托福阅读基础语法汇总
托福阅读基础语法汇总
托福阅读基础语法汇总
一. 准备知识
1.iBT 托福阅读理解的形式特点
(1) 文章数量:3-5 篇(和听力相对应:3 篇阅读,9 个听力段子或 5 篇阅读,6 个听
力段子)
(2) 文章长度:650-750 词/篇
(3) 题目数量:12-14 个/篇(每篇有一个多选,形式为 6 选 3,7 选 5 或 9 选 7)
(4) 测试时间:20 分钟/篇
(5) 测试分数:0-30 分(由原始分 42 分换算到标准分 30 分)
2.iBT 托福阅读的考察重点
(1) 主题:辨析文章的主要观点,并与局部小观点区分;辨析段落主题.(注:所有文章
都有标题)
(2) 细节:概括性信息的把握并判别具体信息的真伪---- TRUE? FALSE? NOT
GIVEN?
Some details
(3) 词汇:辨析词汇和短语的含义,并通过上下文推断某些词汇和短语的含义:认知
(一词多义);词汇推断
(4) 推断:根据上下文推断出隐藏的信息
(5) 态度:根据文章描述判断作者意图和态度:WHY 目的;HOW 手段.
(6) 结构:判断句子和句子之间的逻辑关系,并确定段落的结构 托福阅读是以句
子为核心的
3.阅读的本质:
(1) 获取有效信息
(2) 消除阅读障碍
4.文章结构特点
(1) 文章主体分为结构主体和细节主体.
结构主体(支撑): 主题段(文章的前几段)和主题句(每段的前几句).
细节主体(填充)
(2) 文章具体结构如下:
Intro: background(细节) & topic(结构)
Body: sub-topic(结构), analysis(细节) & evidence(细节)
Conclusion: topic(结构)
5.快速笔记方法
(1) 快速笔记的意义:
辅助思维框架形成
索引功能
(2) 快速笔记的内容
结构主体的核心词
时间和数字:同步记录时间及相应的事件;一律记录为数字
人名\地名\专有名词:使用首字母标记
举例主体
新概念和核心概念
重要的逻辑关系
(3) 快速笔记的简单符号体系
(4)快速笔记的重要性和必要性----阅读中的指导性逻辑(PREDICTING)
(5) 好笔记的特点:
笔记中有清晰的逻辑脉络 根据
笔记可以对文章进行有效复述 6.阅读
和口语的关系:
(1) 规范口语的逻辑
(2) 提供口语表达的素材
二.阅读方法
1.精读----句子结构分析和解析方法
(1) 句子阅读中的障碍
1) 定语 前置定语:
adj+n
后置定语:
n+ adj phrase 形容词短语: a book useful for you
prep phrase 介词短语: a pen on the desk
v-ing/-ed phrase 分词短语: a person walking on the road; a tool
developed for the project
不定式: a way to solve the problem 注:
分词短语作后置定语时,其逻辑主语是其修饰的名词
不定代词只能用后置定语修饰
不定式作后置定语其逻辑主语是第三方: sb use the way to solve the
problem
定语从句:
关系代词引导定语从句: that, which, who, whom, whose( 其中 that,
which, who, whom 引导的是非完整句, whose 引导的是完整句)
关系连词: when, where, why 在句子中不作成分, 引导的是完整句
介词+关系代词: in which, 此关系代词不包括 what
2) 同位语: 同插入语一样处
理----删除
A, B( 定语从句/同位语从句)
A, or B
A that + 句子( 完整句)
A of B: the city of Beijing
3) 状语: 处理方式----隔离
Adv 副词
Prep phrase 介词短语
分词短语
不定式
注: 非谓语动词作状语其逻辑主语是句子的主语
4) 并列结构
并列连词的用法: 并列连词连接结构\功能\性质均相同的成分----必须完全对
等
5) that 引导的各种从句
S+V+THAT+句子(完整句)----宾语从句 S+系动词+表语+句子----表语从句
It + Vi + that +句子
It + be + adj +that +句子 完整句
That +句子+ V
N+ that +句子+ 同位语(完整句) 定语
从句(非完整句)
S + Vi + that+ 句子: The sun rises that is bright.
S + be + adj + that + 句子: The desk is clean that is used by the student(定
语从句); The fact is true that Tom is handsome(同位语从句).
(2) 复杂句的阅读方法----层次化句子阅读法
1) 括号匹配
…… 关联词 (完整句) …… (关联词+ 非完整句) 2) 化右括号的条件:
句子终结
连接句子的并列连词或标点符号之前
例 1: However, for many years physicists thought that (atom and molecules
always were much more likely to emit light spontaneously)and that (stimulated
emission thus always would be much weaker) 例 2: It appeared that 〔Canada
was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families (that had
occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial
Revolution)〕. 例 3: The history of clinical nutrition, or the study of the
relationship between health and how the body takes in and utilizes food
substances(同位语,删除), can be divided into four distinct eras: the first began in
the nineteenth century and extended into the early twentieth century (when it
was recognized for the first time that (food contained constituents (that were
essential for human function) )and that (different foods provided different
amounts of these essential agents).
