DIGITAL NATIVES AND TECHNOLOGY FOR L2

LEARNING OUTSIDE OF THE CLASSROOM

ABSTRACT
Extensive research has examined the classroom-based technologies that
promote L2 learning among learners, who can be considered digital
migrants. This mixed-method study, however, was conducted with digital
natives and examined the technologies and technological features of
educational resources appealing to them, in order to practice English
outside of the classroom. The quantitative data were collected through a
35-question survey administered to 158 children (aged 9-11); they were
enrolled in a private school in the Southeast of Mexico. The qualitative
data were collected through individual interviews from a subsample of 15
learners, who exhibited positive or negative attitudes for technology in
the survey. The data analyses revealed that children felt confident using
a wide variety of technologies. Nonetheless, they rarely related the use
of technology for L2 learning outside of the class. They opted for
technological features that fostered L2 learning in line with the cognitive
processes that characterize their age.

Keywords: Foreign Language Instruction; Educational Technology;

Elementary School; Children.

INTRODUCTION
Worldwide, educational reforms are sanctioning two curricular
changes. One relates to the learning of English as a foreign/second
language (L2) at a very young age (Murray & Chris-tison, 2011; Izquierdo, García, Garza
& Aquino, 2016
). Reforms acknowledge English has become a global
language for communication, and recognize its importance for social
and business interaction. Thus, through education learners are
expected to develop the necessary competence to communicate
efficiently in the L2 (World Bank, 2007; Mexican Ministry of Education [Secretaría
de Educación Pública, SEP], 2017
).

The second change relates to the integration of information and

communication technologies (ICT) in education (OECD, 2015; SEP, 2017). In
this way, the reforms sustain the use of technology in education
creates valuable learning opportunities and brakes barriers of age,
gender and time. Therefore, teachers are expected to enhance the
learning process through the use of ICT across all areas of the
curriculum, including L2 learning (Coyle & Reverte, 2017; Izquierdo, De La Cruz, Aquino,
Sandoval & García, 2017
).

The use of technology for English Language learning constitutes an

innovative aspect in these curricular changes. Nonetheless, over many
years, researchers have argued that technology can be used to
promote L2 acquisition, for instance through a multi-sensory
experience, integrating images, graphics, videos, audio-recordings and
different text types (Izquierdo, 2014; Gimeno-Sanz, 2016). To this end, numerous
studies have examined how different types of technologies could
enhance L2 education among learners (Macaro, Handley & Walter 2011; Golonka,
Bowles, Frank, Richardson & Freynik, 2014
), who can be considered digital migrants.

These learners are adolescents or adults who hold limited knowledge

of ICT, and they are newcomers to education where they are exposed
to the L2 through technologically enhanced input and output tasks
(Izquierdo, Simard & Garza, 2015). These studies, for instance, illustrate that with
this learner clientele language learning can be facilitated through the
use of blogging (Hsu, 2016), mobile devices (Bikowski & Casal, 2018), multimedia
(Izquierdo, 2014), technology-mediated environments (Hung & Higgins, 2016),
virtual worlds (Newgarden & Zheng, 2016), and Web 2 technologies (Liu, Wang & Tai,
2016
), to mention a few ICT examples.

Conversely, the use of technology with very-young digital natives has

received less attention. Digital natives are children who have had
access to technology during their short lives, and have developed high
levels of digital literacy. Different to their older counterparts, digital
natives come to L2 education with stronger technological profiles
(e.g. Yáñez & Coyle, 2011; Lee, 2012; Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2014; Liu, Wang & Tai, 2016). For
them, technology does not necessarily entail an innovative aspect of
the educational experience. With digital natives, a small group of
researchers has examined the technologies their teach ers have access
to in the classrooms and how teachers maximize the use of these
technologies in different types of L2 edu cational contexts (Hwang, Chen,
; ; ;
Shadiev, Huang, & Chen, 2014 Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2014 Izquierdo et al., 2017 Navarro-Pablo, López-
Gándara & García-Jiménez, 2019
). Another group of researchers has started
examining the technologies digital native children have recourse for
fun in their free time and whether these technologies facilitate
incidental L2 learning (Hannibal, 2019).
With digital natives, however, further research is needed in order to
explore the technologies that children purposefully rely on for L2
learning outside of the classroom without guidance. Moreover, there is
little information on their attitudes towards the use of technology for
L2 learning outside of the classroom, and the technological features
that appeal to them in educational resources. With very young digital
natives, it is necessary to consider that while they may feel confident
using technology (Cartelli, 2013; Hannibal, 2019), when it comes to language
teaching, the children: "are not simply small adults and in terms of
human development they have very special needs" (Murray & Christison, 2011,
p. 84
). Murray and Christison (2011, p. 70) acknowledge that: "[a]s a group, young
learners are very diverse. They come from different backgrounds, have
different profiles." The use of various technologies can cater for their
differences and enhance their learning experience (Yáñez & Coyle, 2011).

