated with complex oscillating patterns of accelerations and ground
motions, which generated transient dynamic loads due to the inertia of the dam and the retained
body of water. For design purposes both should be considered operative in the sense least
favorable to stability of the dam. Horizontal accelerations are therefore assumed to operate
normal to the axis of the dam. Under reservoir full conditions the most adverse seismic loading
will then occur when a ground shock is associated with:
1. horizontal foundation acceleration operating upstream, and
2. vertical foundation acceleration operating downward

Figure: 2.4Earthquake forces on gravity dam

As a result of 1, inertia effects will generate an additional hydrodynamic water load acting
downstream, plus a further inertia load attributable to the mass of the dam and also acting in a
downstream sense. Foundation acceleration downwards, 2 above, will effectively reduce the
mass of the structure. The more important recurring seismic shock waves have a frequency in
the range 1-10Hz. Seismic loads consequently oscillate very rapidly and are transient in their
effect. The strength of seismic event can be characterized by its magnitude and its intensity.
Ground motions associated with earthquakes can be characterized in terms of acceleration,
velocity or displacement. Only peak ground acceleration, pga, generally expresses as a portion
of gravitational acceleration, g, is considered in this course. It has been suggested that in general
seismic events with a high pga of short duration are less destructive than seismic events of lower
pga and greater duration.
The natural frequency of vibration, f n, for a triangular gravity profile of height H (m) and base
thickness B(m) constructed in concrete with an effective modulus of elasticity E=14GPa can be
approximated as
2
fn =600B/H (Hz)
For a dam of H = 500m and B = 375m, f n = 0.9 Hz. But the most important recurring seismic
shock waves are in the order of magnitude of 1-10Hz. Hence resonance (the frequency of
vibration of the structure and earthquake are equal) of an entire dam is unlikely and is not a
series concern in design. But vulnerable portion of the dam should be detailed.
There are two methods to determine the seismic load on a dam
Pseudostaic (equivalent static load) method: inertia forces are calculated based on the
acceleration maxima selected for design and considered as equivalent to additional static loads.
This method generally is conservative and is applied to small and less vulnerable dams.
The acceleration intensities are expressed by acceleration coefficients  h (Horizontal) and
v(vertical) each representing the ratio of peak ground acceleration. Horizontal and vertical
accelerations are not equal, the former being of greater intensity (h = (1.5 – 2.0v).
Based on the vertical and horizontal acceleration, the inertial force will be Horizontal force = ± h
* (static mass)
Vertical force = ±v * (static mass)
Three loading cases can be used for the assessment of seismic load combination:
Peak horizontal ground acceleration with zero vertical ground acceleration
Peak vertical ground acceleration with zero horizontal acceleration
Appropriate combination of both (eg.Peak of the horizontal and 40-50% of the vertical)
Inertia forces
1. Mass of dam
Horizontal Feqh=±
Vertical Feqv= ±v
2. Water body
As analyzed by Westerguard (1993)

Figure: 2.5 Loads on gravity dam

Where k” = earthquake factor for the water body
Where: T = period of earthquake dynamic analysis: the dam is idealized as a two dimensional
plane-strain or plane-stress finite element system, the reservoir being regarded as a continuum.
The foundation zone is generally idealized as a finite element system equivalent to a visco-
elastic half space. The complexities of such an approach are evident, and take it outside the
scope of this course.
Causes of failure of a gravity dam
A gravity dam may fail in the following ways:
(i) By overturning (or rotation) about the toe.
(ii) By Crushing
(iii) By development of tension, causing ultimate failure by crushing.
(iv) By shear failure called sliding. The failure may occur at the foundation plane (i.e.. at the
base of the dam) or at any other plane at higher level.

(I) Over Turning : If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any of its sections, passes
the toe, the dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe. Practically, such a condition shall not
arise, as the dam will fail much earlier by compression. The ratio of the righting moments about
toe to the overturning moments about toe is called the factor of safety against overturning. Its
value generally varies between 2 and 3.
(ii) Compression or Crushing : A dam may fail by the failure of its material, i.e.. the
compressive stresses produced may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get
crushed. The vertical direct stress distribution at the base is given by Theeqn P= Direct Stress +
Bending Stress Pmax/min= ∑V [ 1+ 6 e] B B
Where, E= Eccentricity of the resultant force from the centre of the base. ∑ V=Total Vertical
force B= Base Width
(iii) Tension Masonry and Concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no
tension is developed anywhere, because these materials cannot withstand sustained tensile
stresses, If subjected to such stresses, these materials may finally crack. However, for achieving
economy in designs of very high gravity dams, certain amount of tension may be permitted
under severest loading conditions. This may be permitted because of the fact that such worst
loading conditions shall occur only momentarily for a little time and would neither last long nor
occur frequently. The maximum permissible tensile stress for high concrete gravity dams, under
worst loading may be taken as 500 KN/ m2
Gravity Dam Effects produced by Tension Cracks
In a dam, when such a tension crack develops, say at heel, crack width looses contact with the
bottom foundation, and thus, becomes ineffective. Hence, the effective width B of the dam base
will be reduced. This will increase pmax at the toe. Hence, a tension crack by itself does not fail
the structure, but it leads to the failure of the structure by producing excessive compressive
stresses.
In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, we must ensure that p min is at the
most equal to Zero. Since Pmax/min= ∑V [ 1+ 6 e] B B
Pmin= ∑V [ 1 - 6 e] B B
Pmin = 0 ∑V [ 1 -6 e] = 0 B B 1–6e=0 B e= B/6 Hence ,
Maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the centre is equal to B/6,
which leads to the famous statement: the resultant must lie within the middle third portion of the
dam
(IV) Sliding (or Shear failure) will occur when the net horizontal force above any plane in the
dam or at the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that level.
• The friction developed between the two surfaces is equal to ∑ H < μ ∑ V
Or μ ∑ V > 1 ∑H
μ ∑ V/ ∑ H
Represents nothing but the factor of safety against sliding, which must be greater than unity.
In low dams, the safety against sliding should be checked only for friction, but in high dams, for
economical precise design, the shear strength of the joint is also considered, then the equation
for factor of safety against sliding which is measured by shear friction becomes
• S.F.F = μ ∑ V + B.q * ∑H
• Where, B= width of the dam at the joints
• q= average shear strength of the joints which varies from about 1400 KN/ m2 for poor rocks to
about 4000 KN/ m2 for good rocks
• The value of μ generally varies from 0.65 to 0.75
Elementary Profile and Practical profile of a Gravity Dam
The elementary profile of a dam, subjected only to the external water pressure on the upstream
side, will be right-angled triangle, having zero width at the water level and a base width (B) at
bottom, i.e.. the point where the maximum hydrostatic water pressure acts. In other words, the
shape of such a profile is similar to the shape of the hydrostatic pressure distribution.
When the reservoir is empty, the only single force acting it is the self weight (W) of the dam and
it acts at a distance B/3 from the heel. This the maximum possible innermost position of the
resultant for no tension to develop. Hence, such a line of action of W is the most ideal, as it
gives the maximum possible stabilizing moment about the toe without causing tension at toe,
when the reservoir is empty.
 m P v= ∑V [ 1 6 e] = 0 B B Here, ∑ V= W e= B/6
Therefore, P max/ min = ∑V [ 1+ 6 x B] = 0
Pmax= 2 W B And, Pmin = 0
Hence, the maximum vertical stress equal to 2 W / W will act at the heel and the vertical Stress
at toe will be Zero.
When the reservoir is full, the base width is governed by:
(I) The Resultant of all the forces, i.e. P, W and U passes through the outer most middle third
point (i.e. Lower middle third point)
The dam is safe against Sliding.Dam For the 1st condition to be satisfied, Taking moment of all
the forces above the middle third point we get,
W (B/3) – U (B/3) – p (H/3) = R x 0
Or
(W-U) B/3 – P. H/3= 0
Substituting the values of W, U and P
W= ½ x B x H x 1 x Sc x γw
Where, Sc= Sp gravity of Concrete, i.e.. That the material of the dam,
γ w= Unit wt of Water= 9.81 KN/ m3
U= ½ C. γw. H. B
Where C is a constant which according to U.S. B.R. Recommendations is taken as 1.0
P= ½ γw.H.H. = γw H2/ 2
Therefore Eqn (W-U) B/3 – P H/3 = 0
B= H • √ Sc-C
Hence, if B is taken equal to or greater than
B= H • √Sc-C
No tension will be developed at the heel with reservoir full condition.
For the IInd Condition (i.e.. dam is safe in sliding) to be satisfied; the fraction resistance
µ ∑γ or µ (W-U) should be equal to or more than the horizontal forces
∑ H= P
Substituting the values,
Of W, U and P
We get,
B= H µ√ (Sc-C)
The value of B chosen should be greater of the two values of both the cases.
The elementary profile of a gravity dam, (i.e.. triangle with maximum water surface at apex) is
only a theoretical profile. Certain changes will have to be made in this profile in order to cater to
the practical needs. These needs are,
(i) Providing a straight top width for road construction over the top of the dam
(ii) Providing a free-board above the top water surface, so that water may spill over the top of
the dam due to wave action, etc.
Limiting height of the low gravity dam:
The Principal Stress for an elementary profile is given by Eqn
i.e... • Б= γw H (Sc-C +1)
The value of the principal stress calculated above varies only with H, as all other factors are
fixed. To avoid the dam failure by crushing, the value of Б should be less than or at the most
equal to the maximum allowable compressive stress of dam material.
If f represents the allowable stress of the dam material, then the maximum height (Hmax) which
can be obtained in an elementary profile, without exceeding the allowable compressive stresses
of the dam material, is given as:
 F= γw H (Sc-C+ 1)
 H = f * γw (Sc-C +1)
 Hmax = f γw (Sc+1)
 Hence, a low gravity dam is the one whose height is less than the given eqn. If the height of
the dam is more than this, It is known as a high Gravity Dam.
 High and Low Gravity Dams
 The limiting height of a low concrete gravity dam, constructed in concrete having strength
equal to 3000 KN/ m2 is thus given
 hmax= f γw (Sc+1) Where, γw = 9.81 KN/ m3
 Sc = 2.4 f= 3000 KN/m2
 hmax= f = 3000 γw (Sc+1) 9.81 (2.4 +1) = 90 m

Therefore, limiting height of the low concrete gravity dam is 90 m. Profile of a Dam from
Practical Considerations. The addition of these two provisions will cause the resultant force to
shift towards the heel. The resultant force, when the reservoir is empty, was earlier passing
through the inner middle third point. This will, therefore, shift more towards the heel, crossing
the inner middle third point and consequently, tension will be developed at the toe. In order to
avoid the development of this tension, some masonry will have to be added to the upstream side.
Which shows the typical section along with the possible dimensions that can be adopted for a
low gravity dam section? It should however, be checked for stability analysis.
• Various Considerations in fixing the parameters of the dam section are as under.
• Top width The top width of dam is generally dictate by the requirement of Roadway to be
provided. The most economical top width is 14 % of the dam height It is also taken to 0.55
H1/2 is the maximum water depth. Usually the width varies from 6 to 10 m.
Free Board: The Upstream parapet of the roadway above the top of the dam is usually a solid
wall but does not form a part of free board. The free board provide is maximum of
(i) 1.33 hw
(ii) 3 to 4 %, usually 5 % of the dam height, whichever is more,
Base Width: The base width of the dam shall be safe against overturning, sliding and no tension
in dam body. The upstream face is kept vertical up to height H1 to be determined by trial.
Approximately H1 is equal to 2 a µ√ (Sc-C)
Where is top width of the dam. Below height H1 batter is provided to upstream and downstream
faces to increase the base width with a view to ensure that no tension develops in the body of the
dam. For this, the resultant force shall be located within the inner middle third and outer middle
third for reservoir in empty and full conditions respectively.
Construction of Gravity Dam Diversion Problems in Dams Construction
Before the actual construction of a dam can start in a river channel, the water of the river
channel must be temporarily diverted. It is advantageous to schedule the construction of the
lower portion of the dam during normal periods of low flow so as to minimize the diversion
problems
(i) Provision of a Diversion Tunnel: If geological and topographical conditions are favourable, a
diversion tunnel or a diversion open channel may be constructed to carry the entire flow
around the dam site. The area in which construction work has to take place, is closed by
cofferdams. The diversion tunnel or channels will start from upstream of the upstream coffer-
dam and will join the river again on the downstream side.
(ii) By constructing the dam in two stages: The dam is sometimes constructed in two stages. In
such a case, the flow is, first of all, diverted and confined to one side of the channel by
constructing a semi circle type of a coffer-dam. The construction work can be taken up in the
water free-zone. When the work on the lower portion of the dam on half of its length in one
side of the channel gets completed, the remaining half width of the channel is closed by a
 cofferdam. The flow is diverted through the dam outlets or sometimes it may even be
allowed to overtop the already constructed portion of the dam. The work will continue in the
water-free zone.
Galleries in Gravity Dams
Galleries are the horizontal or sloping openings or passages left in the body of the dam. • They
may run longitudinally (i.e. parallel to dam axis) or traversely (i.e. normal to the dam axis) and
are provided at various elevations. All the galleries are interconnected by steeply sloping
passages or by vertical shafts fitted with stairs or mechanical lifts.
Function and types of galleries in Dams
(i) Foundation Gallery: A gallery provided in a dam may serve one particular purpose or more
than one purpose. For example, a gallery provided near the rock foundation, serves to drain off
the water which percolates through the foundations. This gallery is called a foundation gallery or
a drainage gallery.
• It runs longitudinally and is quite near to the upstream face of the dam. Drain holes are drilled
from the floors of this gallery after the foundation grouting has been completed. Seepages is
collected through these drain holes.
• Besides draining off seepage water, it may be helpful for drilling and grouting of the
foundations, when this cannot be done from the surface of the dam.
Rules Governing the Design of Gravity Dams
The following are basic assumptions that should be considered relative to the design of
important masonry/concrete dams.
1. The rock that constitutes the foundation and abutments at the site is strong enough to carry
the forces imposed by the dam with stresses well below the elastic limit at all places along
the contact planes.
2. The bearing power of the geologic structure along the foundation and abutments is great
enough to carry the total loads imposed by the dam without rock movements of detrimental
magnitude.
3. The rock formations are homogeneous and uniformly elastic in all directions, so that their
deformations may be predicted satisfactorily by calculations based on the theory of
elasticity, by laboratory measurements on models constructed of elastic materials, or by
combinations of both methods.
4. The flow of the foundation rock under the sustained loads that result from the construction of
the dam and the filling of the reservoir may be adequately allowed for by using a somewhat
lower modulus of elasticity than would otherwise be adopted for use in the technical
analyses.
5. The base of the dam is thoroughly keyed into the rock formations along the foundations and
abutments.
6. Construction operations are conducted so as to secure a satisfactory bond between the
concrete and rock materials at all areas of contact along the foundation and abutments.
7. The concrete in the dam is homogeneous in all parts of the structure.
8. The concrete is uniformly elastic in all parts of the structure, so that deformations due to
applied loads may be calculated
The Construction Process
Dry construction area: Before construction can begin on any dam, the water in the streambed
must be diverted or stopped from flowing through the site. As in the case of fill dams, a coffer-
dam (a temporary structure to impound the water) must be built or the water must be diverted
into another channel or area down-stream from the dam site. For large projects, this construction
may be done several seasons before building of the dam begins. The flow of water is closed off
at the very last moment.
Foundation: The foundation area for any concrete dam must be immaculate before the first
concrete for the dam is placed. As for fill dams, this is a detailed process of excavating,
cleaning, and repairing the rock throughout the foundation "footprint" and on both abutments
(the sides of the canyon that form the ends of the dam). Sites immediately downstream of the
dam for any power-plant, stilling basin, or other structure must also be prepared.
At some sites, extensive work may be required. If the rock in the foundation or abutments is
prone to fracturing because of the load imposed by the dam and its reservoir, earthquake
activity, or the properties of the rock, it may be necessary to install extensive systems of rock
bolts or anchor bolts that are grouted into the rock through potential fracture zones. On the
abutments above the dam, systems of rock bolts and netting may be required to keep large rock
fragments from falling onto the dam. Instruments to monitor groundwater levels, joint
movement, potential seepage, slope movements, and seismic activity are installed beginning
during the early stages of foundation preparation through completion of the dam.
A cut-off wall may be excavated deep into rock or holes may be drilled in the foundation for the
installation of reinforcing steel, called rebars that extend up into the dam and will be tied to the
steel inside the first lifts of the dam. The idea is to build a reservoir that, like a bowl, is equally
sound around its perimeter. The water is deepest and heaviest at the dam (when the reservoir is
near capacity) so the dam and its foundation cannot be a weak point in that perimeter.
Formwork and concrete casting: Forms made of wood or steel are constructed along the edges
of each section of the dam. Rebar is placed inside the forms and tied to any adjacent rebar that
was previously installed. The concrete is then poured or pumped in. The height of each lift of
concrete is typically only 1.5-3 m and the length and width of each dam section to be poured as
a unit is only about 15 m. Construction continues in this way as the dam is raised section by
section and lift by lift. Some major dams are built in sections called blocks with keys or inter-
locks that link adjacent blocks as well as structural steel connections.
The process is much like constructing a building except that the dam has far less internal space;
surprisingly, however, major concrete dams have observation galleries at various levels so the
condition of the inside of the dam can be observed for seepage and movement. Inlet and outlet
tunnels or other structures also pass through concrete dams, making them very different from fill
dams that have as few structures penetrating the mass of the dam as possible.
Early dam performance: As soon as a significant portion of the dam is built, the process of
filling the reservoir may begin. This is done in a highly controlled manner to evaluate the
stresses on the dam and observe its early performance. A temporary emergency spillway is
constructed if dam building takes more than one construction season; lengthy construction is
usually done in phases called stages, but each stage is fully complete in itself and is an
operational dam. The upstream cofferdam may be left in place as a temporary precaution, but it
is not usually designed to hold more than minimal stream flows and rainfall and will be
dismantled as soon as practical. Depending on design, some dams are not filled until
construction is essentially complete.
Appurtenances: The other structures that make the dam operational are added as soon as the
elevation of their location is reached as the dam rises. The final components are erosion
protection on the upstream (water) side of the dam (and sometimes downstream at the bases of
outlet structures), instruments along the crest (top) of the dam, and roads, side- walks,
streetlights, and retaining walls. A major dam like Hoover Dam has a full-fledged roadway
along its crest; small dams will have maintenance roads that allow single-file access of vehicles
only.
Away from the dam itself, the powerhouse, instrument buildings, and even homes for resident
operators of the dam are also finished. Initial tests of all the facilities of the dam are performed.
Completion: The final details of constructions are wrapped up as the dam is put into service.
The beginning of the dam's working life was also carefully scheduled as a design item, so that
water is available in the reservoir as soon as the supply system is ready to pump and pipe it
downstream, for example. A program of operations, routine maintenance, rehabilitation, safety
checks, instrument monitoring, and detailed observation will continue and is mandated by law as
long as the dam exists.
Quality Control
There is no dam construction without intensive quality control. The process of
building alone involves heavy equipment and dangerous conditions for construction workers as
well as the public. The population living downstream of the dam has to be protected over the
structure itself; the professionals who design and construct these projects should absolutely be
committed to safety, and they are monitored by local, regional, and federal agencies.
The future of concrete dams is the subject of much debate. Each year, over 100,000 lives are lost
in floods, and flood control is a major reason for building dams, as well as protecting estuaries
against flooding tides and improving navigation. Lives are also benefited by dams because they
provide water supplies for irrigating fields and for drinking water, and hydroelectric power is a
non-polluting source of electricity. Reservoirs are also enjoyed for recreation, tourism, and
fisheries.
However, dams are also damaging to the environment. They can change ecosystems, drown
forests and wildlife (including endangered species), change water quality and sedimentation
patterns, cause loss of agricultural lands and fertile soil, regulate river flows, spread disease (by
creating large reservoirs that are home to disease-bearing insects), and perhaps even affect
climate. There are also adverse social effects because human populations are displaced and not
satisfactorily resettled.
For years before the start of construction in 1994 of the Three Gorges Dam in China,
environmentalists the world over organized protests to try to stop this huge project. They have
not succeeded, but controversy over this project is representative of the arguments all proposed
dams will face in the future. The balance between meeting human needs for water, power, and
flood control and protecting the environment from human eradication or encroachment must be
carefully weighed.
1. A dam may be defined as an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river. At the
back of this barrier, water gets collected, forming a pool of water. The side on which water
gets collected is called the upstream, and the other side of the barrier on which the water gets
collected is called the downstream. The lake of water which is formed upstream is often
called a reservoir, or a dam reservoir, or a river reservoir, or a storage reservoir.
2. The water collected in this reservoir can be supplied for irrigation for irrigating farm lands
through a system of canal network, or may be supplied for drinking purposes. The lake so
formed can be used for recreation uses. The energy of this collected water can be used to
turn a mill to grind wheat or to turn the blades of a turbine to generate electrical power. And
in times of floods, the dams can serve as protections for the towns and cities farther down
the river.
Gravity dam and basic layout
1. The basic shape of a concrete gravity dam istriangular in section (Figure 49a), with the top
crest often widened to provide a roadway
2. The increasing width of the section towards the base is logical since the water pressure also
increases linearly with depth as shown in Figure 48a. In the figure, h is assumed as the depth
of water and γh is the pressure at base, where γ is the unit weight of water (9810 N/m³), W is
the weight of the dam body. The top portion of the dam (Figure 49b) is widened to provide
 space for vehicle movement.
3. A gravity dam should also have an appropriate spillway for releasing excess flood water of
the river during monsoon months. This section looks slightly different from the other non-
overflowing sections. A typical section of a spillway is shown