例 4: Using techniques first developed for the offshore oil and gas
industry, the DSDP’s drill ship, the Glomar Challenger(同位语), was able to
maintain a steady position on the ocean’s surface and drill in very deep water,
extracting samples of sediments and rock from the ocean floor.
例 5: The desperate plight of the South has eclipsed the fact that
(reconstruction had to be undertaken also in North, though less
spectacularly).
例 6: The technique of direct carving was a break with the nineteenth century in
which (the making of a clay model was considered the creative act) and (the
work was then turned over to studio assistant to be cast in plaster or bronze or
carved in marble).
例 7: Anyone (who has handle a fossilized bone) knows that (it is usually not
exactly like its modern counterpart), the most obvious difference being
that( it is often much heavier)独立主格结构.
例 8: The impressive gain in output 〔stemmed primarily from the way in which
(workers made goods since 1790’s)〕, North American enterpreneurs----even
without the technological improvement----had broadended the scope of the
outwork system (that made manufacturing more efficient by distributing
materials to succession of workers (who each performed a single step of the
production process)) 例 9: The fact that (artisanss, (who were locked on as
mechanics or skilled workers in the eighteenth century), (are frequently
considered artists today) is directly attibutable to the Arts and Crafts Movement
of the nineteenth century) 例 10: A few art collectors James Bowdoin III of
Boston, William Bbyrd of Virginian, and the Aliens abd Hamiltons of Philadelphia
(同位语)introduced European art traditions to those colonists〔privileged to visit
their galleries, especially aspiring artists〕 and established in their respective
communities the idea of the value of art and the need for institutions 〔devoted
to its encouragement〕.
(2) 倒装句的阅读方法
1) 部分倒装处理方法: 把提前的助动词/be 动词/情态动词去掉或还原,并按顺序
理解. 2) 完全倒装的处理方法 构成主语的成分:
名词代词
The +形容词不
定式主语从句动
名词
完全倒装的判断流程
例 1: Herein (adv) lay(宾语) the beginning of what ultimately(最终)
turned from ignorance(无知) to denial of the value of nutrition
therapies in medicine(主语).
例 2: Surrounding the column are three sepals and three petals(主语),
sometimes easily recognizable as such, often distorted into gorgeous, weird,
but always functional shapes.
(3) 文章的类型和题材
1) 文章类型: :参见 OG 第 19 页 顺承式:
时间及时间发展线索.(线型结构)
分类式: 分类方式及类别特征. (树型结构)
问题解决式\现象解释式: 解决方案\解释及最终结论.(伞型结构)
2) 题材分类
自然科学
a. 生物学
植物学: 植物的分类和特征
动物学: 动物的分类和行为.鸟类\群体昆虫\海洋生物
微生物学: 真菌(蘑菇\真菌的顽固)
b. 地理\地质学
地形\地貌特征: 成因\分布\气候\生态\影响
地质事件: 成因或原理\过程\影响
c. 天文学
具体的星体特征: 基本特征(形状\距离\轨道\旋转\温度\质量); 大气层
(氢气\氦气\氨气\甲烷); 表面特征; 水和生命形式; 人的探索
天文学事件: 成因\过程\影响
d. 考古学
古生物: 恐龙(灭绝), 鸟类( 进化史 pterosaur→archaeopteryx→
modern birds)
古代遗址\遗迹: 中国的古代遗迹
e.气象学
灾害性天气: 成因\过程\危害\预防 天气预报: 卫星\计算机技术 f.
新技术和新事物 发展史
特征及应用
人文科学 a.
美国历史
土人: 生活\宗教\艺术
都市化过程: 人口增长\城市扩张\交通发展\经济繁荣
b. 历史学和人类学
原始人生活变迁: 游牧到定居(农业)
古代文明
c. 文学
流派: 产生\思想
\代表 作家: 生平
\作品 d. 绘画和雕塑
流派
类型:城市艺术
画家
e. 音乐
类型: country, ragtime…
乐器
f.心理学: 人类情感分析
三. 新托福阅读题型解析
1. 词汇题(Vocabulary Question)
(1) 词汇题简介和提问方式: 参见 OG 第 25 页
(2) 词汇题的解答方法
认识:直接解题,沾边就对。 不认识: 推断:
从词的本身
上下文:因果\对比\解释
代入验证
猜
2. 指代题(Reference Question)
(1) 指代题简介和提问方式: 参见 OG 第 26~27 页
(2) 指代题的解答方法
代词
a. 从句的主语指代主语的主宾语(使用属性判断,不用含义)
b. 关系代词指代先行词(插入结构不影响指代关系)
c. 重复概念指代: Tom and his cat(就近原则)
d. some of others some + n + of + n, others 指名词 some + v, some others 共
指之前概念 名词:
a. 优先选择题干的上下意词
a is a kind of A, A 是 a 的上意词
b. 若上下意词不唯一则当作代词指代处理注意:
a.被指代对象往往在代词之前出现
b. 从句开头往后找答案
c. 代词和被指代对象的数性和性质必须一致
d. 指代的传递现象
Jupiters and other giant planet are of a The word in the passage
low-density type quite distinct from the refers to they
terrestrial planets: they are composed (A) nucle actions
predominantly of such substances as (B) giant
ar reets
hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and methane. (C) terres
plan
(D) subst
trial
ances
If the physical barriers of the plant are The word in the
breached, then preformed chemicals may passage r whichto
inhibit or kill the intruder, and plant tissues (A) tissue efers
contain a diverse array of toxic or potentially (B) subst s
toxic substances, such as resins, tannins, (C) barrie ances
glycosides, and alkaloids, many of which are (D) alkalo rs ids
highly effective deterrents to insects that feed
on plants.