Nonetheless, very young learners need to be able to identify resources

that gradually require more logical thinking and problem solving, and
help them focus on achievable language learning goals (Moon,
; ; ;
2000 Cameron, 2001 Murray & Christi-son, 2011 Hwang et al., 2014
). In this regard, Cameron
(2001)
and Moon (2000) argue educational resources implicitly rely on
conventions that adults have already acquired, such as reading
instructions, following logical sequences for task completion,
information inferencing, etc.

Young learners, however, may lack those conventions. L2 educational

resources, which require creativity, but are demanding in terms of
analytical thinking (Campbell & Jane, 2012), may be overwhelming if they do
not include appropriate support too (Liu, Wang & Tai, 2016). Thus, Moon
,
(2000) Murray & Christison (2011)
indicate children need educational resources
that emphasize oral over written guidance, include sequencing and
images which help them process the L2 without accessing highly
cognitive-demanding processes.

Due to the need of research that explores the L2 ICT resources digital
natives rely on outside of the class, this study addressed the following
research questions: RQ1. What kind of everyday life technologies do
children, classified as digital natives, intentionally use for L2 learning?
RQ2. What attitudes do they display towards the use of ICT for L2
learning outside of the classroom? RQ3. What technological features
do they prefer in L2 educational resources?
METHODOLOGY
In order to answer these questions, a mixed-method study with a
sequential design (Creswell, 2018) was conducted. The quantitative phase
was completed using a descriptive design, where data were col lected
from a group of Grade 5 learners through a questionnaire. The
qualitative phase was completed through the use of a collective case
study with a subsample of learners, who exhibited very positive or
negative attitudes in the questionnaire. These learners participated in
a semi-structured interview. In both phases, these dimensions were
explored:

• Technological access. It is related to the availability of ICT at

school and at home. Through this dimension, we explored the
resources available for the participants and aspects, which could
limit their exposure to ICT, such as time restriction, parents'
prohibition to access ICT and bandwidth.
• Kinds of technologies. Considering previous classifications of
children technologies (Macaro, Handley & Walter, 2011; Navarro-Pablo, et al., 2019),
the following resources were considered: hardware (PC's,
laptops, tablets, mobile phones and whiteboards), software
(browsers, media players, multimedia, and office suits), e-files
(ebooks, music and films), websites and apps (online materials,
smartphone apps, web games and video watching), social media
(virtual communities and social networks), communication
services (e-mails and instant messaging apps), and online
learning environments (book supplementary resources and
apps).
• Attitudes towards the use of ICT. Considering the work of Mahfouz
& Ihmeideh (2009)
and Yáñez & Coyle (2011), for instance, the attitudes were
understood as the explicit expression of positive or negative
feelings. Based on this definition, both positive and negative
attitudes towards the use of various types of ICT for L2 learning
were explored.
• Features of technological resources for L2 learning. This
dimension explored three groups of technological features.
Considering learner-related principles (Hémard, 2006), the first group
of features explored learning level, learner fit and learner
support. Second, the features that facilitate L2 exposure (Izquierdo,
2014
) were considered: aural, visual and textual input. The third
group of features related to doing and thinking activities (Campbell
 ), which are congruent with the cognitive development
& Jane, 2012

of the learners.