Figure 2.6 Water pressure on gravity dam

4.The flood water glides over the crest and downstream face of the spillway and meets an energy
dissipating structure that helps to kill the energy of the flowing water, which otherwise would
have caused erosion of the river bed on the downstream. The type of energy dissipating
structure shown in Figure 50 is called the stilling basin which dissipates energy of the fast-
flowing water by formation of hydraulic jump at basin location. This and other types of
spillway and energy dissipators are discussed in a subsequent section. shows the functioning
of this type of spillway
5. Usually, a spillway is provided with a gate, and a typical spillway section may have a radial
gate as shown. The axis or trunnion of the gate is held to anchorages that are fixed to piers.
6. Also shown in the figure is a guide wall or training wall that is necessary to prevent the flow
crossing over from one bay (controlled by a gate) to the adjacent one. Since the width of a
gate is physically limited to about 20m (limited by the availability of hoisting motors), there
has to be a number of bays with corresponding equal number of gates separated by guide
walls in a practical dam spillway.
7. The upstream face of the overflowing and non-overflowing sections of a gravity dam are
generally kept in one plane, which is termed as the dam axis or sometimes referred to as the
dam base line
Factor of safety:
A gravity dam must be designed to safeguard against overturning and sliding. For the former it
is usual to design the dam so that the resultant of all forces intersects the base within its middle
third. This will provide a factor of safety in excess of 2.Ensuring of the proper functioning of
concrete dams is one of the most challenging issues of today's engineering world. A concrete
gravity dam is facing with a variety of failure mechanisms include dam sliding on the structure
and foundation interaction surface and overturning. Two mentioned mechanisms are discussed
in this study. Sliding and overturning safety factors are calculated for Shafarud dam with a
height of 150 meters, under construction, placed in Gilan, north of Iran. Loads are include
hydrostatic force, hydrodynamic and earthquake. Also the effect of various parameters on the
safety factors such as drainage performance coefficient, drainage location and reservoir water
level will be discussed. The results in general show very good performance and achieving high
safety factor for the dam. But in the case of full reservoir slide-resistant was inadequate.
Stability analysis:
Stability analysis for gravity dams often is simplified into a two-dimensional rigid
body analysis of a cross section of the structure (see Figure 1) and is focused on stability against
sliding. ... Overturning tendencies express themselves through development of tensile stresses at
the heel of the dam.For many, the terms “gravity dam” and “concrete dam” conjure images of
large structures, such as the Hoover and Grand Coulee dams. However, most masonry and
concrete gravity dams in the U.S. are much smaller structures. According to the National
Inventory of Dams, 90 percent of gravity dams categorized as high or significant hazard
structures are less than 100 feet tall.Design features common to large gravity dams often are not
incorporated into these smaller structures. For example, many smaller dams do not include
foundation drainage systems. In addition, large dams in steep canyons typically are keyed into
bedrock at the abutments, while for smaller structures the non-overflow sections may only
extend a limited distance beyond the original ground surface and many times are not abutted into
sound rock.
Geologic investigations and methods for stability evaluation often are less rigorous and complex
for smaller structures. The behaviour of larger dams necessitates a better understanding of the
foundation conditions and a more in-depth analysis of the performance of the structure under
various loading conditions, including finite element and deformation analyses. This article
discusses the stability analysis and rehabilitation of smaller (less than 100 feet tall) gravity
dams.
The most common failure mode for gravity dams is sliding or overturning along or beneath the
dam/foundation interface.2Stability analysis for gravity dams often is simplified into a two-
dimensional rigid body analysis of a cross section of the structure and is focused on stability
against sliding. In this analysis, overturning of the dam is considered within the context of its
potential influence on sliding. Overturning tendencies express themselves through development
of tensile stresses at the heel of the dam. In these cases, sliding stability is analyzed considering
a cracked base, which reduces sliding resistance. While the gravity dam stability analysis often
is simplified to evaluate failure along the base, it is important to consider kinematically feasible
failure mechanisms along joints, foliations and bedding planes or within the rock mass. In
addition to failures through the foundation and along the dam/foundation interface, the stability
analysis should consider failure through the dam, commonly along horizontal construction
joints. This “partial section” analysis usually is performed using the same methods applied to the
stability evaluation of the entire structure.
Guidance documents for the evaluation and design of gravity dams have been developed by U.S.
agencies that own or regulate dams, including the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
Bureau of Reclamation, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In Canada, the Canadian Dam
Association and BC Hydro provide similar guidance for the evaluation of gravity dams.
Material properties
The selection of physical and mechanical properties of the dam and foundation are critical to the
stability evaluation of a gravity dam. Unit weight of the concrete or masonry is a key component
of the analysis. Estimates of the shear and tensile strength of concrete in the dam can be
estimated from laboratory testing of representative samples and/or using available guidance
documents The shear strength along the dam-foundation interface or through the foundation is
probably the most important parameter to define. Shear strength is comprised of the friction
angle and cohesion of the material(s) or interface. Typical shear strength values are available.
Friction angle often is estimated using material testing and/or correlation with empirical data for
similar materials. Estimating cohesion (or adhesion along the base of the dam) is more difficult,
and the selected value has a significant effect on the stability analysis results. FERC recognizes
the difficulty in accurately defining cohesion along the base of the dam and provides alternate
requirements for stability if cohesion is not relied upon in the analysis.
Loading conditions and safety factors
Most regulatory agencies, including FERC, categorize loading conditions as “usual,” “unusual”
and “extreme,” and the required safety factor increases with the probability of a given loading
condition. Typical loading combinations to be considered include normal operating conditions
(usual), flood discharge loading (unusual or extreme), loading from ice (unusual) and earthquake
forces (unusual or extreme).The stability analysis for flood conditions should consider a range of
floods to identify the combined reservoir (headwater) and tailwater loading that results in the
lowest safety factor. The largest hypothetical flood, or probable maximum flood, is not always
the most critical flood loading scenario.As noted earlier, FERC guidelines allow a reduction in
the required safety factor if cohesion is not considered in the analysis. For example, the
minimum required safety factor for normal operating conditions is 3.0 if cohesion is included
but otherwise only 1.5.
Uplift forces within the dam, on the base of the structure, and within the foundation rock mass
are important in stability evaluations. For structures without an internal drainage system or other
special features, and with fairly uniform foundation conditions, it is typical to assume that uplift
varies linearly from full headwater at the heel to full tailwater at the toe of the dam. For dams
with a drain system, reduction in these pressures should only be allowed when it can be verified
that the drain system is effective.
Cracked section analysis
The gravity method of analysis requires that the resultant of all forces acting on the dam lie
within the middle one-third of the base to avoid tensile stresses at the heel. When the resultant
lies outside the middle one-third, tensile stresses are assumed to develop along the base of the
dam. Most regulatory agencies (including FERC) require a cracked section (or cracked base)
analysis when tension develops at the heel of the dam. Full uplift is then assumed to act on the
cracked section of the base (except under seismic loading, where full uplift is assumed not to
develop due to the rapid cycling from seismic loads), and the analysis is revised to reflect this
modified uplift distribution, with cohesion, if considered, acting only along the uncracked
portion of the base. Most agency guidance suggests an iterative approach to the cracked section
analysis for static loadings. However, the crack length and reaction pressure at the toe of the
dam can be solved explicitly. For earthquake forces, the crack length can more easily be
computed.
Rehabilitation of gravity dams
The most common methods for rehabilitation of gravity dams that do not meet stability criteria
include buttressing or anchoring. Buttressing consists of adding mass to the downstream portion
of the structure to resist sliding. This can be accomplished using conventional mass or roller-
compacted concrete. High-capacity post-tensioned rock anchors have been used to stabilize
gravity dams since the 1960s, with more than 300 dams in North America being
anchored. Vertically installed post-tensioned anchors add normal force, increasing the sliding
frictional resistance and preventing the development of tension at the heel of the dam. Anchors
installed at an angle will provide additional sliding resistance by directly offsetting applied
horizontal forces, but installation can be more costly than vertical anchors.
Gravity dams with inadequate spillway capacity can be allowed to overtop during extreme
floods, provided the dam meets stability criteria under the flood loading conditions and
overtopping flows can be shown not to erode foundation support from the toe of the dam or
abutments.
For many smaller gravity dams, the non-overflow sections do not extend to bedrock at the
abutments but are simply buried in the earth abutment (see Figure 2). This typically is
acceptable, provided the fill materials are satisfactory and the spillway can pass the design flood
without overtopping the non-overflow sections or abutments. If these sections do overflow, there
is potential for erosion and failure of the earth abutment, resulting in a potential dam failure or
loss of reservoir. In some cases, these dams have cutoff walls that extend further into the
abutments than the gravity section. However, these walls typically are intended to reduce
abutment seepage rather than prevent erosive failure from overtopping. Dams lacking non-
overflow sections that tie into bedrock abutments may require modifications to prevent
overtopping or erosion of the earthen abutment.
Case histories
The following case histories include discussion of the gravity dam stability analysis, the
importance of parameter selection, rehabilitation to address stability issues and the potential for
abutment erosion and failure.
Sugar Hollow Dam
Rivanna Water and Sewer Authority own Sugar Hollow Dam near Charlottesville, Va. This 80-
foot-high concrete gravity dam was completed in 1947 and consists of spillway and non-
overflow gravity sections, with cut-off walls extending into earth abutments. In the mid-1990s,
the Virginia Dam Safety program identified the dam as having inadequate spillway capacity, and
analyses indicated that the dam did not meet stability criteria for extreme flood loadings.
The authority planned to install 30 vertical multi-strand, post-tensioned rock anchors through the
gravity sections to increase the frictional resistance and prevent overturning under extreme flood
conditions. Anchor sizes ranged from five to 36 strands, with a maximum design load of about
1300 kips. Anchors were designed, installed and tested in accordance with Post-Tensioning
Institute standards because the non-overflow sections would overtop during the PMF, there was
potential for erosion and failure of the earth abutments and cut-off walls. Alternatives to address
this concern included armouring the abutments, stabilizing the cut-off walls assuming
downstream soils eroded, and raising the abutments to prevent overtopping flows of these areas.
Raising the earthen abutments by 10 feet with earth fill was found to be the most cost-effective
approach. The ends of the non-overflow sections were also raised with concrete to confine
overflow to the central valley. The project received the Association of State Dam Safety
Officials award for National Rehabilitation Project of the Year in 2000.
Stony Creek Dam
Stony Creek Dam is a 35-foot-high concrete gravity dam constructed in the late 1920s for water
supply. The dam, owned and operated by the City of Burlington, N.C., has a 200-foot-long
spillway section with concrete non-overflow sections that tie out to earth abutments. State dam
safety regulations require safe passage of half of the PMF. Although the concrete of the dam is
in good condition, the non-overflow sections and abutments overtop at about the 100-year storm
event, and stability analyses demonstrate the dam does not meet the required safety factor for
events greater than an estimated 300-year storm. For the modelled half PMF, the abutments
overtop by 12 feet, which would result in a breach of the reservoir.
Foundation for a gravity dam:
Gravity dams are massive structure dam which is constructed of concrete or stone masonry.
These dams are hold by the gravity to the ground. A gravity dam depends on its own weight for
stability and is usually straight in plan although sometimes slightly curved. As they rely on their
own weight, it is necessary to construct them on a solid foundation of bedrocks. A gravity dam
may be constructed either of masonry or of concrete. Masonry gravity dams are nowadays
constructed of only small heights. All major and important gravity dams are now constructed of
concrete only. A gravity dam may be either straight or curved in plan. Before construction work
in a river channel can be started, the stream flow must be diverted. In two-Stages construction,
the flow is diverted to one side of the channel by a cofferdam while working proceeds on the
other side. After work on the lower portion of one side of the dam is complete, flow is diverted
through outlets in this portion or may even be permitted to over top the completed portion while
work proceeds in the other half of the channel. If geologic and topographic conditions are
favorable, a tunnel or diversion channel may be used to convey the entire flow around the dam
site. A tunnel is particularly advantageous if it will serve some useful purpose after completion
of the dam. Four 50 feet circular concrete-lined tunnels were used for diversion at Hoover
Dam and later converted to outlet works. A diversion channel or tunnel should be capable of
carrying a flow selected by frequency analysis as a reasonable risk in view of the hazards on
each particular job. It is advantageous to schedule construction of the lower portion of a dam
during normal low-flow periods to minimize the diversion problem. The foundation must be
excavated to solid rock before any concrete is poured. A cement grout and water are sometimes
mixed with a small amount of fine aggregates (sand) is forced under pressure into the holes
drilled into the rocks.
Grouting at pressures up to about 40 psi may be done before concrete is placed for the dam, but
high-pressure grouting (200 psi) is done from permanent galleries in the dam after the dam is
complete so that the weight of the dam can resist the grouting pressures. Concrete for the dam is
usually placed in blocks depending on the dimensions of the dam, with a maximum width of
about 50 ft on large dams. The maximum height of a single pour is usually about 5 ft. Sections
are poured alternately so that each block is permitted to stand several days before another one is
poured next to it or on top of it. After individual sections are poured, they are sprinkled with
water and otherwise protected from the drying effect of the air. After the form work is removed,
the lateral surfaces of each section are painted with a paint (asphaltic emulsion) to prevent
adherence to adjoining sections and to form construction joints to reduce cracking of
the concrete. Keyways are provided between sections to carry the shear forces from one section
to the adjacent one and make the gravity dam act as a monolithic structure. Metal water stops are
also placed in the vertical construction joints near the upstream face to prevent leakage.
Inspection galleries to permit access to the interior of the dam are formed as the concrete is
placed. These galleries may be necessary for grouting operation, for operation and maintenance
of gates and valves, and as intercepting drains for water which seeps into the gravity dam.
When concrete sets, a great deal of heat is liberated, and the temperature of the mass is raised.
As the concrete cools, it shrinks, and cracks may develop. To avoid cracks, a special type of
cement (low-heat cement) may be used. Very lean mixes are also used for the interior of the
dam. Two sacks of cement per cubic yard of concrete are not uncommon. In addition, the
materials which go into the concrete may be cooled before concrete. For best results, the
temperature of the concrete mix should be between 50° and 80°F.Occasionally, further cooling
is accomplished by circulating cold water through pipes embedded in the concrete, although this
is expensive and is generally used only on large gravity dams.
Drainage and inspection galleries.
Drainage gallery in a dam is to reduce uplift forces in dam foundation and in body of the dam.
Drainage gallery facilitates for inspection of dam body. It is normally placed at about 7.5% of
dam height with minimum of 3.0 metre distance from upstream face of the dam with 3.0 metre
cover from the foundation. The size of the gallery is normally 1.50 m. wide and 2.5 m. in height.
Suitable reinforcement is provided around the gallery. Drainage holes are drilled in to
foundation to release the uplift force. Drainage holes are formed in the body of the dam to
release internal water pressure.
Dams are at their greatest stress loads when the reservoir is full, or at flood stage, and during
earthquakes. Reservoirs are seldom kept at capacity, full, for very long. The inspection gallery is
the location of dam performance features, instruments, and access to mechanical equipment and
maintenance and service areas. Because drainage galleries cause significant scheduling
problems, and weaken the overall strength of dams, they should be used judiciously.
Construction can be slowed by as much as 50 percent when constructing the gallery. Very large
internal flows necessitate the use of a gallery to effectively route the flows to the appropriate
area.
Water seeping through the dam is directed from several smaller collectors into the main drainage
gallery. The gallery decreases the dam’s thickness in that area, and thus increases the internal
flow. Most dams less than 100 feet (30m) high can effectively prevent seepage problems by only
utilizing a more dense structure and avoiding the construction of a gallery. Galleries are used in
higher dams because an easier access for foundation drains is provided, and a reduction in mass
is considered economical. Galleries are also needed in higher dams because of the increased
water pressure associated with restraining more water causes increased internal flows through
the dam. Constructing a gallery in a RCC dam is difficult because expensive formwork often
interferes with the construction equipment’s access to the dam. Alternative methods include
placing a non-cemented fill in the region designated to be the gallery, and then excavating the
material after the RCC has hardened. This method allows direct inspection of the concrete,
whereas construction with wood formwork hides the RCC from inspection.
 UNIT-III
EARTH DAM
Introduction:
Earth dam is a water impounding structure constructed from fragmental natural materials
excavated or obtained close to the dam site. The natural fill materials are placed and compacted
without the addition of any binding agent, using high-capacity mechanical plant. They rely on
their weight to resist the flow of water, just like concrete gravity dams.
Embankment dam derive its strength from position, internal friction and mutual attraction of
particles. Relative to concrete dams, embankment dams offer more flexibility; and hence can
deform slightly to conform to deflection of the foundation without failure.
Broadly, depending upon the material used during construction, embankment dams are
classified in to two: Earth fill Embankments: if compacted soils, i.e., clays/silts & sands, account
for over 50% of the placed volume of material
rockfillEmbankment:ifcompactedrockparticleslargerthanamancaneasilylift,i.e., coarse grained
frictional material, accounts for over 50% of the placed volume of materials.
1. Embankment dam possesses many outstanding merits which could be summarized as
follows:
2. Suitability of the type to different site conditions such as wide valleys, steep sided gorges,
etc.
3. Adaptability to a broad range of foundation condition such as rock and pervious soil
formation,
4. use of natural materials,
5. Extreme flexibility to accommodate different fill materials,
6. Highly mechanized and effectively continuous construction process,
7. Appreciable accommodation of settlement-deformation without risk of serious cracking and
possible failure.
8. The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are
9. Inherently susceptible to damage or destruction by overtopping
10. Necessity of separate spillway structure
11. Vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation
12. Key elements and appurtenances of Embankment dam

