National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Exploration Lessons from the

International Space Station

white paper
Background
The International Space Station is the world’s International Space Station crews have also
preeminent orbital microgravity platform. been part of a critical experiment, volunteering
For more than 20 years, scientists have used themselves as test subjects for research into
the space station to conduct research into human adaptation to microgravity. These long-
biological, physical, biomedicine, materials, duration demonstrations and experiments
and Earth and space science. Technology into the joint human-and-vehicle system are
demonstrations aboard the space station enabling future human exploration of the solar
have advanced state-of-the-art applications system. The station will operate through 2030,
with benefits both on Earth and in space. The continuing to offer benefits to humanity while
space station’s redundant systems enable the paving the way for commercial industry to meet
crew to test multiple environmental systems NASA’s needs in low-Earth orbit and beyond.
simultaneously, creating a unique testbed for
life support and environmental technology The International Space Station has five major
that will enable future exploration. Sensors goals and has realized significant advances in
deployed on the space station have validated each:
climate models and contributed to host of new • Enable deep space exploration.
information about Earth’s changing climate, • Conduct research to benefit humanity.
while space science instruments on the orbiting • Foster a U.S. commercial space industry.
laboratory have advanced our knowledge of • Lead and enable international collaboration.
phenomena like neutron stars and dark matter. • Inspire humankind.

2023 Moon to
Mars Architecture

Figure 1. This mosaic depicts the International Space Station pictured from the SpaceX Crew
Dragon Endeavour during a fly around of the orbiting lab that took place following its undocking
from the Harmony module’s space-facing port on Nov. 8, 2021.

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 1

The station’s first decade was dedicated to on-orbit
assembly. Its second was devoted to research and
technology development and learning how to conduct
these activities most effectively in space. The station is
now in its third and most productive decade, continuing to
advance research, create commercial value, and bolster
global partnerships. During this period, NASA will test and
validate exploration and human research technologies
to support deep space exploration, continue to return
medical and environmental benefits to humanity, and
lay the groundwork for a commercial future in low-Earth Figure 2.
orbit. Environmental
Control and Life
The space station offers a unique platform for Support Subsystem
demonstrating new technology in space, including the Diagram
technologies needed for the Artemis missions to the
Moon and future missions to Mars. Exploration-focused System, was designed for 85 percent water recovery
research and development on the station includes from crew urine. Over the last year, that performance
environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS), has improved to 87 percent thanks to analysis that
navigation, food storage systems, extravehicular activity showed there was still a margin against calcium sulfate
(EVA) suits, and human research, among others. This precipitation.
white paper details how technology developed on the
The combined water recycling system on the International
station and lessons learned from station operations
Space Station has now reached a theoretical 98 percent,
enable future exploration missions.
Mars-class efficiency thanks to another new device being
tested on board — the Brine Processor Assembly, which
Fly-Off Plans demonstrates the ability to recover additional water from
The International Space Station program tracks the key crew urine and reduce water waste. Special membranes
technologies and human health mitigations needed for in the system retain contaminates and pass water vapor
deep space exploration through a series of “fly-off” plans. into the cabin’s atmosphere, where it is captured and
These plans ensure that NASA completes all research that delivered to a water processing system.
must be done in the low-Earth orbit environment before
the end of the station’s operational life, planned for 2030. The Air Revitalization System has also evolved, with
The plans also account for technology demonstrations additional upgrades planned to launch in the near term.
that may be started on the space station but concluded A new generation Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly,
on commercial low-Earth orbit destinations after the known as the 4-bed CO2 scrubber, has demonstrated
station’s retirement. improved performance and reliability over its
predecessor. This improved performance has enabled
Environmental Control and lower carbon dioxide levels, improving crew health, and
Life Support Systems has reduced crew time for maintenance.
Since 2009, the regenerative ECLSS aboard the
International Space Station has been tested and The original Oxygen Generation Assembly is also
upgraded into the Exploration ECLSS, intended to being upgraded into the Advanced Oxygen Generation
support long-duration missions beyond low-Earth orbit. Assembly, which will fly to the space station in FY25. This
The system-level redundancy of the U.S. and Russian new system will feature a more robust cell stack design
segments, which can maintain critical functions in the that reduces mass and maintenance of replacement
event of failures, make the station an ideal testbed for parts, which NASA estimates will save hundreds of
this upgraded system. pounds in spares for future long-duration missions.

The initial ECLSS was an open-loop, non-regenerative A redesigned Sabatier carbon dioxide reduction system,
system. The Exploration ECLSS is a regenerative air which produces methane from CO2 and hydrogen, will
and water system. Ongoing upgrades will continue to also fly to the station in FY25. This will be a redesigned
improve reclamation of water and air and overall system reflight of a previous Sabatier system that failed because
reliability. of catalyst bed contamination and degradation.

