Plate Movements and Boundaries Science Presentation in Dark Blue Teal Style

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UNIT 2: INTERNAL

PROCESSES
The Active Earth: Plate Tectonics
LESSON OUTLINE
5.1 Alfred Wegener: The Continental Drift Theory
5.2 The Earth Layers
5.3 The Sea-Floor Spreading Hypothesis
5.4 The Theory of Plate Tectonics
5.5 The Anatomy of a Tectonic Plate
5.6 Why Plates Move: The Earth as a Heat Engine
5.7 Supercontinents
5.8 Isostasy: Vertical Movement of the Lithosphere
5.9: How Plate Movements Affect Earth Systems
5.1 Alfred
Wegener:
Continental
Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an
Idea: The Continental Drift Hypothesis

As the theory of plate tectonics was not


developed until the 1960s, it was
foreshadowed early in the twentieth century
by a young German scientist named Alfred
Wegener.
He noticed that the African and South
American coastlines on the sides of Atlantic
Ocean seemed to fit as if they were adjacent
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an
Idea: The Continental Drift Hypothesis

Figure 6.1 The African and South American


coastlines appear to fit together like adjacent
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an
Idea: The Continental Drift Hypothesis

Studying world maps, He realized that not


only did the continents on both sides of the
Atlantic fit together, but other continents too,
like additional pieces of the same jigsaw
puzzle.
The supercontinent was called “Pangea” from
the Greek root words for “all lands.”
The northern part of “PANGEA” is commonly
called “LAURASIA” and the southern part
“GONDWANALAND”.
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an
Idea: The Continental Drift Hypothesis

Seek additional evidence in 1910 and


continued work on the project until
his death in 1930.
Mapped the locations of fossils of
several species of animals and plants
that could neither swim well nor fly.
Fossils of the same species are now
found in Antarctica, Africa, Australia,
South America, and India.
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an
Idea: The Continental Drift Hypothesis

Figure 5.2 : Geographic


distributions of plant and
animal fossils on Wegener’s
map indicate that a single
supercontinent, called
Pangea, existed from about
300 to 200 million years
ago.
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an
Idea: The Continental Drift Hypothesis

Wegener plotted 250-million-year-old glacial deposits on a


map showing the modern distribution of continents (
Figure 6.3A). Notice that glacial deposits would have
formed in tropical and subtropical zones.  Figure 6.3B
shows the same glacial deposits, and other climate-
indicating rocks, plotted on We- gener’s Pangea map. Here
the glaciers cluster neatly about the South Pole. The other
rocks are also found in logical locations.
FIGURE 5.3 (A) 250-million-year-old
glacial deposits are displayed in white
on a map showing the modern
distribution of continents.The black
arrows show directions of glacial
movement, indicated by glacial
features described in Chapter 13,
“Glaciers and Ice Ages.”

(B) 300-million-year-old glacial


deposits and other climate-
sensitive sedimentary rocks plotted
on Wegener’s map of Pangea
Wegener also noticed several instances
in which an uncommon rock type or a
distinctive sequence of rocks on one side
of the Atlantic Ocean is identical to rocks
on the other side. When he plotted the
rocks on a Pangea map, those on the east
side of the Atlantic were continuous with
their counterparts on the west side.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
It is Wegener's Concept of a single
supercontinent that broke apart to
form the modern continents
Other (Skeptical) Scientists
demanded an explanation of how
continents could move. Explanation
of the mechanism of continental
drift.
Wegener had concentrated on
developing evidence that continents
had drifted, not on what caused them
to move.
Alternative Possibilities

Continents plow their way through oceanic crust,


shoving it aside as a ship plows through water

Continent crust slides over oceanic crust.


These suggestions turned out to be ill considered.
Physicists quickly proved that both of Wegener’s
mechanisms were imposible
Reasons Why It Is Impossible
Oceanic crust is too strong for
continents to plow through it. The
attempt would be like trying to
push a matchstick boat through
heavy tar. The boat, or the
continent, would break apart.