Every embankment dam consists of three basic components plus a number of appurtenances
which enable the basic components to function efficiently shown in Figure. 4.0
Foundation:
The foundation of embankment dam could either be earth or rock material. The foundation
provides support resisting both vertical and horizontal loads. It may also resist seepage beneath
the embankment
 Figure: 3.0 Earthen dam with diaphram
Core membrane
The primary purpose of the core or membrane is to hold back free water. Depending on the
structural requirements of the dam, the core may be placed at the centre or upstream from the
centre, or on the upstream face (in the case of certain rock fill dams)
When the foundation is incapable of resisting under seepage the core is extended down into the
foundation to impervious layer. Such an extension of the core is termed cut-off.
Core material:
Earth, concrete or masonry, steel sheeting, etc. are used as core material. Lack of flexibility of
concrete and masonry make them undesirable. An earth core (when suitable material is
available) is usually cheaper and more water tight than any other type. Suitability of earth core
depends on the character of the available soil.
Table: 3.0 Permeability of different soil types

Permeability coefficient Typical soil Value as core

2 – 0.002 Sand Considerable leakage
Usable with good control if some
0.002 – 0.0002 Silty clay
leakage is tolerable
0.0002 – 0.000006 Silts Little leakage if well compacted
≤ 0.000006 Silty clay, clay Impervious

A core should not be composed of silt which tends to swell upon saturation. To avoid swelling
tendencies, the elasticity index should not exceed 30.
Typical requirements for core compaction are
90 – 97% of standard proctor maximum, or 87 – 95% of modified proctor maximum.
Water content: - as high as possible consistent with the above requirements.
Core thickness: - to control erosion and provide good compaction a minimum core thickness in
meters is given by
b = 6+ 0.1h (clay)
b = 6+ 0.3h (silt) Where: h = head difference at that point;
b = core width at that point.
Shell
The purpose of shell is to provide structural support for the core and to distribute the loads over
the foundation. The shell also acts as foundation for most of the appurtenances. Sometimes the
core and shell of a dam are constructed of the same material (homogenous dam).
Shell (embankment) materials
Availability and strength are the requirements for selection.
Strength: - the strength for the upstream side should be that at the inundated condition. The same
strength should be used for the downstream face which is below the maximum phreatic line.
Permeability: - high permeability is desirable from the standpoint of pressure build-up during
construction and stability during sudden drawdown.
Typical compaction requirements:
95 – 100% of standard proctor maximum; 92 – 97% of modified proctor maximum.
Slopes: - shell slopes are based on stability analysis. When the stability is insufficient,
improvements are possible by adopting
Flatter slopes;
Increasing strength through high-density;
Treatment for weak foundation;.
Table: 3.1 Tentative slopes of shoulder for different embankment materials drainage of the
foundation and embankment.

Soil type Upstream Downstream

Gravel, sandy gravel with core 2.5H : 1V 2.0H : 1V
Clean sand with core 3.0H : 1V 2.5H : 1V
Low density silt, micaceous silt 3.5H : 1V 3.0H : 1V
Low plasticity clay 3.0H : 1V 2.5H : 1V
Composite slopes: - are used for large dams. They can be found in two ways: a series of straight
slopes or a constant slope with berms.

Figure:3.1 composite slopes for shell of embankment dam

A berm is a level surface on the slope that can serve the following purposes
Increases slope stability by increasing dam width;Breaks the continuous downstream slope to
reduce surface erosionprovides level surface for maintenance operations, roads,etc.Berm is also
used at the bottom of a zone of riprap to provide supporting shoulder.
Height of dam: Required height of an embankment dam is the vertical distance from the
foundation to the water surface in the reservoir, when the spillway is discharging at design
capacity, plus a free board allowance.
Free Board = maximum wave run-up height + allowance for settlement + allowance for splash
Maximum wave run-up height = 4hw/3
Where: hw = effective wave height (with expectancy of 1%): Wave run-up to maximum wave
height ratio on slopes.
Maximum vertical height of run-up = Expected wave height * appropriate factor from Table 5-
3Settlement allowance: the following may be used as guide.

Table: 3.2 Ratio of run-up to maximum wave height of dam

Slope Ratio of run-up to maximum wave height

Smooth Surface Riprap surface
1.5H : 1V 2.5 1.6
1H : 1V 2.0 1.3

For foundation: 1% of height of dam

For embankment: 1-2% of height of embankment Splash allowance could be taken 0.30 –
0.50m.
Top Width:
 Should be sufficient to keep the phreatic line with in the dam when the reservoir isfull
 Should be sufficient to withstand wave action and earthquakeshock
 Has to satisfy secondary requirements such as minimum roadwaywidth.
 Appurtenances
Transition filter: - it is provided between core and shell to prevent migration of the core
material into the pores of the shell material. It is particularly needed between clay cores and rock
and gravel shells. The objective of transition filter is to carry away seepage that has passed
through the core and cut-off and to prevent stratum of the upper part of the downstream shell.
Toe drain: - it helps to prevent sloughing of the downstream face as a result of rain water or
seepage saturation. In small dams, the toe drain serves also as internal drain. In large dams with
pervious foundation, the toe drain and the internal drain are sometimes combined. Drains need
protective filter (inverted filter) to prevent clogging of the drain.
Riprap: - required to cover the upstream/downstream face.
Normally riprap extended from above the maximum water level to just below the minimum.
Sod: - required on the downstream face to prevent rain wash.
For economic reasons, the material available at the particular site has to be employed as much as
possible for the construction of the earth dam and the quantity of imported material should be
minimized. Internal drains: - they are essential in large dams where the d/s shell is not so
pervious.
Types of Earthen dam:
The materials available locally control the size and configuration of the dam. Many small
embankment dams are built entirely of a single type of material such as stream alluvium,
weathered bedrock, or glacial till. These are homogeneous dams, constructed more or less of
uniform natural material as shown in Figure 5-3.
 Figure: 3.2 types of earthen dams

The central core earth fills profile, shown in Figure (c) and (d), is the most common for larger
embankments dams. Larger embankment dams are also zoned and constructed of a variety of
materials Figure, either extracted from different local sources or prepared by mechanical or
hydraulic separation of source material into fractions with differentproperties.
An important element in a zoned dam is an impermeable blanket or core which usually consists
of clayey materials obtained locally. In locations where naturally impermeable materials are
unavailable the dams are built of rock or earth-rock aggregates as shown in Figure 5-4, and the
impermeable layers of reinforced concrete, asphalt concrete, or riveted sheet steel are placed on
the upstream face of the dam.

Figure: 3.3 Drains for earthen dams

Principal variants of rock fill embankments dams (values of m are examples)

Selection of the optimum type of embankments for a specific location is determined largely by
the nature and availability of different fill materials in sufficientquantity.
The primary loads acting on an embankment do not differ in principle from those applicable to
gravity dams. There are, however, the conceptual differences there referred to with regard to the
water load which is exerted inside the upstream shoulder fill. Self weight load, similarly a
distributed internal body load, is significant with respect to stability and internal stress for the
embankment and for a compressible soil foundation.
Because of such differences, embankments dam analysis is less formalized and is carried out
quite differently from concrete damanalysis.

Causes of Failure of Embankment dams

Embankment dams, like any other engineering structure, may fail due to improper design, faulty
constructions, lack of maintenance, etc. Generally, causes of failure are grouped into three
classes: Hydraulic failure, Seepage failure and Structuralfailure.

Hydraulic failures: About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these causes due
to; overtopping. Occurs when the design flood is less than the coming flood. Spillway and outlet
capacity must be sufficient to prevent overtopping. Freeboard should also be sufficient to
prevent overtopping by waveaction. Erosion of upstream faces. Wind waves of water developed
due to wind near the top water try to notch-out the soil from u/s face and may even sometimes
cause the slip of the u/s slope.(upstream slope pitching or rip rap should beapplied.)Erosion of
downstream face by gully formation. Heavy rains falling directly over d/s face and the erosive
action of the moving water may lead to the formation of gullies on the d/s face, ultimately
leading to the dam failure. Cracking due to frost action. Frost in the upper portion of dam may
cause heaving of soil with dangerous seepage. Consequently failure. Provide an additional free
board allowance up to a maximum of say 1.5m may beprovided.

Seepage failure: controlled seepage or limited uniform seepage is inevitable in all embankments
and it does not produce any harm. However, uncontrolled or concentrated seepage through the
dam or the foundation may lead to piping* or sloughing† and the subsequent failure of the dam.
The progressive erosion and subsequent removal of soil grains from within the body of the dam
or the foundation of the dam
The progressive removal of soil from the wet d/s face.
Structural failure: about 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural failures.
Structural failures are generally caused by shear failures, causing slides.
1. Causes of failure as categorized based on time of occurrence During construction
2. Unstable slop
3. Heavy rainfall that washes the d/sface
4. Weak foundation after construction
5. Failure of u/s face due to sudden drawdown
6. Failure of d/s when the reservoir is full
7. Overtopping
8. Seepage failure.
Criteria for safe design of earth dam
Some of the more important features that should be considered in the design of embankment
dams are:
Zoning of shoulder-fills: the permeability of successive zones should increase toward the outer
slopes, materials with a high degree of inherent stability being used to enclose and support the
less stable impervious core and filter.
Spillway location: geotechnical and hydraulic design considerations require that to minimize the
risk of damage to the dam under flood conditions the spillway and discharge channel are kept
clear of the embankment.
Freeboard: is the difference between maximum reservoir level and minimum crest level of the
dam. The provision necessary for long-term settlement within the overall minimum freeboard is
determined by the height of dam and the depth of compressible foundation at anysection.
The overall minimum freeboard from spillway sill to dam crest should be at least 1.5m on the
smallest reservoir embankment, and it will be very much greater for larger embankments and/or
reservoir. The minimum height of freeboard for wave action is, generally, 1.5hw
Where; v is wind velocity (km/hr)
F is fetch or straight length of water expansion in km
Foundation seepage control: seepage flows and pressure within the foundation are controlled by
cut-offs and by drainage. Cut-offs is impervious barriers which function as extensions of the
embankments core into foundation. The cut-offs are generally two types:
Fully penetrating cut-off: penetrate to impervious strata
Partially penetrating cut-off: terminate where the head loss across the cut-off is sufficient to
effect the required degree of control
Outlet works (tunnels and culverts): outlet works should where practicable be constructed as a
tunnel driven through the natural ground of the dam abutments. Where this is difficult or
uneconomical a concrete culvert founded on rock is a satisfactory alternative.
Upstream face protection: several options are available for protection of the upstream face
against wave erosion, ranging from traditional stone pitching with grouted joints through
concrete facing slabs to the use of concrete block work, rock armouring and riprap.
Embankments crest: the top width of larger earthen dam should be sufficient to keep the seepage
line well within the dam, when reservoir is full. The crest should have a width of not less than
5m, and should carry a surfaced and well-drained access road. The top width

(W) of the earth dam can be selected as per the following recommendation
Where: H is the height of the dam.
Seepage through earth dam- graphical method
Seepage occurs through the body of all earthen dams and also through their pervious foundation.
The phreatic surface of the seepage regime, i.e. line within the dam section below which there is
positive hydrostatic pressures in the dam, must be kept well clear of the downstream face to
avoid high pore water pressures which may promote slope instability.
The amount of seepage can be easily computed from the flow net, which consists of two sets of
curves, known as „Equipotential line‟ and „stream lines‟, mutually perpendicular to each other.
For homogeneous embankments dam, discharge per unit width (q) of the dam passing through a
flow net is described as:

Where: H is the head differential.