Context & Participants

The study was conducted in a Mexican private school, where learners

have access to many kinds of technologies: computers, projectors and
tablets. The school has an English lab with computers, software,
multimedia applications, digital books, speakers, and projection
screens. This school has been incorporated into Cambridge schools and
works with printed materials, which provide complementary
technological resources for children to follow up on the lessons.

All the children had studied in this school since Grade 1. They held an
international language proficiency certificate for young learners from
the University of Cambridge. In their classrooms, they had a computer
with projector, iPads, and Internet access. Attendance in the English
lab was compulsory twice a week under the supervision of their English
teacher. For the study, the participants were organized into two
groups.

One group with 80 children (36 boys and 44 girls) from 4th and 5th
grades participated in the piloting of the quantitative and qualitative
instruments. They all answered the questionnaire, and three children,
between nine and eleven years old in 5th grade, completed the
interview. The second group completed the final version of the
instruments. The final questionnaire version was administered to 78
grade five children (42 boys and 36 girls). In order to deepen our
understanding of the children's perceptions towards ICT, a subsample
of 5th grade learners was interviewed. These interviewees were
selected on the bases of clear divergent answer patterns in the
questionnaire (Dörney, 2010; Creswell, 2018).

To this end, children's questionnaire answers were examined and a

group of learners, whose answer tendencies suggested very
positive (n=6) or negative (n=6) attitudes were selected. The first
author, who had been the children's former English teacher and was
known by their parents, administered all instruments. Prior to the
study, the school authorities granted permission for the realization of
the study.

Quantitative Data Collection Instrument

The questionnaire (available at www.jesusizqui-
erdo.net/cuestionarioTIC.pdf) elicited information about the ICT
children used, what they used them for and what they liked about
them. The questionnaire items were based on a literature review, as
suggested by Dörnyei (2010) and Fabila, Minami & Izquierdo (2012). It included items
with rating scales where children expressed their opinions through
degrees of agreement or frequency and items with multiple-choice
answers.

The questionnaire was in Spanish and included four sections. Section

1 explored learners' ICT access. Five questions with multiple-choice
answers solicited information about the devices the learners had at
home and school, Internet availability and what they used technology
for. Section 2 explored the technologies children use. It included ten
items with a frequency scale, where they indicated how often they used
ICT and the purpose for using them. Section 3 examined children's
attitudes about ICT for L2 learning. It included ten items with an
agreement scale, where learners expressed what they liked about
using the devices for in terms of L2 learning and the L2 area they felt
technologies were helpful for. Section 4 focused on the ICT features
they liked the resources to have for practicing the L2. It included ten
questions with multiple-choice answers. After the piloting of the
questionnaire five items were modified, as they were unclear to the
children.

Qualitative Data Collection Instrument

In the second phase of the study, a semi-structured interview was

administered in order to complement the results of the questionnaire.
The items of the questionnaire from sections 2, 3 and 4 that elicited
the most frequent negative and positive answers; thus, they were used
as the initial interview questions. Through these questions, the
participants expanded their answers to questionnaire items 8 and 9 in
section 2; 18 and 23 in section 3; and 33, 34 and 35 in section 4.

RESULTS
The following sections present the quantitative and qualitative results.
In both cases, first the analysis procedures are described; then, the
results are presented.
Questionnaire Results

The data in the first questionnaire section were checked to identify the
number of learners, who responded to one of the possible answers to
the questions. Tables 1 and 2 present the percentage distribution of
learners across the answers. Table 1 shows 86% of the participants
had access to ICT not only at school, but also at home and other places.
Most learners (97%) had access to Internet connectivity; and many
(59%) of them used ICT for more than four hours daily. Table 2 shows
students were immersed in technological access and had sustained
Internet connectivity.

Table 1 Children's Access to Technology

Item and answer choices Distribution (%)

1. Places of access
a) Home 1
b) Home and school 13
c) Home, school and other places 86
2. Internet
a) Yes 97
b) No 3
3.Time
a. 0-2 hours 10
b. 2-4 hours 31
c. More than 4 hours 59

Source: own elaboration.

Table 2 Children's Technologies at Home and at School

a) Computer/laptop b) iPod c) iPad or ta blet d) Videogames

25 25 25 25
9 9 9 9
3 3 3
1 1 1
3 3 3
11 11 11
23 23 23
2 2
1 1
78 41 76 70

Source: own elaboration.