The Water Recovery System provides clean water When integrated together, the Exploration ECLSS air
for astronaut use by recycling urine; cabin humidity systems will recover approximately 50 percent of the
condensate from crew sweat, respiration, and hygiene; oxygen from carbon dioxide. In addition, NASA has
and water recovered from the Air Revitalization System. been working on advanced carbon dioxide reduction
The Urine Processor Assembly, part of the Water Recovery technologies that will potentially recover more than 75

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 2

percent of oxygen from carbon dioxide. Those technology Composition Explorer (NICER) external payload studies
demonstrations are planned for late in the decade, either the composition of neutron stars and pulsars deep in
on the space station or follow-on commercial low-Earth the universe, adding to humanity’s understanding of
orbit destinations. astrophysics. The Station Explorer for X-ray Timing and
Navigation Technology (SEXTANT), a NICER experiment,
Equally important — if not more important than ECLSS detected pulsars’ repeated, consistent flashes of
loop closure — is ECLSS system reliability. One of the radiation to demonstrate X-ray navigation for the first
major lessons learned from ECLSS on the space station time in space. X-ray navigation uses the specific timing of
is that no matter how much systems are ground tested, pulsars to determine position, just as a GPS reciever on
new issues are discovered when they are integrated in Earth uses the timing supplied by GPS satellites. When
the space environment. Even after operating regenerative developed to an operational capability, X-ray navigation
ECLSS for over 14 years, NASA is still learning. could allow precision navigation anywhere in the solar
system.
While the proximity of low-Earth orbit enables relatively
easy launch of replacement components, long-duration Food Storage Systems
missions beyond low-Earth orbit must have either a highly The eXposed Root On-Orbit Test System (XROOTS)
reliable ECLSS or the ability to launch with thousands of experiment uses aeroponic and hydroponic systems to
pounds of spare parts. The ECLSS evolution and testing grow fresh food without space-consuming growth media.
that has occurred and is still planned on the space station XROOTS grows plants in the microgravity environment
has already improved system reliability, measured in and evaluates nutrient delivery and recovery techniques
spares mass required for a Mars mission, by more than over the course of a full plant growth cycle, from
35 percent. Additional testing on the orbiting laboratory, germination to maturity. The system uses multiple
coupled with ground testing, will continue to improve our independent growth chambers in parallel to evaluate
understanding of these systems and their reliability. alternative methods and configurations; the results could
lead to large-scale food production systems. This would
Navigation offer reductions in the weight requirements for such
The Orion spacecraft uses an optical navigation system systems and fresh food produced in situ, allowing more
called OpNav to voyage to and from the Moon. OpNav room for other valuable cargo.
uses images of the Moon and Earth, looking at their sizes
and positions to determine Orion’s angle and distance
from these bodies, to keep Orion on course. The system
also can help Orion autonomously return home if the
spacecraft loses communication with Earth.

The International Space Station is demonstrating the

effectiveness of this approach by testing OpNav. The
station investigation uses two cameras mounted on a
plate and offset by about 20 degrees. The plate is installed
in the station’s cupola, a seven-windowed observation
module, with the cameras pointing out one of the
windows. One camera captures images of stars and the
other takes photos of specified views of the Moon. OpNav
software then analyzes these images and determine the
station’s position in space. Since the station’s position is
always known, and the time at which a particular photo
was taken is also known, NASA engineers can compare
the OpNav algorithm results with the actual location to
judge the system’s accuracy.

The Sextant Navigation for Exploration Missions focuses

on stability and star sighting opportunities in microgravity.
Astronauts have demonstrated that the handheld sextant
intended for use on future Orion exploration missions can
successfully be used as a backup navigation capability in
a microgravity environment.

Another, more modern sextant technology on the Figure 3. Astronaut Frank Rubio checks tomato plants
space station is also contributing to future navigation growing inside the International Space Station for the
capabilities. The external Neutron-star Interior XROOTS space botany study.

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 3

Extravehicular Activities Human Research
Extravehicular activities, or spacewalks, have been critical Crew health and performance are critical to successful
to the assembly and maintenance of the International human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. NASA’s
Space Station. Similarly, spacewalks will be essential to Human Research Program investigates and mitigates
establishing and expanding our presence in cislunar the biggest risks to human health and performance,
space and on the lunar surface. To date, NASA astronauts providing essential countermeasures and technologies
aboard the station have performed more than 85 for human space exploration using the International
spacewalks, contributing to our understanding of working Space Station’s unique capabilities. Those risks include
outside in the vacuum of space. physiological effects from radiation, microgravity, and
planetary environments, as well as unique challenges in
As we look forward to cislunar and lunar exploration, the medical treatment, human factors, and behavioral health
station is also playing an important role in demonstrating support. The Human Research Program is responsible
technologies that will enable astronauts to work outside for understanding and mitigating these risks to astronaut
the Gateway lunar space station and on the lunar surface. health and performance to ensure crew members remain
These efforts include testing active thermal control healthy and productive during long-term missions
components and demonstrating the functionality of next- beyond low-Earth orbit.
generation spacesuits, as well as determining whether
crew members can complete certain suit maintenance
tasks in microgravity that would otherwise require
returning parts of the suit to the ground for evaluation
and testing.

Key Take-Aways

For more than 20 years, scientists have used the International Space Station to conduct
research into biological, physical, biomedicine, materials, and Earth and space science.

The International Space Station offers a unique platform for demonstrating new technology
in space, including the technologies needed for the Artemis missions to the Moon and future
missions to Mars.

Crew members aboard the International Space Stations have been a critical part of the
experiments, volunteering as test subjects for research into human adaptation to microgravity.

Exploration-focused research and development on the space station includes navigation,

environmental control and life support systems, food storage systems, extravehicular activities,
spacesuits, and human research.

2023 Moon to Mars Architecture Concept Review 4