Nf is number of stream lines.
Nd id number of Equipotential lines.
Determination of PhreaticLines
It is absolutely essential to determine the position of the phreatic line, as its position will enable
to determine the following:
The divide line between the dry (or moist) and submerged soil.
The top stream line and hence, helps us in drawing the flow net.
To ensure that the phreatic line doesn’t cut the downstream face of the dam, which is extremely
necessary for preventing softening of the dam.
Homogeneous dam section with horizontal filter
It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down by the filter and it is very nearly
parabolic except near its junction with u/s face. Since the u/s face of the dam (i.e. GB in Figure
5-6) becomes an equipotential line when fully covered with water, the seepage line shall be
perpendicular to the face near its junction point B.
 Figure 3.4. Seepage through homogenous dam section with horizontal filter
Equation of the base parabola
Let a base parabola with focus at F is drawn and produced so as to intersect the water surface at
a point A as shown in Figure 1-1.Taking the focus (F) as the origin, equation of the parabola
p(x, y) can be written as

Where; FD is the distance of the focus from the directrix, called focal distance and is represented
by S.

Hence the equation of the parabola of the seepage line becomes:

x 2 y 2
Location of A is approximately 0.33HB horizontal distance upstream from point B according to
Cassagrande. Where, H is the projection of the point G on the water surface.

If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A and the focus (F) is taken as
say b, then (b, H) represents the coordinates of the point A on the parabola. Andhence;

The centre point (C) of FD will then be the vertex of the parabola. When x = 0, y= S. Hence the
vertical ordinate FJ at F will be equal to S. Knowing
the points A, C, and J and working out a few more points from the equation, the parabola can be
easily drawn and corrected for the curve BI, so as to get the seepage line BIJC. The amount of
seepage can also be calculated easily from the equation of the seepage line as derived below.

Darcy‟s law is defined as, q = KiA. When steady conditions have reached, the discharge crossing
any vertical plane across the dam section (unit width) will be the same. Hence, the value i and A
can be taken for any point on the seepage line
Measures for control of seepage
The design is mostly governed by type and permeability of base materials as well as filter
materials, water depth in reservoir, topographical features of dam site, etc. The conventional
types of seepage control and drainage features generally adopted for the embankment dam are:
a) Impervious core,
b) Inclined/vertical filter with horizontal filter,
c) Network of inner longitudinal drain and cross drains,
d) Horizontal filter,
e) Transition zones/transition filters,
f) Intermediate filters,
g) Rock toe, and

The drainage system may comprise of either one or a combination of more than one of these
drainage features, and typical sections are shown for homogeneous dams, and for zoned dams
Inclined/Vertical Filter:
Inclined or vertical filter abutting downstream face of either impervious core or downstream
transition zone is provided to collect seepage emerging out of core/transition zone and thereby
keeping the downstream shell relatively dry. In the eventuality of hydraulic fracturing of the
impervious core, it prevents the failure of dam by piping.
Horizontal Filter
It collects the seepage from the inclined/vertical filter or from the body of the dam, in the
absence of inclined/vertical filter, and carries it to toe drain. It also collects seepage from the
foundation and minimizes possibility of piping along the dam seat.
Inner Longitudinal and Inner Cross Drains
When the filter material is not available in the required quantity at reasonable cost, a network of
inner longitudinal and inner cross drains is preferred to inclined/vertical filters and horizontal
filters. This type of drainage feature is generally adopted for small dams, where the quantity of
seepage to be drained away is comparatively small.
Transition Zones and Transition Filters
Transition zones/filters in earth and rockfill dams in the upstream and downstream shells are
necessary, when the specified gradation criterion is not satisfied between two adjacent zones.
When such zones/filters are placed on either side of the impervious core, they help to minimize
failure by internal piping, cracking, etc, that may develop in the core or by migration of fines
from the core material.
The filter material used for drainage system shall satisfy the following criteria:
a) Filter materials shall be more pervious than the base materials;
b) Filter materials shall be of such gradation that particles of base material do not totally migrate
through to clog the voids in filter material; and
c)Filter material should help in formation of natural graded layers in the zone of base soil
adjacent to the filter by readjustment of particles.
Horizontal Filters at Intermediate Levels
Horizontal filter layers at intermediate levels are sometimes provided in upstream and
downstream shells, to reduce pore pressures during construction and sudden drawdown
condition and also after prolonged rainfall .The filter layers should be extended upto the outer
slopes of the embankment so as to drain out the collected water. These filter layers should not be
connected with inclined or vertical filters. A minimum space of 2.0 m or more, should be kept
between the face of inclined/vertical filter and downstream intermediate filter.
Rock Toe
The principal function of the rock toe is to provide drainage. It also protects the lower part of the
downstream slope of an earth dam from tail water erosion. Rock available from compulsory
excavation may be used in construction of the rock toe. Where this is not possible and
transportation of rock is prohibitively costly, conventional pitching should be used for protecting
the downstream toe of the dam. The top level of the rock toe/pitching should be kept above the
maximum tail water level (TWL). In the reach where the ground level at the dam toe is above
the maximum tail water level, only conventional pitching should be adopted. The top of such
pitching should be kept 1.0 m above the top of horizontal filter, or stripped level, whichever is
higher. A zone of coarse filter should be introduced between the rockfill/ pitching and the fine
filter. A combination of partial rock toe and pitching may also be considered to effect economy.
Spillways
Spillway is a structure, used to pass surplus flood water from reservoir to the downstream side
of the dam. It is sometimes also known as surpluswork, as its main job is to handle the surplus
water. It is a sort of safety valve for a dam. During floods, the reservoir level goes on increasing,
as more and more water enters the reservoir.
If spillways had not been there, the level in the reservoir will go on rising even beyond the
maximum reservoir level. This may lead to over topping of the dams. Additional stresses may be
induced in the dam and this may cause failure of the dam. More rises in water level beyond the
maximum flood level will cause submergence of vast additional areas and may cause suffering
to the people living on the U/S side.
Spillways act as safety valve for the safety of the dam and also for the adjoining areas. When
water level in the reservoir reaches some specified level, the surplus water automatically starts
escaping through the spillways. As more and more flood water enters the reservoir, there is more
and more rise in water level and consequently more and more water starts escaping over the spillways.
At maximum flood level (H.F.L.) of reservoir, the outflow rate over spillways reaches the inflow
in the reservoir and thus further rise in the water level of the reservoir is stopped. The spillways
should be of sufficient capacity so as to be capable to effectively handle the largest floods,
without causing any damage to the dam or any appurtenant structure.
Spillways are also designed according to the safe capacity of the D/S channel, otherwise D/S
areas may get flooded. The design flood discharge required to be handled by the spillway can be
found by flood routing
Types of Spillways:
The spillways may be broadly classified as:
1. Emergency Spillways:
Main spillway is the spillway which is called upon to work under normal conditions of flood.
Emergency spillway is provided to deal with abnormal conditions of flood. Under normal flood
conditions, the emergency spillways are not required to work.
They may be called upon to work under following abnormal conditions:
(i) Rise is water level in the reservoir is continuing above the maximum permitted level even
when main spillway and other outlet works are working at their full capacity. This happens
when flood greater than design flood has occurred.
(ii) When, due to certain reasons, enforced shut down of the outlet works have to be applied and
flood water is entering the reservoir with full vigour.
(iii) If spillway gates have got struck down and cannot be opened immediately.
In all the above three conditions the level of reservoir may rise above the maximum
contemplated level and thus may cause failure of the dam and extra submergence on the U/
S side. In all such conditions, the emergency spillways are opened. Emergency spillways
are generally formed by lowering the crest of a dike section below that of the main
embankment.
Natural saddle, if available, is an ideal site for emergency spillway. Emergency spillways are
constructed as low height earth embankments, but before earth embankments are made the
surface of the saddle or lowered dike section is made pucca, so that when emergency spillway is
opened it is not unnecessary eroded and widened.
The crest or top of the emergency spillway is kept at or little above the designed maximum
reservoir water surface. When rising water level in the reservoir reaches the maximum high
flood level and is still rising, the emergency spillway, which is an ordinary earth fill low dam,
gets either automatically washed away or is deliberately cut.
This causes very large amount of flood water to escape, and further rise in reservoir level stops.
When flood waters are discharged D/S, and the reservoir level has dropped below the maximum
flood level, the flow through the emergency spillway stops. After this main spillways are
capable to handle the situation.
When flow through emergency spillway has stopped, it is again filled with earth embankment
and emergency spillway again restored. Since emergency spillway section either breaches itself
or is deliberately cut, it is sometimes also known as breaching section.
2. Main Spillways:
Spillways work under the designed flood conditions. Emergency spillways only help the main
spillways to save the situation created by abnormal conditions. There are several types of
spillways which may be used as main spillways.
They are as follows:
i. Overflow or ogee spillway.
ii. Free overfall or straight drop spillway.
iii. Side channel spillway.
iv. Chute spillway, which is also called trough or open channel spillway.
v. Tunnel spillway.
vi. Siphon spillway.
vii. Shaft, or drop inlet or morning glory spillway.
Design Principles of Ogee Spillway
Dynamic Force on Spillways
There is a continuous change in the velocity of water when water flows over the curved surface
of ogee spillway. The continuous change in velocity phenomenon induces change in momentum
from section to section and thus causes a force on the spillway structure. This force is known as
dynamic force.
Consider two sections A and B of water on the curved surface.
The resultant of the forces on the element of water is as follows
The forces Fh and Fv are the forces acting on free body of water. These forces include gravity
force, hydrostatic pressures and reactions of any object in contact with water.
Spillway Gates
The spillways may be uncontrolled or controlled types. Uncontrolled spillways do not require
any gate. Controlled spillways are provided with gates. Controlled spillways are considered
superior to uncontrolled ones, as better control on the reservoir level can be exercised with gates.
During low flows, additional storage can be done in the reservoir with the help of gates.
However, during high floods gates are fully lifted or opened so that the full discharging capacity
of the spillway may be used to dispose of flood water. In case of earth dams, spillways are not
provided with gates. Slackness on the part of lifting the gates may cause over-topping of the
earth dam and may lead to its failure.
Following are the various types of gates, which are commonly used
1. Flash Board:
It is a temporary arrangement which is adopted to store extra water during low flows in the
river. At large floods they are either removed or allowed to drop on D/S side if hinged at the
crest. Flash Boards are made by joining wooden planks which are fixed against the pins. The
pins are installed over the crest at suitable intervals. Flash Boards when in position may be
vertical or inclined.
2. Stop Log or Needle Gates:
In this case, piers are located at suitable intervals on the crest and stop logs which are nothing
but timber planks fixed horizontally in the grooves of the piers, one above the other. While
opening, the stop logs are removed one by one. In the case of needle gates, wooden planks are
not used horizontally but vertically.A groove is developed at the crest of the spillway.
 Bridging girder is also put parallel to the crest of the spillway. The wooden needles are fixed
with their bottom in a groove in the crest and top against the bridging girder.
3. Tainter Gates or Radial Gates:
This gate is in the form of a sector of a circle. A curved plate is used to support water. The
curved plate is given adequate support by a frame work of steel sections. The gate remains
hinged at the piers, on both the ends. This gate can thus rotate about horizontal axis. Water
pressure is ultimately transferred to the piers, through bearings fixed in piers. The tales are
generally very heavy and can be lifted or lowered with the help of power driven winches
only.
4. U.S.B.R. Drum Gates
This gate remains hinged at the top of the crest of the spillway. This gate when open i.e. when
not in position, remains swung into a ditch formed at the crest of the spillway. In open
position drum of the gate itself forms the crest of the spillway while frame work supporting
the skin plate remains in the ditch. See Fig. 14.22 dotted position. The gate remains hinged at
point A. The gates are put in closed position with the help of power driven winches only.

5. Bear Trap Gate:

This gate consists of two parts – one part slipping over the other for some length. It is mostly
used for low Navigation dams.
6. Vertical Lift Gates:
This is the gate which is in most common use in all the irrigation structures. It consists of a
Rectangular skin plate of mild steel. This plate remains supported on a frame work of I-
girders or channel sections. Grooves are constructed on the crest as well as along the inside of
piers. The gates slide, or move, vertically up end down in these grooves.
Water pressure acting on the gate is transferred to the crest and piers. In order to facilitate
lifting and lowering of the gates, rollers are fitted in the grooves. The gates are lifted with the
help of winches. Counter weights are also used to ease the lifting of the gates. Counter
weights remain suspended with one end of the ropes.

The other end of ropes being connected to the gates. If gates are very big in size, they may be
constructed in more than one part and each part moves separately. These gates may be
constructed in sizes varying form 6 m to 15 m height and 15 m width.
7. Rolling Gate
It consists of a steel cylinder as large in diameter as the height of the opening and spanning
between the piers. Each pier has an inclined rack. The gate is wound round the periphery of
the cylinder. The gate is also attached to the inclined rack with the help of toothed gears. The
gate can be rolled while opening and unrolled which is closing the gate.
8. Trash Rack
It is not a gate but a sort of permanent structure which is installed at the mouth of the
opening. Its main purpose is to prevent entrance of debris into the openings. A framed trash
rack structure of steel sections or of R.C.C. members is constructed and iron bars are put in
the openings of the frame work to prevent entrance of debris. This structure is usually
constructed at the entrances of sluice ways or penstocks etc.
9. Fish Belly Flap Gate
This gate is also known as Bascule type of gate. This is used at the top of the weir crest to
store extra storm water. The gate is fitted on the crest with the help of hinged joint. It is
operated with the help of a lever rod.
Energy Dissipaters and Stilling Basins
Significance of Jump height curve and tail water rating curve
When stream of water moving with hyper-critical velocity, meets another stream,
moving with sub-critical velocity there is abrupt rise in the water level of the stream. This abrupt
rise of water is known as hydraulic jump. Hydraulic jump is a very useful measure of dissipating
the energy of flowing water.
Flood water at the level of the crest of the spillway has potential energy proportionate to the rise
of the crest above the D/S floor of the spillway. When flood water passing over the crest of
spillway reaches the bottom of spillway on D /S side, the potential energy of water is converted
into kinetic energy, as velocity is greatly increased by the time water reaches from crest to D/ S
floor of the spillway.
This high kinetic energy may cause very deep erosions on D/S if measures to dissipate it are not
taken. There are several methods of dissipating the energy of the shooting flow of water.
The following are the most important measures
1. Formation of hydraulic jump.
2. Developing water cushion on D/S side.
3. Stilling basins with or without blocks of different sizes and shapes arranged in different
manners.
4. Bucket type energy dissipators.
Where excess energy of gliding water is to be dissipated before the flow joins the D/S main river
channel, the hydraulic jump is considered one of the most effective measures. If spillway
discharge is directly being spilled into the river on D/S side, water cushion and other measures
are considered best.
Significance of Jump Height Curve and Tail Water Rating Curve
The hydraulic jump that is formed at the stilling basin has some distinctive characteristics. The
jump assumes a definite form depending upon the energy of flow to be dissipated in relation to
the depth of flow.
The form of jump depends upon the following factors
(i) Discharge passing over the crest per metre length of the spillway (g),
(ii) Critical depth of flow (de), and

(iii) Froude number parameter which is , various elements of the jump

The depth of water jump can be computed as follows
(a) For a given discharge q per metre length of the spillway, find out the total head of water (H e)
at the crest of the spillway including head due to velocity of approach.

U/S total energy line (T.E.L.) = crest level + H e. If we consider that no loss of energy has taken
place while transition from crest to toe, the specific energy (E 1) at toe of the spillway will be
equal to the T.E.L. at U/S.
E1 = U/S T.E.L.
After having found out E1 and q the depth (d1) of water at pre-jump position can be found by
trial and error method.

Determine Froude number F1

The depth of water at post jump (d2) can be found out from following equations –

The values d2 can be plotted for various values of q and a curve known as jump height curve
(J.H.C.) is plotted as shown in Fig. 14.12 (b).
The height of the tail water for each discharge may or may not correspond to the height of
perfect jump.
A curve relating depth of tail water (D) with discharge (q) may be drawn. Such curves are
known as tail water curves (T.W.C.).
By comparing J.H.C. and T.W.C. following five conditions of jumps are possible
1. Both the curves coincide.
2. T.W.C. curve lies above the J.H.C. for all the discharges.
3. T.W.C. lies below the J.H.C. for all the discharges.
4. T.W.C. lies above for small discharges and then below at higher discharge.
5. Reverse of case 4.
Case I – Both the Curves (J.H.C. and T.W.C.) Coincide for All the Discharges
The jump will be formed at the toe of the spillway. The post jump depth will be already
available in the channel. The jump formation will be perfect for all the discharges. This
condition requires horizontal apron of length 5(d 2 – d^) beyond toe. See Figs 14.12 and 14.16
(d).

Case II – T.W.C. Curve Lies above the J.H.C. for All the Discharges
In this case the value of jump height (d 2) is less than the tail water depth. In this case jump will
be completely submerged. In this case very little energy will be dissipated. But this condition
can be made effective by reducing the depth of tail water at the point of formation of the jump.
See Figs. 14.13, 14.14, 14.15 and 14.16 (b).
The protection works in this case may be in the form of
(i) A sloping apron instead of horizontal apron. See Fig. 14.13.
(ii) Using a low level bucket which is sharply turned up. It acts as a deflector. See Fig. 14.14.
(iii) Providing end sills with baffles. In this case energy is dissipated by impact and friction. See
Fig. 14.15.

