Everything You Need to Know About Punctuation in English

What Is Punctuation?
Punctuation is defined as a set of symbols used to separate and clarify the meaning of
sentences and written elements. In other words, punctuation tells readers of your writing where
to pause, what words are quotations and which are clarifications, where words have been
omitted, and more. Read the resources below to get up to speed on commas, hyphens,
semicolons, and all other punctuation marks.

Your Guide to Punctuation in English

Learn the ins and outs of the types of punctuation and punctuation rules with the help of this
handy guide to acing apostrophes, perfecting parentheses, excelling at exclamation marks, and
more.

The 14 Punctuation Marks

1. Comma
2. Period/Full Stop
3. Colon
4. Ellipsis
5. Semicolon
6. Apostrophe
7. Hyphen
8. Dash
9. Quotation Marks
10. Question Mark
11. Exclamation Point
12. Slash
13. Parentheses
14. and Brackets

Punctuation Rules
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Comma Splice
Comma Before And
Comma Before Too
Comma After Question Mark
Commas in Dates
Oxford Comma
Quotation Marks in Titles
Quotation Marks Around a Word
Quotation Marks in Dialogue
Capitalization in Quotes
Semicolon vs. Colon vs. Dash
Capitalization After Colons

The 14 Punctuation Marks

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 1. Comma

Rules for Using Commas

Ah, the comma. Of all the punctuation marks in English, this one is perhaps the most misused.
And it’s no wonder. There are lots of rules about comma usage, and often the factors that
determine whether you should use one are quite subtle. But fear not! Below, you’ll find
guidance for the trickiest comma questions.

What is a comma?
While a period ends a sentence, a comma indicates a smaller break. Some writers think of a
comma as a soft pause—a punctuation mark that separates words, clauses, or ideas within a
sentence.

When to use commas

Commas have quite a few uses in English:
 Separating items in a list of three or more
 Connecting two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction
 Setting apart non-restrictive relative clauses
 Setting apart nonessential appositives
 Setting apart introductory phrases
 Setting apart interrupters and parenthetical elements
 Setting apart question tags
 Setting apart names in direct address
 Separating parts of a date
 Separating parts of a location, like a city and its country
 Separating multiple coordinating adjectives
 Separating quotations and attributive tags

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There are a lot of technical English words in that list, but don’t worry. We explain everything in
detail below.

Commas with lists

When you have a list that contains more than two elements, use commas to separate them.
Incorrect: Julie loves ice cream books and kittens.
Correct: Julie loves ice cream, books, and kittens.
Correct: Julie loves ice cream, books and kittens.
(The comma before the and in a list of three or more items is optional. See below, under “Serial
comma,” for more information.)
Your list might be made up of nouns, as in the example above, but it could also be made up of
verbs, adjectives, or clauses. Imagine, for a moment, that you have just finished doing three
chores. The chores were:
 Cleaning the house and garage
 Raking the lawn
 Taking out the garbage
If you were to list these three chores in a sentence, you would write:
I cleaned the house and garage, raked the lawn, and took out the garbage.
or
I cleaned the house and garage, raked the lawn and took out the garbage.

Serial comma (Oxford comma)

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As mentioned above, when you are listing three or more items, commas should separate each
element of the list. However, the final comma—the one that comes before the and—is optional.
This comma is called the serial comma or the Oxford comma.
Example: Simon needs bread, milk, and butter at the grocery store. (With serial comma)
Example: Simon needs bread, milk and butter at the grocery store. (Without serial comma)
Example: I still have to buy a gift, pack the suitcases, and arrange for someone to water the
plants while we’re at the wedding. (With serial comma)
Example: I still have to buy a gift, pack the suitcases and arrange for someone to water the
plants while we’re at the wedding. (Without serial comma)
Whether or not you use the serial comma is a style choice. Many newspapers do not use it.
Many trade books do use it. In your own writing, you can decide for yourself whether to use it—
just be consistent.
Keep in mind, though, that occasionally the serial comma is necessary for clarity.
I dedicate this award to my parents, Jane Austen and Albert Einstein.
The sentence above will almost certainly cause readers to do a double take. Without a serial
comma, it looks like “Jane Austen and Albert Einstein” is an appositive, rather than the second
and third elements in a list. To put it another way, the writer seems to be saying that her
parents are Jane Austen and Albert Einstein. A serial comma eliminates the possibility of
misreading, so even if you’re not using serial commas in your writing, make an exception for
sentences like this:
I dedicate this award to my parents, Jane Austen, and Albert Einstein.

Commas with but

Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction but if it is joining two independent clauses:
Incorrect: Cleo is a good singer but she’s an even better dancer.
Correct: Cleo is a good singer, but she’s an even better dancer.
If but is not joining two independent clauses, leave the comma out.
Incorrect: My teacher is tough, but fair.
Correct: My teacher is tough but fair.
Incorrect: Life is, but a dream.
Correct: Life is but a dream.