Section 2 of the questionnaire examined the frequency of children's

use of technologies for English Language learning at home or at school,
but outside of the class. Table 3 presents the percentage distribution
of learners across the scale and the choices for each questionnaire
item. Cronbach analyses of the frequency-scale section answers
revealed a reliability alpha of .665, with corrected correlation
coefficients between .3 and .2 for items 7, 9, 11 and 12, and between
.2 and .1 for item 13. Other items obtained a coefficient above .3. For
a better description, Table 3 in the following paragraph includes
commented results, merging the percentage of students who indicated
never and rarely or usually and always. This procedure facilitated
reporting the use of technology as frequent (i.e. usually + always) or
infrequent (i.e. never + rarely).

Table 3 Children's L2 Learning Purpose of ICT Use

ICT Use Never Rarely Us

6. To read stories 24.4% 62.8% 12.
7. To write their work in English 5.1% 29.5% 55.
8. To practice listening with songs 9% 23.1% 33.
9. To chat using Facebook or WhatsApp 67.9% 24.4% 5.1
10. To practice what I learn in my class 10.3% 32.1% 41.
11. To learn new words 5.1% 24.4% 50.
12. To look up unknown words 20.5% 60.3% 16.
13. To complete homework using Word 78.2% 15.4% 5.1
14. To present with PowerPoint 80.8% 17.9% 1.3
15. To practice English using E-books with audio and video 14.1% 71.8% 11.

Source: own elaboration.

In Table 3, most students frequently used technologies to write in

English (65.4%), to practice listening through songs and videos
(67.9%), and to learn and practice vocabulary (70.5%). It also reveals
that approximately a half of the children frequently use technology to
practice what they learn in class (57.7%), a large percentage of
students infrequently use technology to chat with friends (92.3%), for
looking up new words (80.8%) or to complete schoolwork (93.6%) and
presentations (98.7%).

Section 3 examined the attitudes of the learners towards the use of

ICT for L2 learning. The distribution of children across the answer
choices is presented in percentages in Table 4. In this section,
Cronbach analyses revealed a reliability alpha of .558, with corrected
correlation coefficients between .3 and .2 for item 21, between .2 and
.1 for items 19 and 22, and below .1 for item 24 (-.048). Other items
obtained a coefficient above .3. In light of these coefficients, the results
from item 24 are not discussed. The results are commented, merging
the percentage of students who indicated very certain and certain, or
partly true and false in order to identify learners with positive or
negative attitudes towards L2 learning with ICT.

Table 4 Children's Attitudes Towards the Use of ICT

Items Very certain True Partly True

16. I like using ICTs to learn English 15.4% 60.3% 19.2%
17. It's easy to learn with computer 9.0% 24.4% 44.9%
18. I learn fast with computers 34.6% 16.7% 24.4%
19. I use ICTs to do my work 26.9% 32.1% 20.5%
20. I feel calm while I work 14.1% 29.5% 32.1%
21. I can learn without help 14.1% 32.1% 29.5%
22. I read instructions if it's necessary 25.6% 24.4% 28.2%
23. I am not afraid of ICTs 73.1% 15.4% 6.4%
24. I ask for help if the app fails 14.1% 32.1% 29.5%
25. I check language if I am not sure 21.8% 39.7% 26.9%

Source: own elaboration.

In regard to item 23 , the majority of the participants (88.5%) were

not afraid of the ICT. The results for item 16 indicated 75.7% of the
children liked using ICT to learn English. One third of the participants
(33.4%, item 17) felt that it was easy to learn using computers and
around half of the children considered they learn English faster using
computers than books (54.3%; item 18). More than a half (59%) liked
to use a computer to do their English work (item 19), and almost half
of the group (43.6%) indicated they felt calm while using computers.

In regards to using help sections, half of the children reported they

read instructions (item 22) only when necessary (50%). Furthermore,
most children (61.5%) checked the apps' language section (item 25)
only if they were not sure of their answers. In contrast, the answers
for item 21 showed that approximately half of the children thought
they could not learn English using ICT without adult support (53.9%).