Case III – T.W.C. Lies below the J.H.C. for All the Discharges
In this case depth of tail water level is smaller than the depth of the jump for all the discharges.
The protection of the bottom can be accomplished by any of the following measures – See Fig.
14.16 (e)
(i) Provide a depressed cistern having its bed below the level of the bed level of the river. Toe of
the spillway and bed of cistern are joined by slopping glacis. See Fig. 14.17 (a).
(ii) Providing a cistern like (i) but instead of joining toe and bed of cistern by sloping glacis,
baffle walls are provided in the cistern. See Fig. 14.17 (b).
(iii) Baffles and low weir may be provided. See Fig. 14.17 (c).
(iv) Up-turned or Ski-jump bucket is formed in the spillway structure at toe. See Fig. 14.17 (d)
Case IV – T.W.C. Lies above for Small Discharges and below for Large Discharges
In this case, jump depth d2 is smaller than D for small discharges and larger for large discharges.
Thus jump will remain submerged at low discharges whereas at high discharges tail water depth
will be insufficient.
In this case a slopping apron partly below and partly above the bed level of river is constructed.
Horizontal length of the apron is sufficiently provided. If need be, end sill is also provided. In
this case jump will be formed at higher up point on the sloping apron for small discharges. At
higher discharges the jump will be carried further on D/S side. See Figs 14.16 (c) and 14.18.

Case V – T.W.C. Lies below for Small Discharges and above for Large Discharges
This case is just the reverse of case IV. Protective measure is also the same as in case IV. The
formation of jump will also be reverse in order i.e. at high up points for high discharges and at
lower points for low discharges. See Fig. 14.16 (f)
IS 4997 —1968 has given the criteria for design of hydraulic jump type stilling basins with
horizontal as well as for sloping aprons.
USBR and Indian types of stilling basins
Hydraulic jump stilling basins are type of irrigation structures which are constructed
downstream of chutes, gates and spillways to dissipate excess kinetic energy. The dimensions of
such structure depend on the jump length and the sequent depth of the jump. During the past
decades attempt have been made to reduce the size of this structures by forcing the jump to
occur using the blocks and end sills within the basin. Peterka (1978) classified the hydraulic
jump into five categories based on the upstream Froude numbers. He conducted extensive
experimental tests and introduce four types of hydraulic jump stilling basins. Type I, is a
classical hydraulic jump type stilling basin. The basin cross section is rectangular of horizontal
smooth bed.

Fig. 3.5: USBR type I stilling basin

The length of such basin is equal to 6y2 and the required tailwater depth for best occurrence of
the jump within the basin should be 1.1 y2. Where y2 is the subcritical flow depth. This type of
basin is suitable for low Froude numbers. When the Froude number is greater than 4.5, the
stilling basin of Type II or Type III is recommended. In Type II, Fig. 2, a series of chute blocks
has been considered at the upstream of the basin to guaranty the start of the jump and to
separated the incoming jet into several jets and at the end a continuous or dentate sills have been
designed to force the jump to occur within the jump and not to move downstream of the basin.
Length of Type II basin is less than the Type I and approximately is equal to 4.5 y2 and the
required tailwater depth is y2. In Type III stilling basin, Fig. 3, baffle blocks also have been
added for dispreading the incoming jet and mixing the jets into the water body of the basin.

Figure.
3.6: USBR type II stilling basin
 Figure.
3.7: USBR type III stilling basin

Figure.
3.8: USBR type IV stilling basin

This will create more turbulence and dissipate more kinetic energy results a shorter basin up to
60% compare to the Type I. Since, baffle block within the basin can protrude into the flow
which may cause cavitations problems and damaged the basin, Type III must not considered for
the places where the incoming flow jet velocity is more than 16 m sec-1. The Type IV stilling
basin (Fig. 4) developed by Peterka (1978), for the incoming Froude number ranged 2.5 to 4.5.
In type IV, the chute blocks and continues end sill have been considered. The length and sequent
depth of this basin are the same as Type I stilling basin. Similar to Type III, chute blocks, baffle
blocks and end sill have been considered in SAF basin. The length and the required tailwater
depth of flow in SAF basin is less than Type II basin. Figure 5 shows the SAF basin. In earlier
study, it is also developed a stilling basin for low Froude number(less than 4.5) using chute
blocks, wedged-shaped baffle pier and end sill (Fig. 6). This basin has the same length as SAF
basin. But the required tailwater depth is smaller than SAF basin. In an attempt to develop
economic stilling basin structures, Hughes and Flack (1984) also carried out experimental tests
on hydraulic jumps over a bed of block elements and found that, the boundary layers would
develop faster and the jump dimensions would decrease considerably. conducted experiments
on a horizontal rectangular channel bed using rough wooden blocks over a fixed length with
different densities. performed tests on turbulent open channel flow in a circular corrugated
culvert and found that the intense mixing induced by the rough bed produced significant
Reynolds shear stresses and significant reduction in the velocity field above the corrugation
performed an experimental study on hydraulic jump over a round corrugated bed. Their results
indicated that the integrated bed’s shear stress on the corrugated bed was about ten times that on
smooth beds. proposed an expression for the integrated bed’s shear stress force of a jump over a
rough bed. They applied the experimental data of block roughness height ranging from 0.32-
1.04 cm and developed relationship for shear force coefficient as function of hR/y1 where hR is
the height of rough element.

Figure. 3.9: SAF stilling basin

Figure. 3.10: Pillari’s stilling basin

Conducted hydraulic jump tests on a bed of trapezoidal-shaped corrugated roughness. Their

results indicated that the integrated shear force in rough bed is ten times that in smooth bed.
 UNIT-IV
DIVERSION HEAD WORKS

DIVERSION HEAD WORKS

The purpose of this head work is to divert river water into the off taking canal. It is located across the river near the
point of takeoff of the canal.
A diversion head work performs following functions:
a) It regulates the flow in the off taking canal.
b) Silt entrance into the canal is controlled.
c) It raises the level of water in the river. This causes diversion of the river water into the off taking canal, under
gravity flow.
d) By raising the level of water in the river with the help of diversion work, and consequently raising the off-take
level of the canal, more area maybe brought into the command of the proposed canal system.
e) Level of water in the rivers remains fluctuating due to changing flow. Diversion works reduce such fluctuations
in river water level.
f) Although the purpose of diversion head work is not to store water but still some water definitely gets stored.
This stored water can be used to augment the short supplies of the river. This type of augmentation is possible
for few days only, because stored water is not much in amount.

Types of Diversion Head Works

Diversion works can be classified under following two heads:
a) Temporary bunds or spurs.
b) Permanent weirs and barrages.
Temporary bunds or spurs are temporary works, which have to be constructed every year after floods. These bunds
cannot sustain the assault of floods and get washed away. Immediately after floods they are again constructed.
Temporary bunds can be constructed on small streams only. Such works are generally carried out by the nearby
villagers jointly, so as to make arrangements for irrigation for their fields for lean months of flow.
Such temporary spurs or bunds can be economically constructed in boulder reaches of the river. However, for
important diversion works permanent weirs and barrages have to be designed and constructed.
Weir
Weir is a solid obstruction, constructed across the river. It is used to raise the water level in the river and
then divert it into the canal. The weirs can also be used to store surplus flood water, to tide over the shortages likely
to occur during lean months. In such a case, the weir is known as storage weir.
The main difference between storage weir and dam, is only is regard to the height and duration of storage. Dams
store large amounts of water and for longer durations than storage weirs. One more difference is that water in the
reservoir never overtops the dam, but in case of weirs the water can flow over the weir crest. In case of dams the
surplus flood water is disposed off D/ S through spillways.
Barrage
A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a number of large gates that can be opened
or closed to control the amount of water passing through. This allows the structure to regulate and stabilize river
water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.
Functions of barrage are the same as those of weirs; the only difference being in mode of heading up of water. The
weirs cause heading up of water by obstructing the flow by themselves, but in case of barrages water is headed up
with the help of gates. In case of weirs the high flood water passes over the crest but in case of barrages, gates are
lifted up and flood water passed D/S.
In case of barrage, crest level is maintained at low water level which is almost in level with bed level of the river.
Because gates can be lifted for passing the flood water and shut down for storing water, control on the water level
in the river is better exercised with the help of barrage. However barrages are much more costlier than the weirs. A

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road bridge is generally constructed over the barrage, with a little additional cost. Hence a barrage may be used to
act as bridge also.

Layout and components of diversion head works

Layout of a diversion head works. And give the location of diversion head
works.
A typical layout of a diversion head work is shown in Fig. 15.1.
Following is the list of component parts of a diversion head works:
1. Weir or barrage.
2. Scouring sluices or under sluices.
3. Divide wall.
4. Fish ladder.
5. Log chutes.
6. Canal head regulator.
7. River training works.
8. Silt control devices

Out of all these component parts river training works include lot of other elements also. Before we take up
description and design of all these component parts of a diversion head works, let us first of all discuss location of
head works.
Location of Diversion Head Works
The total length of the river may be divided into following four stages
1. Mountainous Stage
The first length of the river originating from hills is known as mountainous stage of the river. The longitudinal
slope in this stage is very steep and velocity of flow of water, very fast. The width of the river in this region is
generally very small.
This region is found most suitable for the construction of storage works like high dams. Large storages are possible
as very deep valleys are easily available here. Moreover the length of the dam is also relatively small. Materials of
construction are locally available. This stage is however not suitable for diversion works.
2. Sub-Mountainous Stage
The bed and banks of the river in this stage are made of gravel. The velocity of flow is considerable though smaller
than first stage. The river water contains lot of silt load. The river generally does not flow in a single channel, but is
form of small several channels. Longitudinal slope is less than first stage but still considerable. Diversion works can
be located in this region of the river.
3. Alluvial or Trough Stage
This length of the river is in plains. The section of the river is made of alluvial soils or silt. The longitudinal slope
of the river is small and velocity of flow moderate.

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 This length of the river is the largest of all other lengths. Diversion works are mostly located in this length. The area
to be irrigated lies very near to this length and thus reduces the overall length of the canal network.
4. Delta Stage
This is the last length of the river before it falls into the sea. This length of river is only a few kilometres long. Here
velocity of flow is very small and silting rate very high. Because of high rate of silting, the rivers frequently change
their course. No diversion work is constructed in this region. Secondly available command area near this region is
also small.
Canals cannot be taken from mountainous stage, as lot of cuttings and fillings are involved and thus canal
construction becomes very costly. Lot of falls will have to be constructed adding still more to the cost.
Barrage is a gate-controlled weir with its crest at a lower level. The ponding up of river for diversion of water into
the off taking canal is achieved by means of gates (instead of shutters). Barrage and weir are similar structures, and
differ only in a qualitative sense.
Barrages are considered better than weirs due to the following reasons:
a) Because of the lower crest level of a barrage, the afflux during floods is small.
b) Barrages offer better control on the river outflow and the canal discharge.
c) A roadway across the river can be easily provided at a small additional cost.
I. Weirs or barrages
It can be either masonry weirs (with vertical upstream face) or rock-fill weirs (with sloping apron) or concrete weirs
with glacis. On pervious foundations only concrete weirs (Fig. 10.2) are constructed.

s
II. Scouring Sluices (or Under Sluices)
The construction of a weir (or barrage) across a river result in ponding of water, and causes considerable sediment
deposition just upstream of the canal head regulator. This sediment must be flushed downstream of the weir.
This is done by means of scouring sluices (also known as under sluices) which are gate-controlled openings in
continuation of the weir with their crest at a level lower than the level of the weir crest and are located on the same
side as the off taking canal.
In case of two off taking canals, one on each of the two banks of the river, scouring sluices are provided at both
ends of the weir (Fig. 10.1). The scouring sluices are also useful for passing low floods, after meeting the
requirements of the off taking canal, without having to drop the weir shutters raising of which is a cumbersome
task.
III. Divide Wall
The divide wall is constructed parallel (or nearly parallel) to the canal head regulator for separating the main weir
base from the base of scouring sluice. As shown in Fig. 10.1, the wall extends on both sides of the weir. The divide
wall separates the weir floor from the floor of the scouring sluices which is usually at a lower level than the weir
floor.
The divide wall also isolates the canal head regulator from the main river flow, and creates a still pond of water in
front of the canal head regulator. This results in relatively sediment- free water entering into the off taking canal.
The divide wall also improves scouring of the deposited sediment in the under-sluices by ensuring straight
approach.
IV. Fish Ladder
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 Different kinds of fish in a river migrate from upstream to downstream in the beginning of the winter in search of
warmth, and return upstream before the monsoon for sediment-free clear water.
While constructing a weir across a river, a narrow opening between the divide wall and the scouring sluices (where
water is always present) is provided to- allow for free movement of fish. This opening is called fish ladder or fish
way or fish pass (Fig. 10.3) in which baffles or staggering devices are provided so as to keep flow velocity in fish
ladder less than 3.0 m/s so that fish can easily travel upstream

.
V. Canal Head Regulator
A canal head regulator (Fig. 10.4) regulates the discharge into the off taking canal and also controls the entry of
sediment into the canal. The head regulator is usually aligned at an angle of 90° to 110° to the barrage axis to
minimize entry of sediment into the off taking canal, and prevents backflow and stagnation zones in the under-
sluice pocket upstream of the regulator. The discharge through the regulator is controlled by steel gates which are
generally of 6 to 8 m width.

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The pond level in the under-sluice pocket, i.e., just upstream of the canal head regulator is obtained by adding the
working head of about 1 to 1.2 m to the designed full supply level of the off taking canal. The crest of the head
regulator should be higher than the sill of the scouring sluices to prevent entry of sediment into the canal.
The crest level is obtained by subtracting from the pond level, the head over the crest required to pass the full
supply discharge in the canal at the specified pond level. Provision of sediment excluder in the under-sluice pocket
will also affect the crest level of the head regulator.
The width of waterway in the canal head regulator should be such that the canal can be fed its full supply with
about 50% of the working head provided. If this width of waterway is more than bed width of the canal, a
converging transition is provided downstream of the regulator to attain the required canal width.
Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures
 Causes and failures of weirs and barrages on permeable foundation
Causes of Failure of weir or barrage on permeable foundation.By uplift Pressure: The percolating water exerts an
upward pressure on the foundation of the weir or barrage. This hydraulic jump causes a suction pressure or
negative pressure on the downstream side which acts in the direction of uplift pressure.

1. Failure due to Subsurface Flow

a) Failure by Piping or undermining
The water from the upstream side continuously percolates through the bottom of the foundation and emerges at
the downstream end of the weir or barrage floor. The force of percolating water removes the soil particles by
scouring at the point of emergence. As the process of removal of soil particles goes on continuously, a
depression is formed which extends backwards towards the upstream through the bottom of the foundation. A
hollow pipe like formation thus develops under the foundation due to which the weir or barrage may fail by
subsiding. This phenomenon is known as failure by piping or undermining.
b) Failure by Direct uplift
The percolating water exerts an upward pressure on the foundation of the weir or barrage. If this uplift pressure
is not counterbalanced by the self weight of the structure, it may fail by rapture.
2. Failure by Surface Flow
a) By hydraulic jump
b) When the water flows with a very high velocity over the crest of the weir or over the gates of the barrage, then
hydraulic jump develops. This hydraulic jump causes a suction pressure or negative pressure on the downstream
side which acts in the direction uplift pressure. If the thickness of the impervious floor is sufficient, then the
structure fails by rapture.
c) By scouring:
During floods, the gates of the barrage are kept open and the water flows with high velocity. The water may also
flow with very high velocity over the crest of the weir. Both the cases can result in scouring effect on the
downstream and on the upstream side of the structure. Due to scouring of the soil on both sides of the structure,
its stability gets endangered by shearing.