Frictional Resistance is too great


for continents to slide over
oceanic crust.
5.2 The
Earth’s
Layers
5.2 The
Earth’s
Layers
CRUST
The outermost and thinnest layer
Consist of hard and strong rock
OCEANIC CRUST
4-7 kilometer thick
Composed mostly of dark, dense
basalt

CONTINENTAL CRUST
20- 40 kilometer thick
Although under mountain ranges can
be as much as 70 km
Composed of light colored, less
dense granite
MANTLE
Lies directly below the
crust
2,900 km thick
80 % of Earth’s volume
Composed of Peridotite
Temperature and pressure
increase with depth
Strength of mantle rock
also vary with depth
Lithosphere
The outer part of Earth,
including both the uppermost
mantle and the crust
Averages about 100 km thick
But varies from about 75 km
thick beneath ocean basins to
about 125 km under the
continents
Consist mostly of the cold,
stong uppermost mantle
Asthenosphere
Depth: 75 to 125 kilometers
beneath Earth's surface
Weak and plastic due to rising
temperature and pressure
1 to 2 percent of rock melts, while
98 to 99 percent remains solid
Extends from about 100 to 350
kilometers deep
Average temperature: about
1,800°C
Pressure: increases from about 35
kilobars to about 120 kilobars
Lithosphere-Asthenosphere
Relationship:
Lithosphere is strong and
hard, while asthenosphere is
soft and weak
Lithosphere floats on the soft
plastic rock of the
asthenosphere
This floating lithosphere
concept is crucial for
understanding plate tectonics
and Earth's internal
processes.
Lithosphere-Asthenosphere
Relationship:
Lithosphere is strong and
hard, while asthenosphere is
soft and weak
Lithosphere floats on the soft
plastic rock of the
asthenosphere
This floating lithosphere
concept is crucial for
understanding plate tectonics
and Earth's internal
processes.
Core
Innermost layer, a sphere with a
radius of 3,470 kilometers.
Composition: Mainly iron and nickel.
Outer core is molten due to high
temperature (nearly 7,000°C near
the center).
Pressure: Three and a half million
times that of Earth's sea-level
atmosphere.
Inner core is solid due to extreme
pressure, despite being hotter than
the outer core.
5.3 THE SEA-FLOOR SPREADING
HYPOTHESIS
According to Harry Hess, the
seafloor spreading suggest that
new oceanic crust is formed at
mid-ocean ridges through
volcanic activity. As magma
rises from the earth‘s mantle at
Harry Hammond Hess these ridges, it solidifies to
(1906-1969)
create fresh oceanic crust. The
process causes the existing
ocean floor to move away from
the ridge, leading to the lateral
movement of tectonic plates.
Five Evidences to explain seafloor spreading

1. The Ocean floor As two tectonic plates


slowly separate, molten
material rises up from
within the mantle to fill
the opening.
Rugged volcanic
landscape of a mid-ocean
ridge is created along the
plate boundery.
2. Mid-ocean ridge
Spreading centers;
where the
upwelling of magma
from the mantle
creates new ocean
floor.
Largest topographic
features on the
surface of the earth.
3. Deep-sea trench

Formed by
subduction
Causes the seafloor
and outermost crust
to bend
8-11 km below sea
level
4. Geomagnetic reversals
Scientists used
magnetometers to
study the ocean floor.
Basaltic magma-
“Tape recorder”
The discovery of
magnetic stripes
provided powerful
evidence that
seafloor spreading
occurs.
5. The age of seafloor

Scientists noticed
that from the ridge
crest, sediments
becomes older and
the seafloor
becomes thicker.
Seafloor spreading and subduction
keeps the shape of the Earth.

Seafloor spreading creates new crust


while subduction destroys old crust.

The two forces roughly balannce each other,


so the shape and diameter of the Earth remain
constant.
T
LESSON OUTLINE
O
P
Plate Tectonics Plate Boundaries

I
Divergent Convergent
C
5.4 Transform
Ana Marie
The Theory of Plate
Tectonics
Plate tectonics theory states that the lithosphere, about 100 km thick,
floats on the asthenosphere as tectonic plates. These plates move at
rates from <1 to 16 cm/year, carrying continents and ocean basins.
Plate boundaries—divergent (move apart), convergent (move toward),
and transform (slide past)—are fractures separating plates. Forces at
plate boundaries build mountains, cause volcanic eruptions, and
earthquakes. The interior of a plate is typically tectonically quiet.

Ana Marie
As the plates move,
boundaries are created.
These are...

CONVERGENT DIVERGENT

TRANSFORM

What do you think each boundary means?


Ana Marie
D
I
DIVERGENT
Diverge = move away or extend in different directions

V
E
DIVERGENT
•Plates spread apart, creating a rift
zone.

DIVERGENT
•Asthenosphere rises, melts to form
R magma.
•Magma cools, forming new crust.
G •Activity mostly in ocean basins.