Section 4 explored the ICT features of L2 educational resources that

appeal to children. Table 5 presents the percentage distribution of the
learners across the possible answers for each question. This table
reveals that, for vocabulary learning (item 26), half learners (52.6%)
preferred tasks that included the written form of the word with images.
In reference to the kinds of ICT environments they liked for L2 practice
(item 27), many learners (73.1%) preferred games, but showed little
interest in structured tasks, for instance, with word lists (10.3%).
Table 5 Technological Features of L2 Educational Resources Appealing to
Children

Distribution (%)
26. To learn new words, I like apps or software include
a) The written words only 14.1
b) Images with words 52.6
c) Videos with sounds 33.3
27. To practice new words, I like apps or software include
a) Word lists 10.3
b) Exercises using the words 16.7
c) Games 73.1
28. When there is information or instructions, I like:
a) Reading them 14.1
b) Listening to them 51.3
c) Ignoring them 34.6
29. To read a story in English, I like apps include
a) Text only 14.1
b) Audio and images 51.3
c) Text and audio 34.6
30. I prefer the electronic books to have:
a) Text only 7.7
b) Text and images 51.3
c) More images than text 41
31. To practice English, I like applications include
a) Music 84.6
b) Clapping and laughs 5.1
c) Other sounds 10.3
32. To practice English, I like applications include
a) Bright colors 74.4
b) Light colors 23.1
c) Black and white pages 2.6
33. When I use apps to practice English, I like:
a) Having the chance to correct the answers 3.8
b) Having a time limit 10.4
c) Having levels of challenge 85.9
34. To practice English, I prefer
a) Using simple apps without challenges 0
b) Moving up through all the levels of the application 17.9
c) Choosing the section or practice level I want 82.1
35. To start using an app, I
a) Check instructions 14.1
b) Just start 56.4
c) Start playing and if I can't, I ask or check instructions 29.5

Source: own elaboration.

The answers to item 29 indicate children liked resources that included

ICT, where they could be exposed to particular media combinations.
For instance, only a very small number of children reported liking the
reading tasks included written language only (14.1%). Instead, they
preferred reading tasks where they could listen to the story and see
images (51.3%); resources where children had written story in
paragraphs with audio files were less appealing (34.6%). As for E-
Books, item 30 revealed that most children (51.3%) liked them with
written language and images. Fewer children (41%) liked e-books with
more images than text.

A very small number of children (7.7%) liked E-Books which include

text only. Answers to items 29 and 30 show children liked resources
where L2 comprehension is supported with audio and images.
Questions 31 through 35 examined the features and properties of
applications children liked to practice the L2. The answers to items 31
and 32 indicated children liked apps that include images with bright
colors (item 32; 74.4%) and music (item 31; 84.6%).

The answers to item 33 further revealed that children liked apps with
varying challenge levels (85.9%), but only a few liked time limits
(10.4%). Moreover, the answers to item 33 indicated that having the
opportunity to correct an answer is important to a few children (3.8%).
Regarding item 34, most children (82.1%) liked selecting the app
section they want to start at rather than following a predetermined
sequence, or starting off from the first level (17.9%). Finally, item 35
revealed that instructions were not appealing to the majority of
children (56.4%), or read instructions only when they were unable to
accomplish the task (29.5%).

Interview Results

The audio-recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim. Then,

following Cre-swell's (2018) suggestions for interview data analysis, the
transcripts were first read in detail to identify relevant answers for each
interview questions. The identified answers were compiled in a table to
examine the answers of the two groups of participants, considering the
study dimensions. Then, all the answers from both groups were
contrasted. On the basis of this procedure, conclusions were made
about the study dimensions (Creswell, 2018).

The first block of questions elicited children's opinions about the use of
technology for L2 learning. Table 6 presents some excerpts that
illustrate children's thoughts in regard to two questions. The first one
related to L2 learning and the second one about the use of social
media. In their answers, young learners indicated they used some ICT
for deliberate language learning purposes, but were not able to see the
L2 benefit of using other ICT types. For instance, they related the use
of ICT to vocabulary and pronunciation learning through auditory
media. Nonetheless, they did not see the opportunity to practice
English through the use of social networks, which they accessed
despite age requirements and security concerns. Instagram, WhatsApp
and others social communication resources were used to communicate
in Spanish with friends through messages or private chat rooms,
because using the L2 did not seem natural.