Here we detail about the eighteen important design principles for weirs on permeable foundation.
I. To counteract uplift pressure it is necessary to provide suitable thickness of the floor at different points.
II. The exit gradient can be kept within permissible limit by providing suitable depth of the sheet pile at
downstream end of the floor.
III. Since the scour holes can occur on the upstream or the downstream side of the weir sheet piles are essentially
required at u/s as well as d/s end of the floor to prevent failure of the weir by slipping of the subsoil into the
scour holes by simple earth pressures. In other words u/s and d/s sheet piles prevent failure of weir due to
undermining of the foundation.
IV. The pressures under the downstream floor increase as the depth of the d/s sheet pile increases. The u/s pile line
has little effect in reducing these pressures as the spacing between the two is generally more.
V. The intermediate sheet pile neither prevents undermining nor does it alter pressure distribution substantially to
reduce uplift pressure under d/s floor. The main purpose of providing intermediate sheet pile is to create second
line of defense in case of failure of either u/s or d/s sheet piles.
VI. Generally the sheet piles are taken down up to the depth of normal flood scours. The depth of scour (R) is given
by Lacey formula. It is measured below maximum flood level.
VII. The depth of d/s sheet pile is determined in such a way that in addition to its depth reaching normal flood scour
depth for that section of the work it gives safe exit gradient in conjunction with a suitable length of the floor.
VIII. Commonly adopted practice in respect of intermediate pile is to provide a single and deep intermediate sheet
pile under the crest of the weir. It is, however, not obligatory. More than one intermediate sheet piles can also
be provided say one u/s of the crest and the other d/s of the crest under the toes of the glacis.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 IX. The level of the d/s floor is so fixed that the hydraulic jump even under worst conditions occurs on the sloping
glacis itself. The depth of sheet pile will obviously be the depth below the top of the d/s floor to the bottom of
the normal scour hole given by Lacey formula.
X. The slopes between 1 in 3 to 1 in 5 for the glacis are considered to be suitable for achieving economy as well as
maximum dissipation of energy.
XI. The disturbance of a standing wave dies out at a distance of about 5 times height of the jump. Therefore the
length of the downstream horizontal impervious floor should be at least 5 times the height of the hydraulic
jump.
XII. The thickness of the floor calculated to counteract uplift pressures is adequate only when the entire thickness of
the impervious floor is considered as one solid mass. If the floor is laid in layers and if they separate full
pressure can be transmitted through cracks. It is obvious that the floor will not be safe in such a situation.
Hence, it is essential that the floor is laid as one solid mass in a single layer. Alternatively steel reinforcement
can be used to tie the layers of the floor to make them inseparable.
XIII. The abutments and the wing walls, as usual for any hydraulic structure, are designed considering pressure due
to dry soil, pressure due to saturated soil and hydraulic pressure acting in conjunction with saturated soil
pressure.
XIV. The foundations of abutments and flank walls between any pair of pile lines should go down to the level of the
bottom of those pile lines. Similarly, the foundations of the u/s and d/s return walls of the flank should go down
to the levels of the bottom of corresponding pile line. Also the return walls should be taken back into the bank
equal to twice the depth of the corresponding sheet pile below the floor level.
XV. At the upstream end of the impervious floor further protection by concrete blocks over loose stone for a length
equal to the depth of scour below the bed of the river is generally given. It is generally 1.2 m thick and concrete
blocks over 60 cm deep graded stones.
XVI. On the downstream, after the impervious floor an inverted filter varying in length from 1 5 to 2 times the depth
of scour below the river bed is provided. The inverted filter is generally 60 cm thick and is to be protected by 1
m to 1.2 m deep concrete blocks.
XVII. The upstream and downstream bed protection is flexible and it tries to adjust to slight subsidence. The
protection is, however, meant to be immovable and not intended to cover the scoured face in the same way as is
done by launching aprons. This loose protection, therefore, needs constant maintenance.
XVIII. Upstream and downstream of the weir/barrage provision of guide banks are essential to direct the flow through
the waterway.

Sediment Excluder (or Silt Excluder)

Sediment entering into an off taking canal, if excessive, causes silting and thus reduces canal capacity. As
such, it is necessary to control the amount of sediment entering into the off taking canal. This is done by
constructing a sediment excluder in the river bed immediately upstream of the canal head regulator.

Tunnel-type sediment excluder (Fig. 10.5) prevents the bottom layers of water, which have maximum sediment
concentration, from entering the off taking canal and allows only the top layers of the stream, containing relatively
less sediment, to enter the off taking canal.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 Sediment Ejector (or Silt Ejector)
Sediment ejector, Fig. 10.6, is constructed in the off taking canal (downstream of the head regulator) to eject
the sediment that has entered the canal. Sediment ejectors eject the near-bed water layers having the largest
sediment concentration from the canal at a suitable location downstream of the head regulator.

The main components of an ejector include a diaphragm, tunnels, control structure and an outfall channel. The
lower side of the upstream end of the diaphragm is bell-mouthed.
The ejector spans the entire width of canal, and is divided into a number of main tunnels which, in turn, are
subdivided with turning vanes which gradually converge so as to accelerate the escaping flow. The outflow from
the ejector is led to a natural drainage through an outfall channel which is designed to have a self-cleansing
velocity.

Weirs on Permeable Foundations

Bligh's Creep Theory: According to Bligh's Theory, the percolating water follows the outline of the base of the
foundation of the hydraulic structure. ... Further, it is assumed in this theory, that the loss of head is proportional to
the length of the creep.
Concept of the Theory:
Bligh assumed that the water which percolates into the foundation creeps through the joint between the profile of
the base of weir and the subsoil. Of course water also percolates into the subsoil. He then stated that this percolating
water loses its head en-route. The seeping water finally comes out at the downstream end. According to Bligh water
travels along vertical, horizontal or inclined path without making any distinction.
The total length covered by the percolating water till it emerges out at the downstream end is called a creep length.
It is clear from the knowledge of hydraulics that the head of water lost in the path of percolation is the difference of
water levels on the upstream and the downstream ends. Also, an imaginary line which joins the water levels on the
upstream and the downstream end is called a hydraulic gradient line.
Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets

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Many of the important hydraulic structures, such as weirs and barrage, were designed on the basis of Bligh’s theory
between the periods 1910 to 1925. In 1926 – 27, the upper Chenab canal siphons, designed on Bligh’s theory,
started posing undermining troubles. Investigations started, which ultimately lead to Khosla’s theory.
The main principles of this theory are summarized below:
The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca flood as started by Bligh, buton the other
hand, this water moves along a set of stream-lines. This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a homogeneous soil
can be expressed by Laplacian equation:

Where, φ = Flow potential = Kh; K = the co-efficient of permeability of soil as defined by

Darcy’s law, and h is the residual head at any point within the soil.

The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally.

Stream Lines
The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows through the sub-soil. Every particle
entering the soil at a given point upstream of the work, will trace out its own path and will represent a streamline.
The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is the same as Bligh’s path of creep. The
remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting slowly from the outlineof the foundation to a semi-ellipse,
as shown below.

Equipotential Lines
(1) Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the downstream side, it can be easily started
that every streamline possesses a head equal to h1 while entering the soil; and when it emerges at the down-stream
end into the atmosphere, its head is zero. Thus, the headh1 is entirely lost during the passage of water along the
streamlines. Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is certain residual head (h) still to be dissipated in
the remaining length to be traversed to the downstream end. This fact is applicable to every streamline, and hence,
there will be points on different streamlines having the same value of residual head h. If suchpoints are joined
together, the curve obtained is called an equipotential line.
Every water particle on line AB is having a residual head h = h1, and on CD is having a residual head h = 0, and
hence, AB and CD are equipotential lines.
Since an equipotential line represent the joining of points of equal residual head, hence if piezometers were
installed on an equipotential line, the water will rise in all of them up to the same level as shown in figure below.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 Design of uplift pressure on permeable foundations
The uplift pressures obtained by the analytical expressions or graphical methods need to be corrected for the
following more realistic conditions: • Floor raft with sheet piles at either end actually has a floor thickness that
cannot be considered as negligible compared to the sheet pile depths. A floor raft may have sheet piles both at the
upstream as well as the downstream ends, which might interfere one with the other. • The floor of a modern barrage
is not horizontal throughout. Some formulas have, therefore, been suggested for incorporating the necessary
corrections which are expressed as follows: Correction for floor thickness Figure 8 illustrates the correction to the
evaluated values at key points E and C that is applied considering a floor thickness.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

The corrections will have to be taken positive for down slopes and negative for upslopes taken in the direction of
flow. The corrections are applicable to the key points of the pile line fixed at the beginning or the end of the slope,
for example the pile line 2 at its end E for the floor and sheet-pile
Various Correction Factors
Correction for slope of the floor The correction coefficient for taking care of inclined floor. The correction
coefficients may also be read from the following table

Slope(V:H
percent of Pressure
)
1:1 11.2
1:2 6.5
1:3 4.5
1:4 3.3
1:5 2.8
1:6 2.5
1:7 2.3
1:8 2.0

Design principles of weirs on permeable foundations using creep theories

Critical Exit Gradient
This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force on the grain is just equal to the
submerged weight of the grain at the exit. When a factor of safety equal to 4 to 5 is used, the exit gradient can then
be taken as safe. In other words, an exit gradient equal to ¼ to 1/5 of the critical exit gradient is ensured, so as to
keep the structure safe against piping.
The submerged weight (Ws) of a unit volume of soil is given as:
γw (1 – n) (Ss – 1)
Where, w = unit weight of water.
Ss = Specific gravity of soil particles
n = Porosity of the soil mat
For critical conditions to occur at the exit point
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 F = Ws

Upstream and Downstream Sheet Piles

Central Board of Irrigation and Power titled “Design of weirs on permeable foundations”. Of course, the
soil confined below a barrage conforms to a complex shape and is not readily amenable to solution using analytical
formulae but still the following simple profiles have been found to be very useful for approximately arriving at the
subsurface pressures of a barrage or canal head regulator floor.

A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either end .
A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with an intermediate sheet pile.
A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but with no sheet pile.
The solution for these simple profiles has been obtained in terms of the pressure head ratio (or percentage) at key
points.These key points are the junction points of the sheet pile with floor in case of floors of negligible thickness
and at the corners of the base at the upstream and downstream end in case of depressed floor. The analytical
expressions of each of the above cases are given as under:
For sheet piles at either upstream end or the downstream end.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

The uplift pressures obtained by the analytical expressions or graphical methods need to be corrected for the
following more realistic conditions:
 Floor raft with sheet piles at either end actually has a floor thickness that cannot be considered as negligible
compared to the sheet pile depths.
 A floor raft may have sheet piles both at the upstream as well as the downstream ends, which might interfere
one with the other.
 The floor of a modern barrage is not horizontal throughout.

Launching apron
Launching apron is provided for the main structure both on the upstream and downstream it has to
be provided for guide bunds also in the bed in continuation of the pitching. The different aspects to be looked into
are the size of the stones, depth of scour, thickness, slope of launched apron, shape and size of launching apron. The
required size of stone for the apron can be obtained from the curves. In case of non-availability of required size of
stones, cement concrete blocks or stone sausages, prepared with 4 mm GI wire in double knots and closely knit and
securely tied, may be used. The scour depths to be adopted in the calculations for the launching apron would be
different along the length of the guide bund from upstream to downstream, as given in the following table. The
value of R that is the normal depth of scour below High Flood Level may be determined according to Lacey’s scour
relations.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

1. A launching apron is to be designed at downstream of a weir for discharge intensity of 6.5m 3/s/m. For the
design of launching aprons the scour depth is taken two times of Lacey scour depth .The slit factor of the bed
material is unity .If the tail water depth is 4.4m,the length of launching apron in the launched position is
Solution:
Discharge d = 6.5m3/sec/m
Normal scour depth = RL = 1.35[d2/f] = 1.35 [6.521] = 4.70m
Maximum scour depth from H.F.L = 2xRL =2x4.7 = 9.4
∴ 9.4 = 4.4+d
d=5.0 m
Therefore Length of launching apron 1 x d to 1.5 d =5 to 7.5 m
Take Least length = 5 m

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 UNIT – V
Canal Falls

Irrigation canals are constructed with some permissible bed slopes so that there is no silting or scouring in the canal
bed. But it is not always possible to run the canal at the desired bed slope throughout the alignment due to the
fluctuating nature of the country slope.

Generally, the slope of the natural ground surface is not uniform throughout the alignment. Sometimes, the ground
surface may be steep and sometimes it may be very irregular with abrupt change of grade. In such cases, a vertical
drop is provided to step down the canal bed and then it is continued with permissible slope until another step down
is necessary. This is done to avoid unnecessary huge earth work in filling. Such vertical drops are known as canal
falls or simply falls.

Necessity / Importance of Canal Falls:

When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, the permissible bed slope can not be maintained. It
requires excessive earthwork in filling to maintain the slope. In such a case falls are provided to avoid excessive
earth work in filling When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater than the
permissible bed slope of canal. In that case also the canal falls are necessary. In cross-drainage works, when the
difference between bed level of canal and that of drainage is small or when the F.S.L of the canal is above the bed
level of drainage then the canal fall is necessary to carry the canal water below the stream or drainage.

Types of Canal Falls - Classification of falls and their location

The following are the different types of canal falls that may be adopted according to the site condition:

Ogee fall
In this type of fall, an ogee curve (a combination of convex curve and concave curve) is provided for carrying the
canal water from higher level to lower level. This fall is recommended when the natural ground surface suddenly
changes to a steeper slope along the alignment of the canal.

 The fall consists of a concrete vertical wall and concrete bed.

 Over the concrete bed the rubble masonry is provided in the shape of ogee curve.
 The surface of the masonry is finished with rich cement mortar (1:3).
 The upstream and downstream side of the fall is protected by stone pitching with cement grouting.
 The design consideration of the ogee fall depends on the site condition.
Rapid fall
 The rapid fall is suitable when the slope of the natural ground surface is even and long. It consists of a long
Curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side of the sloping glacis.
 The sloping bed is provided with rubble masonry.
 The upstream and downstream side of the fall is also protected by rubble masonry.
 The masonry surface is finished with rich cement mortar (1: 3).
Stepped fall
Stepped fall consists of a series of vertical drops in the form of steps. This fall is suitable in places where the
sloping ground is very long and requires long glacis to connect the higher bed level with lower bed level.
This fall is practically a modification of the rapid fall.
 The sloping glacis is divided into a number of drops so that the flowing water may not cause any damage to
the canal bed. Brick walls are provided at each of the drops.
 The bed of the canal within the fall is protected by rubble masonry with surface finishing by rich cement
mortar (1:3).

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 Trapezoidal Notch Fall
In this type of fall a body wall is constructed across the canal. The body wall consists of several trapezoidal notches
between the side piers and the intermediate pier or piers. The sills of the notches are kept at the upstream bed level
of the canal.

The body wall is constructed with masonry or concrete.

An impervious floor is provided to resist the scoring effect of the falling water.
 The upstream and downstream side of the fall is protected by stone pitching finished by cement grouting.
 The size and number of notches depends upon the full supply discharge of the canal.

Design Principles of Notch Fall and Sarada Type

This type of fall was designed and developed for Sarda Canal System of U.P. In that area, thin veneer of
sandy-clay overlies a stratum of pure sand. Hence, the main requirement was
toprovideanumberoffallswithsmalldrops,sothatthedepthofcuttingiskeptaminimum.
Thisfallhas,therefore,beenconstructedfordropsvaryingfrom0.9to1.8m(3to6ft.)Inthe earlier designs, the cistern
was not depressed below the d/s floor and the d/s wings were not flared. This resulted in the erosion of banks
to the d/s of the work. Extensive model experiments were then conducted at the Bahadrabad Research Station
and some recommendations were made. The complete design consists of the following component parts:
 Crest,
 Cistern,
 Imperviousfloor,
 D/sprotection,and
 U/sapproach

1. Design ofcrest
Length of crest: The length of the crest is kept equal to the bed width of the canal, andno
flumingisdoneinthistypeoffall.Sometimes,however,thelengthofthecrestiskeptequal to the bed width ofcanal
plus the water depth, to take into account the anticipated increase in discharge at a future date.

a) Shape of the crest and discharge formula: Two types of crests are used. The rectangular crest is used
for discharges upto14 m3/s (500 cusecs) and trapezoidal crest is usedfor discharges over 14m3/s.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

The thickness of the impervious floor is determined based on the uplift pressure. However, a minimum
thickness of 0.3 m to 0.4 m is provided for the floor to the u/s of the crest. For the floor to the d/s of the crest,
the actual thickness depends upon the uplift pressures subject to a minimum of 0.3 to 0.4 m for small falls and
0.4 to 0.6 for large falls. Thecisternandthed/simperviousfloorshouldhaveatopliningofbrickonedge,inlimeor
cementmortar,sothatfloorcanberepairedasandwhenneeded.Averticalcutoffof1to1.5
mor(0.6+D2/2)mdepthisalwaysprovidedtothed/softheimperviousfloorand(0.6+D1/3)
mdepthmayalsobeprovidedattheu/softheimperviousfloor.
1. D/Sprotection
The d/s protection consists of (i) bed protection, (ii) side protection, and (iii) d/s wings.
a) Bedprotection:Thebedprotectionconsistsofdrybrickpitchingabout20cmthickresting on 10 cm ballast.
Table gives the length of the pitching and the number of curtain walls (cutoffs) to beprovided
Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures
 b) Side protection: Side pitching, consisting of one brick on edge, is provided after the warped wings. The
side pitching is curtailed at any angle of 45° from the end pitching in
plan.Generally,warpingofmasonrywingsisdonefromverticaltoslopeof1:1.Hence,the
sidepitchingiswarpedfromaslopeof1:1to1½:1.Thepitchingissupportedonatoewall
1½brickthickandofdepthequaltohalfthed/swaterdepth.

Canal regulation works

These include the cross regulator and the distributary head regulator structures for controlling the flow through a
parent canal and its off-taking distributary. They also help to maintain the water level in the canal on the upstream
of the regulator. Canal regulators, which are gated structures, may be combined with bridges and falls for economic
and other considerations, like topography, etc.
Head Regulator (H.R.)
It is a masonry or concrete structure, constructed at the head of off-taking channel. Its main function is to admit, the
regulated supplies of water in the off-taking channel.

Cross Regulator (CR)

It is a masonry or concrete structure, constructed across the parent channel just Down stream of the head-regulator
of the off- taking canal. Its main function is to raise the water level the parent channel, to such a level that requisite
supplies the off-taking canal may be diverted through the head regulator.