Aciculturists, people who raise birs for The word They in the passage
commercial sale, have not yet learned how to refers to
simulate the natural incubation of parrot eggs (A) birds
in the wild. They continue to look for better (B) avicut urists
ways to increase egg production and to (C) eggs
improve chick survival rates. (D) rates
What is particularly meaningful to The word refers
it in the passage
anthropology is the realization that although to (A) realization
the material available to a society may to (B) society
some extend limit or influence what it can do (C) extent
artistically, the materials by no means
determine what is done. (D) influence
Some of their baskets were completely The word passage in the
covered with shell pendants; others with refers
othersto
featers that made the baskets’ surfaces as (A) masters
soft as the breasts of birds. (B) baskets
(C) pendants
(D) surfaces
It is estimated that over 99 percent of all What does the author say in paragraph 1 regarding
species that ever existed have become most species in earth’s history
extinct. What causes extinction? When (A) They have remained basically unchanged
species is no longer adapted to a changed from their original from their original forms.
environment, it may perish. The exact (B) They have been able to adapt to ecological
causes of a species’ death vary from changes.
situation to situation. Rapid ecological (C) They have caused rapid change in the
change may render an environment hostile environment.
to a species. For example, temperatures (D) They are no longer in existence.
may change and a species may not be able 2. which of the following is NOT mentioned in
to adapt. Food resources may be affected by paragraph 1 as resulting from rapid ecological
environmental changes, which will then change?
cause problems for a species requiring these (A) Temperature changes
resources. Other species may become better (B) Availability of food resources
adapted to an environment, resulting in (C) Introduction of new species
competition and, ultimately, in the death of a (D) Competition among species
species. 3. Why is mentioned in the passage?
The fossile record reveals that extinction ( species plankton A) To demostrate the
has occurred throughout the history of earth. ( interdependence of different
Recent analyses have also revealed that on
some occasions many species became extinct ( B) To emphasize the
at the same time----a mass extinction. One of importance of food resources
the best-known examples of mass extinction ( become
occurred 65 million years ago with the demise extinct.
in C) To illustrate a comparison
preventing mass extinction
of dinosaurs and many other forms of life. between organisms that live on
Perhaps the largest mass extinction was one the land of those that live in the
that occurred 225 million years ago, when ocean D) To point out that
approximately 95 percent of all species died, certain species could never
mass extinctions can be caused by a relatively 4. According to paragraph 2, evidence from fossiles
rapid change in the environment and can be suggests that
worsened by the close interrelationship of (A) extinction of species has occurred from time
many species. If, for example, something to time throughout earth’s history
were to happen to destory much of the (B) Extinctions on earth have generally been
plankon in the oceans, then the oxygen massive
content of earth would drop, affection even (C) there has been only one mass extinction in
organisms not living in the oceans. Such a earth’s history
change would probably lead to a mass (D) dinosaurs became extinct much easier than
extinction. scientisr originally believed.
One interesting, and controversial, 5. Which of the following can be inferred about the
finding is that extinctions during the past theory mentioned in paragraph 3?
250 million years have tended to be more (A) Many scientists could be expected to
intense every 26 million years. This periodic disagree with it.
(B) Evidence to support the theory has recently
been found.
(C) The theory is no longer seriouly considered.
extinction might be due to intersection of the (D) Most scientists believe the theory to be accurate.
earth’s orbit with a cloud of comets, but this
theory is purely speculative. Some 6. In paragraph 3, the author makes which of the
researchers have also speculated that following statements about a species’ survival?
extinction may often be random. That is, (A) It reflecs the interrelationship of many species.
certain species may be eliminated and others (B) It may depend on chance events.
may survive for no particular reason. A (C) It does not vary greatly from species to species
(D) It is associated with astronomical conditions.
species’ survival may have nothing to do with 7. According to the passage, it is believed that the
its ability or inability to adapt. If so, some of largest extinctionof a species occurred
evolutionary history may reflect a sequence of (A) 26 million years ago (B)
essentially random events. 65 million years ago
(C) 225 million years ago
(D) 250 million years ago
P.S.:
阅读理解的三个层次:
1.不仅理解一个词的字面含义,还要理解它在目标语言中的最准确的表达方式
2.由精确输入通过逻辑得到模糊的输出
3.透过词的字面含义看到它所隐藏的逻辑关系
资料名