Table 6 Children's Opinions About the Use of ITC for L2 Learning

Question Positive Attitudes Group Negative Attitudes Group

S9. New words and if I do not understand I se
8. Do you think you learn something
S4. Yes, some words. The pronunciation net. It appears where to click to know how to
listening to music in English?
them
S6. In Instagram, there is a section where you chat with your
9. Do you use social media to S3. Yes, we have a group in WhatsApp, but the
friends but I don't think it is safe, you can contact people you don't
communicate in English? it and maybe they are not interested in practicin
know

Source: own elaboration.

Table 7 presents children's opinions towards learning English using

technology. For the interviewers, English Language learning is
associated to the use of printed books rather than to ICT. While one
could expect their preference for the use of printed materials is related
to the possibility of damaging the computer equipment, their reasons
tightly connect with the guidance they receive from teachers as they
use their textbooks, and to their preoccupation of becoming distracted
during task completion by the features of the applications.

Table 7 Children's Attitudes Towards the Use of ITC for L2 Leaning

Question Positive Attitudes Group Non-Positive Attitudes Group

When you have an exam do you use the S4. There is so much information, it gives you more and S12. If you use Internet.... I feel that I study anot
books or the computer to study? sometimes it gives you things that are wrong is better with the book
Do you like to use the computer to S11. I like more the books, because if I use the computer, I S5. With the computer would be better, becau
practice? can get distracted with thousands of things I have there have to write, only answer the exercises and it w
S6. I am not worried about that, because I know how
Are you worried about breaking it down? S9. No because if something happens, I ask my
computers work

Source: own elaboration.

In their answers to questions in dimension 4, in Table 8, learners

clearly identified challenge as the feature that most appeals to them in
L2 learning resources. Without distinction of their initial attitudes,
children enjoyed the challenge that apps and ICT raise through
difficulty levels rather than time limit. When the difficulty level
increases and they are able to succeed, they feel that are learning as
their app record goes up. Moreover, difficulty levels allow them to
notice their strengths and capabilities to succeed. The excitement, that
challenge brings, makes instructions irrelevant since the use of the
apps can be worked out through the actual task completion.

Table 8 Children's Opinions About Technological Features in Educational

Resources

Non-Positive Attitudes
Questions Positive Attitudes Group
Group
S6. I don't like the ones with time limit, because S8. I like them with time and levels,
How do you prefer the ap
they stress me out. I like them with levels, because I think fast. S12. I like them with
plications to practice English
because it gets harder each time and you use levels, be cause the difficulty increases and
with levels or time limits?
them more and more I learn more
S4. I don't read the instructions. I am excited. I S7. If I see that it's easy I don't read them,
Do you read instructions? start playing and if I don't understand, then I read but if after that I don't understand, I go back
them and read them to be able to play

Source: own elaboration.

DISCUSSION
This study explored the technologies that very young, digital native,
learners intentionally prefer for L2 learning outside of the L2 class and
the technological features of educational resources which are appealing
to them. RQ1 examined what kind of everyday life technologies
children use. In line with recent ICT exploratory research with the
newer generations of young L2 learners (e.g. Hannibal, 2019), our results
indicate the children have access to a wide array of technologies inside
and outside of the L2 class. Nonetheless, our results also indicate that
access and use of technology for L2 learning do not equate. Both the
qualitative and quantitative data revealed that many of the resources
available to these children are not being used for L2 learning purposes.

One factor that explains this finding relates to their cognitive maturity,
and in turn, a possible lack of ability to identify technologies which
might be useful for language learning. Murray and Chris-tison (2011, p. 79) argue,
between seven and eleven years old, children need to learn how to
learn. In terms of ICT, this implies that children need guidance to
identify resources that are both learning-oriented and interesting
(Hwang et al., 2014; Edwards, Pemberton, Knight & Monaghan, 2002). In fact, the
participating children in the qualitative instrument iterated the need
for to guidance. Interestingly, however, the parents' and teachers'
guidance of these children are mostly concerned with the risks and
dangers that children can face while using the net.