Both H.R. and C.R. cannot be used alone. They have to be used together. One exercises control over the off-taking
canal and other over parent canal.

Main functions of H.R. and C.R. have been enumerated as follows

Functions of H.Rs
1. They exercise control over the supplies to be admitted into the off-taking canals.
2. They act as metre for measuring discharge entering the off-taking channel.

Main functions of H.R. and C.R. have been enumerated as follows

Functions of H.Rs
1. They exercise control over the supplies to be admitted into the off-taking canals.
2. They act as metre for measuring discharge entering the off-taking channel.

Functions of Cross Regulator (CR):

1. Effective regulation of the canal system is impossible without cross- regulator.

2. During low discharges parent channel, the cross regulator may be partly closed and thus water level on U/S
side raised which can be diverted to run off taking canal full. Off-taking canals can be run rotation.

In case of the siphon Aqueduct, the HFL of the drain is much higher above the canal bed, and water runs under
siphon action through the Aqueduct barrels. The drain bed is generally depressed and provided with pucci floors, on
the upstream side, the drainage bed may be joined to the pucca floor either by a vertical drop or by glacis of 3:1.
The downstream rising slope should not be steeper than 5:1. When the canal is passed over the drain, the canal
remains open for inspection throughout and the damage caused by flood is rare. However during heavy floods, the
foundations are susceptible to scour or the waterway of drain may get choked due to debris, tress etc. The structures
that fall under this type are:
Super passage Canal siphon or called siphon only Super passage.
The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is passing over the irrigation canal is known as super passage. This
Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures
structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the flood surface level of the canal. The water of the
canal passes clearly below the drainage. A super passage is similar to an aqueduct, except in this case the drain is
over the canal. The FSL of the canal is lower than the underside of the trough carrying drainage water. Thus, the
canal water runs under the gravity.

Reverse of an aqueduct Canal Siphon:

If two canals cross each other and one of the canals is siphoned under the other, then the hydraulic structure at
crossing is called “canal siphon”. For example, lower Jhelum canal is siphoned under the Rasul-Qadirabad (Punjab,
Pakistan) link canal and the crossing structure is called “L.J.Csiphon” In case of siphon the FSL of the canal is
much above the bed level of the drainage trough, so that the canal runs under the siphonic action.
The canal bed is lowered and a ramp is provided at the exit so that the trouble of silting isminimized.Reverse of an
aqueduct siphon
In the above two types, the inspection road cannot be provided along the canal and a separate bridge is required for
roadway. For economy, the canal may be flumed but the drainage trough is never flumed.

Selection of suitable site for cross drainage works

The factors which affect the selection of suitable type of cross drainage works are:
Relative bed levels and water levels of canal and drainage
Size of the canal and drainage.
The following considerations are important
When the bed level of the canal is much above the HFL of the drainage, an aqueduct is the obvious choice.
When the bed level of the drain is well above FSL of canal, super passage is provided.
The necessary headway between the canal bed level and the drainage HFL can be increased by shifting the crossing
to the downstream of drainage. If, however, it is not possible to change the canal alignment, a siphon aqueduct may
be provided.
When canal bed level is much lower, but the FSL of canal is higher than the bed level of drainage, a canal siphon is
preferred.
When the drainage and canal cross each other practically at same level, a level crossing may be preferred. This type
of work is avoided as far as possible.

The Considerations for selection of suitable site for cross drainage works The factors which affect the selection of
suitable type of cross drainage worksare:
Relative bed levels and water levels of canal anddrainageSize of the canal and drainage.
The following considerations are important: when the bed level of the canal is much above the HFL of the
drainage,an aqueduct is the obvious choice.
 When the bed level of the drain is well above FSL of canal, super passage is provided.
 The necessary headway between the canal bed level and the drainage HFL can be increased by shifting the
crossing to the downstream of drainage. If, however, it is not possible to change the canal alignment, a siphon
aqueduct may be provided.
 When canal bed level is much lower, but the FSL of canal is higher than the bed level of drainage, a canal
siphon is preferred.
 When the drainage and canal cross each other practically at same level, a level crossing may be preferred. This
type of work is avoided as far aspossible.
The considerations which govern the choice between aqueduct and siphon aqueduct are:
1. Suitable canal alignment
2. Suitable soil available for bank connections
3. Nature of available foundations
4. Permissible head loss in canal
5. Availability offends

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

Compared to an aqueduct a super passage is inferior and should be avoided whenever possible. Siphon aqueduct is
preferred over siphon unless large drop in drainage bed is required.
Depending upon the nature of the sides of the aqueduct or siphon aqueduct it may be classified under three
headings:
Type I
Sides of the aqueduct in earthen banks with complete earthen slopes. The length of culvert should be sufficient to
accommodate both, water section of canal, as well as earthen banks of canal with aqueduct slope.
Sides of the aqueduct in earthen banks, with other slopes supported by masonry wall. In this case, canal continues
in its earthen section over the drainage but the outer slopes of the canal banks are replaced by retaining wall,
reducing the length of drainage culvert.
Type II
Sides of the aqueduct made of concrete or masonry. Its earthen section of the canal is discontinued and canal water
is carried in masonry or concrete trough, canal is generally flumed in this section.

Principles of design of distributor and head regulator

I. Crest level of the cross regulator should generally be kept in level with the upstream bed level of the canal.
Some times from economic considerations the canal section is flumed at the regulator site to reduce width of
the concrete floor. In such cases the crest may be raised little above the bed level. A sloping glacis and a
cistern in such a situation is necessary on the downstream side of the crest.
II. Crest level of a distributary head regulator is generally kept 0.3 to 1.0 m higher than the bed level of the
parent channel (or crest of cross regulator). A sloping glacis with 1 in 2 slope is provided on the
downstream to connect the downstream floor.
III. The waterway required in case of cross regulators and distributary head regulators is obtained from a
hydraulic formula used for determining the discharge over a submerged or a drowned weir because water
level on either side of the crest is above the crest level. Since the velocity of approach is generally small,
neglecting the head due to velocity of approach the formula applicable will be

In the above equation first part gives the discharge through the free portion and the second part gives discharge
through submerged portion which is similar to discharge through submerged orifice.
In the above equation
Q = discharge over crest in cumec
L = length of waterway in m
H1 = depth of water over crest in the u/s in
H2 = depth of water over crest in the d/s in m
h = difference in water level (H1 – H2) causing the flow in m
(It is also = u/s FSL – d/s FSL)
Cd1 = 0.577 and is a constant, and
Cd2 = 0.80 and is another constant
IV. Regulation of discharge is done by providing gates. Depending upon the height of shutters and convenience
of working they may be provided in one length or in two tiers.
V. A downstream sloping glacis where required can be given 2:1 (Horizontal: Vertical) slope. In this case also
glacis is provided upto such level that under extreme condition the hydraulic jump occurs before the toe of
slope. This is the level at which d/s horizontal impervious floor is laid.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

Where the above relation gives value of downstream floor level more than the bed level of the canal, the d/s floor
level may be taken to be equal to the bed level there
VI. The impervious horizontal floor or cistern length beyond d/s sloping glacis may be taken to be 5 times the
height of the jump i.e., 5 (D2-D1). It however, should not be less than 60% of the total impervious floor
length.
VII. Since uplift pressures and piping are important considerations in these structures also suitable cut-offs on
the upstream and downstream should be provided.
As a rule of thumb following depths for cut-off may be sufficient

VIII. Knowing the depth of downstream cut-off total length of impervious floor can be obtained from the
knowledge of the safe hydraulic gradient and the head causing seepage

Knowing values of safe hydraulic gradient G E, maximum static head causing seepage flow H, and depth of
d/s cut-off d value of 1/π√λ can be calculated. Using Khosla’s curve for hydraulic gradient value of α(=b/d)
for known value of 1/π√λ can be read.
Thus, total length of impervious floor can be calculated.
IX. The thickness of impervious floor should be sufficient to withstand uplift pressures. From considerations of
construction facility a minimum thickness of the floor ranging from 0.3 to 0.5 m is, however, considered
essential.
X. When the regulator is closed the water pressure on the u/s face acts on the piers. The piers should be strong
enough to withstand this pressure.
XI. On the piers from the considerations of economy as well as working facility a bridge should be provided to
allow working space for operating gates and to allow passage of traffic.
XII. Beyond the impervious floor on the u/s and d/s, c.c. block protection over stone pitching and inverted filter
should be provided to prevent scouring of bed. It should be maintained by frequent repairs to its shape. The
length of u/s and d/s protection may be taken equal to the depth of corresponding cut-offs which are
supposed to reach bottom of the scour hole. A thickness of 1 m is considered sufficient m most cases for
this flexible protection. Figure 19.7 shows a typical section of a distributaries head regulator.

Canal Outlet
In a canal outlets structure, the drainage water to be admitted into canal is very less. The drainage is taken through
Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures
the banks of a canal at inlet. And then this drainage mixed with canal travels certain length of the canal, after which
an outlet is provided to create suction pressure and suck all the drainage solids, disposing it to the watershed area
nearby. There are many disadvantages in use of canal inlet structure, because the drainage may pollute canal water
and also the bank erosion may take place causing the canal structure deteriorate so that maintenance costs are high.
Hence this type of structure is rarely constructed.

Figure (f) Canal inlet plan and cross sectional views (a) pipe type (b) open cut type

Types of Canal Modules

Canal outlets are of the following three types:

1. Non-Modular Outlets
2. Semi-Modular Outlets
3. Modular Outlets.

1. Non-Modular Outlets:
In non-modular canal outlets, discharge capacity depends on the difference of water levels in the distributary and
the watercourse. The discharge through non- modular outlets fluctuates over a wide range with variations in the
water levels of either the distributary or the watercourse. The non-modular canal outlet is controlled by a shutter at
its upstream end. Loss of head in non-modular outlet is less than that in a modular outlet.
Hence, non-modular canal outlets are very suitable for low head conditions. However, in non-modular canal outlets,
the discharge may vary even when the water level in the distributary remains constant. Hence, it is very difficult to
ensure equitable distribution of water at all outlets at times of keen demand of water.
Canal outlets are of the following three types:
1. Non-Modular Outlets
2. Semi-Modular Outlets
3. Modular Outlets.
The non-modular canal outlet is usually in the form of a submerged pipe outlet or a masonry sluice which is fixed
in the canal bank at right angle to the direction of flow in the distributaries. The diameter of the pipe varies from 10
to 30 cm. The pipe is laid on a light concrete foundation to avoid uneven settlement of the pipe and consequent
leakage problems.

The pipe inlet is generally kept about 25 cm below the water level in the distributary. When considerable
fluctuation in the distributary water level is anticipated, the inlet is so fixed that it is below the minimum water level
in the distributary. Figure 7.9 shows a pipe outlet.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 The discharge through non-modular outlets varies with water levels in the distributary and the watercourse. In case
of fields located at high elevations, the watercourse level is high and, hence, the discharge is relatively small. But in
case of fields located at low elevations, the discharge is relatively larger due to lower water course levels.
Further, depending upon the amount of withdrawal of water in the head reaches, the tail reach may be completely
dry or get flooded. The discharge through pipe outlets can be increased by deepening the watercourse and thereby
lowering the water level in it. The discharge varies from outlet to outlet because of flow conditions and also at
different times on the same outlet due to sediment discharge in the distributary channel.
As such, proper and equitable distribution of water is very difficult. These are serious drawbacks of pipe outlets.
The non-modular outlets can, however, work well for low heads too and this is their chief merit. Pipe outlets are
adopted in the initial stages of distribution or for additional irrigation in a season when excess supply is available.
2. Semi-Modular Outlets:
The discharge through a semi-modular canal outlet (or semi-module or flexible outlet) depends only on the water
level in the distributary, and is unaffected by the water level in the watercourse provided a minimum working head
required for its working is available.
A semi-module is more suitable for achieving equitable distribution of water at all outlets of a distributary. The
only disadvantage of a semi-modular canal outlet is that it involves comparatively greater loss of head.The simplest
type of semi-modular canal outlet is a pipe outlet discharging freely into the atmosphere. The pipe outlet described
as non-modular outlet works as semi-module when it discharges freely into the watercourse. The exit end of the
pipe is placed higher than the water level in the watercourse.
In this case, working head H is the difference between water level in the distributary and the centre of the pipe
outlet. The discharge through the pipe outlet cannot be increased by the cultivator by digging the watercourse and,
thus, lowering the water level of the watercourse. Other types of flexible outlets include Kennedy’s gauge outlet,
open flume outlet and orifice semi-modules.
i. Kennedy’s Gauge Outlet:
This outlet was developed by R.G. Kennedy in 1906. It mainly consists of an orifice with bellmouth entry, a long-
expanding delivery pipe and an intervening vertical air column above the throat (Fig. 7.10). The air vent pipe
permits free circulation of air around the jet.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 This arrangement makes the discharge through the outlet independent of the water level in the watercourse. The
water jet enters the cast iron expanding pipe which is about 3 m long and at the end of which a cement concrete
pipe extension is generally provided. Water is then discharged to the watercourse.
ii. Orifice Semi-Modules:
An orifice semi-module consists of an orifice followed by a gradually expanding flume on the downstream side
(Fig. 7.12). Supercritical flow through the orifice causes the formation of hydraulic jump in the expanding flume
and, hence, the outlet discharge remains independent of the water level in the watercourse.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

The roof block is suitably shaped to ensure converging streamlines so that the discharge coefficient does not very
much. The roof block is fixed in its place by means of two bolts which are embedded in a masonry key. For
adjustment, this masonry can be dismantled and the roof block is suitably adjusted.
After this, the masonry key is rebuilt. Thus, the adjustment can be made at a small cost. However, tampering with
the outlet by the cultivators would be easily noticed through the damage to the masonry key. This is the chief merit
of this outlet.
3. Modular Outlets:
In modular canal outlets, the discharge is independent of the water levels in the distributary and the watercourse,
within reasonable working limits. These outlets may have moving parts or may be without moving parts. In the
latter case, these are called rigid modules. The modular canal outlets with moving parts are not simple to design and
construct and are, hence, expensive.
A modular canal outlet supplies fixed discharge and, therefore, enables the farmer to plan his irrigation accordingly.
However, in case of excess or deficient supplies in the distributary, the tail-end reach of the distributary may either
get flooded or be deprived of water. This is due to the reason that the modular outlet would not adjust its discharge
according to the level in the distributary.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

but, if an outlet is to be provided in a branch canal which is likely to run with large fluctuations in discharge, a
modular outlet would be an ideal choice. The outlet would be set at a level low enough to permit it to draw its due
share when the branch is running with low supplies.
When the branch has to carry excess supplies to meet the demands of the distributaries, the discharge through the
modular outlet would not be affected, and the excess supplies would reach up to the desired distributaries.
Similarly, if an outlet is desired to be located upstream of a regulator or a raised crest fall, a modular outlet would
be a suitable choice. Most of the modular outlets have moving parts which make them costly to install as well as
maintain.
Following two types of modular outlets (also known as rigid modules), however, do not have any moving
part:
i. Gibb’s rigid module
ii. Khanna’s rigid module
i. Gibb’s Rigid Module:
This module has an inlet pipe under the distributary bank. This pipe takes water from distributary to a rising spiral
pipe which joins the eddy chamber (Fig. 7.13). This arrangement results in free vortex motion. Due to this free
vortex motion, there is heading up of water (due to smaller velocity at larger radius—a characteristic of vortex
motion) near the outer wall of the rising pipe. The water surface, thus, slopes towards the inner wall.

A number of baffle plates of suitable size are suspended from the roof of the eddy chamber such that the lower ends
of these plates slope against the flow direction.
With the increase in head, the wafer bank up at the outer wall of the eddy chamber and impinges against the baffles
and spins round in the compartment between two successive baffle plates. This causes dissipation of excess energy
and results in constant discharge. The outlet is relatively more costly and its sediment withdrawal is also not good.

(ii) Khanna’s Rigid Orifice Module

This canal outlet is similar to an orifice semi-module. But it has, in addition, sloping shoots fixed in the roof block
(Fig. 7.14). These shoots cause back flow and, thus, keep the outlet discharge constant.
Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures
If the water level in the distributary is at or below its normal level, the outlet behaves like an orifice semi-module.
But when the water level in the parent channel is above its normal level, water level rises in chamber A and enters
the first sloping shoot. This causes back flow and dissipates additional energy.

This results in maintaining a constant discharge. The number of sloping shoots and their height above the normal
level can vary to suit local requirements. The shoots are housed in a chamber so that these cannot be tampered with.
If the shoots are blocked, the outlet continues to function as a semi-module.
Various types of canal outlets have been evolved from time to time but none has been accepted as universally
suitable. It is very difficult to achieve a perfect design fulfilling both the properties of ‘flexibility’ as well as
‘sensitivity’ because of various indeterminate conditions both in the supply channel and the watercourse of the
following factors: • Discharge and silt • Capacity factor • Rotation of channels • Regime condition of distribution
channels, etc.