E
N
DIVERGENT
•Lithosphere starts thin (10-15 km),
thickens outward. It reaches steady-
state thickness of about 75 km (ocean

DIVERGENT
basin) and up to 125 km (continent).
T Ana Marie
D
I
DIVERGENT
The Mid-Oceanic Ridge: Rifting in the Oceans

V
E
DIVERGENT The Mid-Oceanic Ridge
resembling a baseball seam, is Earth's
longest mountain chain encircling the
system,

DIVERGENT
globe. At oceanic spreading centers, new
lithosphere forms and rises due to its
R higher temperature and lower density,
creating the ridge. As this fresh
G

DIVERGENT
lithosphere moves away, it cools,
becomes denser, and sinks into the
E asthenosphere. Basaltic magma at the

N ridge contributes to the continuous

DIVERGENT
creation of approximately 22 cubic

T kilometers of new oceanic crust annually.


Ana Marie
D
I
DIVERGENT
Splitting Continents: Rifting in Continental Crust

V
E
DIVERGENT
✓ Continental Rifting and Rift Valley
Formation:

DIVERGENT
• Divergent plate boundaries cause
R stretching, fracturing, and sinking of
continental crust.
G

DIVERGENT
• East African Rift serves as a current

E example.
• Continued rifting could lead to the
N separation of eastern Africa, forming

T
DIVERGENT a new ocean basin.
Ana Marie
C
O CONVERGENT
Converge = to come together

CONVERGENT
•Plates move toward each other.
N •Subduction occurs when denser plate sinks into

V the mantle beneath the other.


•Subduction zones are long belts where this sinking

DIVERGENT
E occurs.
•Old lithosphere sinks at subduction zones at a rate
R equal to new lithosphere formation at spreading
centers.
G
DIVERGENT
•Earth maintains a balance between creating new
lithosphere and destroying old lithosphere.
E •Plate convergence can involve:

N 1. oceanic crust vs. continental crust


2. two plates with oceanic crust

T 3. two plates with continental crust. Ana Marie


C
O
CONVERGENT
Convergence of Oceanic Crust with Continental Crust

CONVERGENT
Denser oceanic crust sinks beneath continents at subduction zones, triggering volcanic
N activity, exemplified by the Andes' formation due to Pacific oceanic plate subduction.

V Sea-floor rocks age to around 200 million years due to continuous recycling, while
continents retain much older rocks, up to 3.96 billion years, with minimal subduction of
E
R CONVERGENT
continental crust.

CONVERGENT
G
E
N
T CONVERGENT
C
O
CONVERGENT
Convergence of two plates carrying Oceanic crust

CONVERGENT
Newly formed oceanic lithosphere is hot, thin, and low in density, but it ages, cools,
N thickens, and becomes denser as it moves away from the Mid-Oceanic Ridge. In oceanic

V plate convergence, the older and denser plate descends into the mantle, leading to
common oceanic subduction zones, particularly in the southwestern Pacific Ocean.
E
R CONVERGENT
CONVERGENT
G
E
N
T CONVERGENT
C
O
CONVERGENTConvergence of Two Plates Carrying Continents

CONVERGENT
When two converging plates bear continents, neither can sink deeply into the mantle due
N to their low densities. Instead, they collide and crumple, forming massive mountain chains

V like the Himalayas, Alps, and Appalachians. This collision occurs because continents, like
logs in a lake, are less dense than the material beneath them, preventing subduction.
E
R CONVERGENT
CONVERGENT
G
E
N
T CONVERGENT
T
R
A
TRANSFORM
Transform= to change

N
S
F
TRANSFORM
A transform plate boundary forms where two plates slide horizontally past one
another as they move in opposite directions (Andreas Fault is a transform boundary
between the North American plate and the Pacific plate. Frequent earthquakes occur

TRANSFORM
O along transform plate boundaries. This type of boundary can occur in both oceans
R and continents.

M
F
A
U
TRANSFORM
L
T TRANSFORM
I N S U M M A R Y
teaches us that plates are
Plate Tectonics
constantly shifting

are where sections of the Earth's


Plate Boundaries
crust fit together

convergent, divergent, and


3 Types of Boundaries
transform
ANATOMY
OF A TECTONIC
5 5 PLATE
Anatomy of a tectonic plates

4. Plates float on the hot, plastic asthenosphere and move horizontally.

5. Plates behave like ice slabs on a pond, allowing minor vertical movements.

6. Plate margins are tectonically active, leading to earthquakes, mountains,


and volcanoes.

7. The interior of a plate is generally tectonically stable.

8. Plates move at different rates, causing continents and oceans to migrate


across Earth's surface.
Why plates move: The
5.6 earth as a heat engine
Why plates move: The earth
as a heat engine
Mantle plumes and hot
spots

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