RQ2 explored children's attitudes towards the use of different

technologies for L2 learning, and RQ3 explicitly inquired about the ICT
features of educational resources that appeal to children. In the
qualitative and quantitative data, children demonstrated good
attitudes towards using technology in different ways. This is congruent
with previous research, which indicates that technology can render the
L2 learning process enjoyable for very young learners (Campbell & Jane,
;
2012 Cartelli, 2013
). The data revealed the multimodality that digital
materials provide could influence children's perceptions about both the
ICT and resources they like (Edwards et al., 2002; Yáñez & Coyle, 2011). In this
multimodality, learners exhibited a listening-with-visual support
preference that is congruent with the theory of multimedia L2 learning
and age maturity.

In regard to multimodal learning, with adult L2 learners, Izquierdo

(2014)
demonstrates that the combination of verbal and non-verbal input
is particularly beneficial for L2 acquisition; in this combination, verbal
language provides learners with the linguistic resources they need in
their emerging L2 systems while non-verbal input, in the form of
images, supports comprehension of verbal language which might be
beyond the learners' current stage of language development. Our
results further reveal that, in this combination, children prefer aural
over written language.

explain that, for children, reading in comparison to

Murray & Christison (2011)

listening is a more cognitively, demanding process that slows them

down and prevents them from predicting narrative content, and
isolating main ideas. For children, listening, however, is more
enjoyable, as it allows them to draw on their creativity (Murray & Christison,
2011, p. 79
; see also Edwards et al., 2002).

As for children's little interest in instructions and feedback, our results

are congruent with children's cognitive maturity. Murray and Christison
(2011)
state that feedback is important for learners as it indicates
progress, gives confidence to continue and is a step to foster
autonomy. Nonetheless, young learners have difficulty following
instructions and attending to feedback, since logical thinking is still in
the process of development (Murray & Christison, 2011). This raised questions
about the design of effective technology-enhanced L2 resources (Hémard,
2006
).
While the answer to this question could ignite a full discussion paper,
on the bases of our participants' responses and literature on language
learning tasks for children (Moon, 2000; Murray & Christison, 2011; Campbell & Jane, 2012),
two principles can be put forward. The resources needs to present
simple tasks in terms of the executable processes, yet with increasing
levels of challenge. In these tasks, learners need to have extensive L2
input or output exposure, as in games (Sundqvist, & Sylvén, 2014),
communication devices (Hwang et al., 2014; Hung & Higgins, 2016), and resources
that they also use during their spare time (Hannibal, 2019).

CONCLUSION
Our study provides original quantitative and qualitative empirical data,
which suggest children have clear intuitions on the kinds of ICT they
like. Furthermore, they revealed that children opt for ICT features that
fostered L2 learning in line with the cognitive processes that
characterize their age: creativity, curiosity, and oral input-
dependence, for instance. Nonetheless, they rarely associate the use
of ICT to L2 learning outside of the class.

This could relate to their level of cognitive development, as at their

age, they may not be able to identify ICT which could help them
achieve specific L2 learning goals. It could also be that they do not
recognize the opportunity to practice and learn a L2 through ICT that
they associate with their daily life. Therefore, young learners cannot
be treated as adults, and thus, face their own challenges. The
realization of this study also brought about challenges regarding what
instruments to use, and how to control factors which could affect data
collection.

One problem that needed attention related to the children's ability to

provide reliable quantitative data (Butler, 2018). To overcome this issue,
different strategies were put forward. First, a mixed method design
became very valuable, as the qualitative results helped us compensate
for the quantitative instrument's moderate reliability coefficients. In
the interview, the children were able to elaborate upon their
quantitative answers. Second, an interview is intimidating for a child;
thus, the first author, who had been their former teacher, conducted
the interviews.
Third, during the pilot, we used instructions that these children were
familiar with when they answer school surveys. The findings in this
study then raise questions for future research not only about the
empirical and theoretical issues, which deserve attention when
examining digital natives' use of ICT for L2 learning. They also set the
bases for research questions regarding methodologies and instruments
that lead to the collection of reliable data from very young learners.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank to Darcy Stock at Universidad de Guanajuato for her
feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript.

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