Parameters for judging the function of outlet are:

i) Flexibility ii) Proportionality iii) setting iv) sensitivity v) Hyper proportional outlet vi) sub
proportional outlet vii) Efficiency viii) Drawing ratio ix) Minimum modular head x) Modular limits and
modular range.
Flexibility of outlet: Flexibility (F) is the ratio of rate of change of discharge of outlet to the rate of change of
discharge (Q) of distributary channel.
dq /q
∴ F=
dQ /θ
m
Generally, for field channel, q=kH
Where k & m are constants
H = head on outlets
Similarly for distributary channel, Q=CD n
Where C & N are constants
P = water depth in channel
m −1
dq km H dH dH
∴ = m
=m
q kH H
dQ dD
=n
Q D
m D dH
∴ F= . . but dH =dD
n H dD
m D
∴ F= .
n H
Note: m is also known as outlet index
Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures
N is also known as canal index

Proportionality & setting outlets

dq dQ
A proportionality outlet is one in which =
q Q
Thus F = 1
m D m H
∴ F=1= ∴ =
n H n D
This ratio H/D is known as setting of outlet
5 /3 5
For trapezoidal channels, Q ∝ D ∴ n=
3
1/ 2 1
For orifice type outlets, q ∝ H ∴ m=
2
H m 0.5
∴ Setting ¿ = = =0.3
D n 5/3
∴ Outlet is set as OBD below the water surface in the distributory.

Sensitivity of outlet

Sensitivity (S) is defined as the rate of change of discharge of outlet to rate of change in the level of the distributor
surface, referred to the normal depth (D) of channel.
dq /q
∴ S=
dG/ D
Where G = Gauge reading so set that G = 0 where q = 0
∴ qG=dD
dq /q
S= −−−(1)
dQ /D
dq /q dQ dD
But F= where =n
dQ/Q Q D
dq /q
∴ F= =S=Fn
dD /D

For rigid modules, the discharge is fixed, and hence sensitivity is zero.

The greater the variation of discharge through an outlet for a given rise or fall in water level of the distributary, the
larger is the sensitivity of the outlet

Canal Cross Drainage works:

The considerations which govern the choice between aqueduct and siphon aqueductare: Suitable canal alignment,
Suitable soil available for bank connections, Nature of available foundations, Permissible head loss in canal,
availability of funds. Compared to an aqueduct a super passage is inferior and should be avoided whenever
possible. Siphon aqueduct is preferred over siphon unless large drop in drainage bed is required.

Cross drainage works is a structure constructed when there is a crossing of canal and natural drain, to prevent the
drain water from mixing into canal water. This type of structure is costlier one and needs to be avoided as much as
possible.

Types of Cross Drainage works:

There are three types of cross drainage works structures:

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 1. Cross drainage work carrying canal over the drain
The structures falling under this type are
 Aqueduct
 Syphon Aqueduct

2. Cross Drainage work carrying Drainage over the canal

The structures falling under this type are
 Super passage
 Canal Syphon

3. Cross drainage works admitting canal water into the canal

The structures falling under this type are
 Level Crossing
 Canal inlets
Selection of Site for Cross Drainage Works
Type – 1: Canal over drainage [HFL < FSL]
Aqueduct:
In an aqueduct, the canal bed level is above the drainage bed level so canal is to be constructed above drainage. A
canal trough is to be constructed in which canal water flows from upstream to downstream. This canal trough is to
be rested on number of piers. The drained water flows through these piers upstream to downstream. The canal
water level is referred as full supply level (FSL) and drainage water level is referred as high flood level (HFL). The
HFL is below the canal bed level.Aqueduct is similar to a bridge, instead of roadway or railway, canal water are
carried in the trough and below that the drainage water flows under gravity and possessing atmospheric pressure.

Syphon Aqueduct:
In a siphon aqueduct, canal water is carrier above the drainage but the high flood level (HFL) of drainage is above
the canal trough. The drainage water flows under symphonic action and there is no presence of atmospheric
pressure in the natural drain.The construction of the syphon aqueduct structure is such that, the flooring of drain is
depressed downwards by constructing a vertical drop weir to discharge high flow drain water through the depressed
concrete floor. Syphonic aqueducts are more often constructed and better preferred than simple Aqueduct, though
costlier.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 Type – 2: Drainage over canal (HFL > FSL)
Super Passage:
Super passage structure carries drainage above canal as the canal bed level is below drainage bed level. The
drainage trough is to be constructed at road level and drainage water flows through this from upstream to
downstream and the canal water flows through the piers which are constructed below this drainage trough as
supports. The full supply level of canal is below the drainage trough in this structure. The water in canal flows
under gravity and possess the atmospheric pressure. This is simply a reverse of Aqueduct structure.

Canal Syphon
In a canal syphon, drainage is carried over canal similar to a super passage but the full supply level of canal is
above than the drainage trough. so the canal water flows under syphonic action and there is no presence of
atmospheric pressure in canal.When compared, super passage is more often preferred than canal Syphon because in
a canal Syphon, big disadvantage is that the canal water is under drainage trough so any defective minerals or
sediment deposited cannot be removed with ease like in the case of a Syphon Aqueduct. Flooring of canal is
depressed and ramp like structure is provided at upstream and downstream to form syphonic action. This structure
is a reverse of Syphon aqueduct.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures

 Type –3: Drainage admitted into canal (HFL = FSL)
In this case, the drainage water is to be mixed up with canal water, here the cost of construction is less but silt
clearance and maintenance of canal water becomes really difficult. So the structures falling under this category are
constructed with utmost care.
Level Crossing:
When the bed level of canal is equal to the drainage bed level, then level crossing is to be constructed. This consists
of following steps:
 Construction of weir to stop drainage water behind it
 Construction of canal regulator across a canal
 Construction of head regulator across a Drainage
Functioning of a level crossing:
In peak supply time of canal water parallel to drainage, both the regulators are opened to clear the drainage water
from that of canal for certain time interval. Once the drainage is cleared, the head regulator is closed down.
Anyhow, cross regulator is always in open condition throughout year to supply canal water continuously.

Hydropower
Hydropower plant uses hydraulic energy of water to produce electricity. The power obtained from this plant is
termed as hydroelectric power. Nearly 16% of total power used by the world is represented by hydropower.

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There are several types of hydropower plants classified on different characteristics. But for every hydropower plant
some important principal components are needed and those are explained here.

Classification of hydropower plants

Classification According to the Extent of Water Flow Regulation Available
According to the extent of water flow regulation available the hydroelectric power plants may be classified into
1. Run-off river power plants without pondage.
2. Run-off river power plants with pondage.
3. Reservoir power plants.
1. Run-Off Power Plants without Pondage
Some hydro power plants are so located that the water is taken from the river directly, and no pondage or storage is
possible. Such plants are called the run-off river power plants without pondage. Such plants can use water only as
and when available; these cannot be used at any time at will or fit any desired portion of the load curve. In such
plants there is no control on flow of water.

During high flow and low load periods, water is wasted and during the lean flow periods the plant capacity is very
low. As such these plants have a very little firm capacity. At such places, the water is mainly used for irrigation or
navigation and power generation is only incidental. Such plants can be built at a considerably low cost but the head
available and the amount of power generated are usually very low.

During floods, the tail water level may become excessive rendering the plant inoperative. The main objective of
such plants is to use whatever flow is available for generation of energy and thus save coal that otherwise be
necessary for the steam plants. During the high flow periods such plants can be employed to supply a substantial
portion of base load.

2. Run-Off River Power Plants with Pondage

The usefulness of run-off river power plants is increased by pondage. Pondage refers to storage at the plant which
makes it possible to cope, hour to hour, with fluctuations of load throughout a week or some longer period
depending on the size of pondage. With enough pondage, the firm capacity of the power plant is increased.

Such type of power plants can be used on parts of the load curve as required, within certain limitations and is more
useful than a plant without pondage. Such power plants are comparatively more reliable and its generating capacity
is less dependent on available rate of flow of water. Such power plants can serve as base load or peak load power
plants depending on the flow of stream.

During high flow periods these plants may be used as base load and during lean flow periods these plants may be
used to supply peak loads only. When providing pondage, tailrace condition should be such that floods do not raise
the tailrace water level, thus reducing the head on the plant and impairing its effectiveness. Such plants offer
maximum conservation of coal when operated in conjunction with steam power plants.

3. Reservoir Power Plants

When water is stored in a big reservoir behind a dam, it is possible to control the flow of water and use it most
effectively. Storage increases the firm capacity of the plant and it can be used efficiently throughout the year. Such
a plant can be used as a base load or as a peak load plant as per requirement. It can also be used on any portion of
the load curve in a grid system. Most of the hydroelectric power plants everywhere in the world are of this type.

A. Classification According to Availability of Water Head

According to availability of water head the hydroelectric power plants may be classified into
a) Low Head
b) Medium Head and
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 c) High Head Power Plants.

Though there is no definite line of demarcation for low, medium and high heads but the head below 30 metres is
considered low head, the head above 30 metres and below 300 metres is considered as medium head and above 300
meters is considered as high head.

(a) Low Head Hydroelectric Power Plants

A typical low head installation on a river consists essentially of a dam across the stream to back up the river and
create a fall, the water flowing through the turbines and remerging the river below the dam. A dam or barrage
constructed across the river creates the necessary head. The power plant is located near the dam and therefore, no
surge tank is required. Either one half of the barrage has regulating gates for discharge of surplus water while the
plant is in front of second half or the plant is constructed by the side of the river.

In low head power plants Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbines are employed. Since for given output, large quantity
of water is required, head being low, therefore pipes of large diameter and short length are required in low head
plants. Structure of such plants is extensive and expensive. Generators employed in such plants are of low speed
and large diameter.

(b) Medium Head Hydroelectric Power Plants

In these power plants, the river water is usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank of the river as in case of a low
head plant. From the forebay the water is led to the turbines through penstocks. The forebay provided at the
beginning of penstock serves as a water reservoir for such power plants.

In these plants, water is usually carried in open channel from main reservoir to the forebay and then to the turbines
through the penstock. The forebay itself serves as the surge tank in this case. In these plants horizontal shaft
Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbines are used. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.14.

(c) High Head Hydroelectric Power Plants

If high head is available, a site may be chosen, where a stream descending a steep lateral valley can be dammed
and a reservoir for storage of water is formed. A pressure tunnel is constructed between reservoirs to valve house at
the start of penstock to carry water from reservoir to valve house.
Surge tank (a tank open from the top) is built just before the valve house so that the severity of water hammer effect
on penstock can be reduced in case of sudden closing of fixed gates of the water turbine. Surge tank also serves as a
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ready reservoir from which the turbine can draw water temporarily when there is sudden increase in demand.

The valve house consists of main sluice valves and automatic isolating valves, which operate on bursting of
penstock and cut off further supply of water to penstock. Penstocks are pipes and carry the water from the valve
house to the turbines.

For heads above 500 m Pelton wheels are used while for lower heads Francis turbines are employed. The generators
used are of high speed and small diameter. Penstocks are of large length and comparatively smaller cross section.

B. Classification According to Type of Load Supplied

According to the load supplied hydroelectric power stations may be classified into
(a) Base Load,
(b) Peak Load, and
(c) Pumped Storage Plants for the Peak Load.
a) Base Load Plants
The plants, which can take up load on the base portion of the load curve of the power system, are called the base
load power plants. Such plants are usually of large capacity. Since such plants are kept running practically on block
load (i.e., the load that is practically constant), load factor of such plants is therefore high. Run-off river plants
without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants.

Plants having large storage can best be used as base load plants and particularly in rainy seasons, when the water
level of the reservoir will be raised by rain water. For a plant to be used as base load plant, the unit cost of energy
generated by the plant should be low.

b) Peak Load Plants

Plants used to supply the peak load of the system corresponding to the load at the top portion of the load curve are
called the peak load plants. Runoff river plants with pondage can be employed as peak load plants. If the pondage is
enough, a large portion of the load can be supplied by such a plant if and when required. Reservoir plants can of
course be used as peak load plants also. Peak load plants have large seasonal storage. They store water during off-
peak periods and are operated during peak load periods. Load factor of such plants is low.

c) Pumped Storage Plants for the Peak Load

This is a unique design of peak load plant.

C. Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants Based on Installed Capacity

Apart from above classification, hydroelectric power plants can be classified, on the basis of installed capacity, as
large, medium, small, mini, and micro hydro power plants. Generally the mini, micro, and pico hydro come under
the subcategory of small hydro plants.

These are briefly described as below

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Apart from the above said classification, there is also a class of very large hydro power plants coming up with
capacity ranging from more than 5,000 MW up to 10,000 MW due to the large scale investment and better
technology available. However, as far as small hydro is concerned the upper and lower limit varies from country to
country while defining the small hydro. There is a general tendency all over the world to define small hydro by
power output. Different countries are following different norms keeping the upper limit ranging from 5 to 50 MW.

Principal Components of Hydropower Plants

The major components of a hydroelectric plant are as follows.
1. Forebay
2. Intake structure
3. Penstock
4. Surge chamber
5. Hydraulic turbines
6. Power house
7. Draft tube
8. Tailrace

1. Fore bay
A forebay is a basin area of hydropower plant where water is temporarily stored before going into intake
chamber. The storage of water in forebay is decided based on required water demand in that area. This is also used
when the load requirement in intake is less.

We know that reservoirs are built across the rivers to store the water, the water stored on upstream side of dam can
be carried by penstocks to the power house. In this case, the reservoir itself acts as forebay.

2. Intake Structure
Intake structure is a structure which collects the water from the forebay and directs it into the penstocks.
There are different types of intake structures are available and selection of type of intake structure depends on
various local conditions.
Intake structure contain some important components of which trash racks plays vital role. Trash racks are provided
at the entrance of penstock to trap the debris in the water.
If debris along with water flows into the penstock it will cause severe damage to the wicket gates, turbine runners,
nozzles of turbines etc. these trash racks are made of steel in rod shape. These rods are arranged with a gap of 10 to
30 cm apart and these racks will separate the debris form the flowing water whose permissible velocity is limited
0.6 m/sec to 1.6 m/sec.
In cold weather regions, there is chance of formation of ice in water, to prevent the entrance of ice into the
penstocks trash racks heated with electricity and hence ice melts when it touches the trash racks.
Other than trash racks, rakes and trolley arrangement which is used to clean the trash racks and penstock closing
gates are also provided in intake structure.
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 3. Penstock
Penstocks are like large pipes laid with some slope which carries water from intake structure or reservoir to
the turbines. They run with some pressure so, sudden closing or opening of penstock gates can cause water hammer
effect to the penstocks.
So, these are designed to resist the water hammer effect apart from this penstock is similar to normal pipe. To
overcome this pressure, heavy wall is provided for short length penstock and surge tank is provided in case of long
length penstocks.
Steel or Reinforced concrete is used for making penstocks. If the length is small, separate penstock is used for each
turbine similarly if the length is big single large penstock is used and at the end it is separated into branches.

4. Surge Chamber
A surge chamber or surge tank is a cylindrical tank which is open at the top to control the pressure in
penstock. It is connected to the penstock and as close as possible to the power house.
Whenever the power house rejected the water load coming from penstock the water level in the surge tank rises and
controls the pressure in penstock.
Similarly, when the huge demand is needed in power house surge tank accelerates the water flow into the power
house and then water level reduces. When the discharge is steady in the power house, water level in the surge tank
becomes constant.

5. Hydraulic Turbines
Hydraulic turbine, a device which can convert the hydraulic energy into the mechanical energy which again
converted into the electrical energy by coupling the shaft of turbine to the generator.
The mechanism in this case is, whenever the water coming from penstock strike the circular blades or runner with
high pressure it will rotate the shaft provided at the center and it causes generator to produce electrical power.
Generally hydraulic turbines are of two types namely
 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
Impulse turbine is also called as velocity turbine. Pelton wheel turbine is example for impulse turbine. Reaction
turbine is also called as pressure turbine. Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine come under this category.

6. Power House
Power house is a building provided to protect the hydraulic and electrical equipment. Generally, the whole
equipment is supported by the foundation or substructure laid for the power house.
In case of reaction turbines some machines like draft tubes, scroll casing etc. are fixed with in the foundation while
laying it. So, the foundation is laid in big dimensions.
When it comes to super structure, generators are provided on the ground floor under which vertical turbines are
provided. Besides generator horizontal turbines are provided. Control room is provided at first floor or mezzanine
floor.

7. Draft Tube
If reaction turbines are used, then draft tube is a necessary component which connects turbine outlet to the
tailrace. The draft tube contains gradually increasing diameter so that the water discharged into the tailrace with
safe velocity. At the end of draft tube, outlet gates are provided which can be closed during repair works.

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 8. Tailrace
Tailrace is the flow of water from turbines to the stream. It is good if the power house is located nearer to
the stream. But, if it is located far away from the stream then it is necessary to build a channel for carrying water
into the stream.
Otherwise the water flow may damage the plant in many ways like lowering turbine efficiency, cavitation, damage
to turbine blades etc.
This is because of silting or scouring caused by unnecessary flow of water from power house. Hence, proper design
of tailrace should be more important.

Department of Civil Engineering CE721PE – Irrigation &Hydraulic Structures