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Commas with and
When correcting a comma splice by adding and—that is, when joining two independent clauses
with and as a coordinating conjunction—put the comma before and.
When you have a list that contains only two items, don’t use a comma before the and.
Incorrect: My dog Charlie is cute, and smart.
Correct: My dog Charlie is cute and smart.
Incorrect: Cleo’s favorite activities are singing onstage, and relaxing in the sunshine.
Correct: Cleo’s favorite activities are singing onstage and relaxing in the sunshine.

Avoiding comma splices

When you want to join two independent clauses, you need a conjunction or
a semicolon; a comma alone isn’t strong enough to join them. This kind of mistake is called
a comma splice.
Incorrect: We were out of milk, I went to the store.
You can fix a comma splice by adding a conjunction or changing the comma to a semicolon.
Correct: We were out of milk, so I went to the store.
Correct: We were out of milk; I went to the store.
Or you can simply write the two independent clauses as separate sentences.
Correct: We were out of milk. I went to the store.

Commas with relative clauses

A clause that is nonrestrictive offers extra information about something you have mentioned in
a sentence, but that information isn’t essential for identifying the thing you’re talking about.
Nonrestrictive clauses are usually introduced by which or who and should be set off by commas.
Correct: Posey’s Cafe, which Chester recommended, is a fantastic restaurant.
The clause “which Chester recommended” is nonrestrictive because “Posey’s Cafe” is already
specific. Identifying it as the restaurant recommended by Chester doesn’t narrow it down any
further.

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Correct: My wife, whom I love dearly, is a brilliant physicist.
The clause “whom I love dearly” is nonrestrictive because you could remove it and it would still
be clear what person you’re talking—“my wife” is already specific.
A clause that is restrictive adds information that is necessary in order to identify whatever it is
referring to. Restrictive clauses are often introduced by that or who and should never be set off
by commas.
Incorrect: The cafe, that Chester recommended, is a fantastic restaurant.
Correct: The cafe that Chester recommended is a fantastic restaurant.
The clause “that Chester recommended” is essential information in the sentence above. If you
removed it, there would be no way to tell which restaurant you were talking about.

Commas with appositives

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that refers to the same thing as another noun in the
same sentence. Often, the appositive provides additional information about the noun or helps
to distinguish it in some way. If you could remove the appositive without changing the meaning
of the sentence, it is said to be nonessential and should be set off with commas. If the
appositive is necessary, it’s said to be essential and should not be set off with commas.

Nonessential appositives
My partner, Angela, is a wonderful cook.
The painter, one of the city’s most promising young artists, began showing his work in
galleries before he was sixteen.
Chocolate, my favorite treat, always makes me feel better after a bad day.

Essential appositives
Edgar Allan Poe’s poem “The Raven” is a classic.
Nick Jonas’s brother Kevin is the most underrated Jonas. The detective Sherlock Holmes
is one of literature’s greatest sleuths.

Commas with introductory phrases

A comma normally follows a participial phrase that introduces a sentence:

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 Grabbing her umbrella, Kate raced out of the house.
Confused by her sister’s sudden change in mood, Jill stayed quiet.
When an adverbial phrase begins a sentence, it’s often followed by a comma, but it doesn’t
have to be, especially if it’s short. As a rule of thumb, if the phrase is longer than about four
words, use a comma. You can also use a comma after a shorter phrase when you want to
emphasize it or add a pause for literary effect.
After the show, Cleo will be signing autographs.
Behind the building there is enough space to park two limousines.
Without knowing why, I crossed the room and looked out the window.
In 1816 life was very different.
Suddenly, a frightened black cat sprang from the shadows.
But if there is a chance of misreading the sentence, use the comma:
Incorrect: Before eating the family said grace.
Correct: Before eating, the family said grace.

Commas with dates

When writing a date in month-day-year format, set off the year with commas.
July 4, 1776, was an important day in American history.
I was born on Sunday, May 12, 1968.
If you are using the day-month-year format, however, commas are unnecessary.
Applications are due by 31 December 2024.
Use a comma between a day of the week and a date:
On Tuesday, April 13, at three o’clock, there will be a meeting for all staff.
Please join us on Saturday, June 10, 2023, for the marriage of Annie and Michael.
When you are referencing only a month and year, you don’t need a comma.
The region experienced record rainfall in March 1999.

Commas with coordinate adjectives

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When multiple adjectives modify a noun to an equal degree, they are said to be coordinate and
should be separated by commas. One way to tell whether the adjectives are coordinate is to try
switching the order of them. If the sentence still sounds natural, the adjectives are coordinate.
That man is a pompous, self-righteous, annoying idiot.
That man is a self-righteous, annoying, pompous idiot.
The sweet, scintillating aroma of cinnamon buns filled the kitchen.
The scintillating, sweet aroma of cinnamon buns filled the kitchen.
If multiple adjectives are used but are not coordinate—that is, if one of them is more closely
related to the noun being modified than the other(s), and thus they sound unnatural if the
order is changed—don’t separate them with a comma.
Incorrect: The adorable, little boy was eating ice cream.
Incorrect: The little, adorable boy was eating ice cream.
Correct: The adorable little boy was eating ice cream.

Commas with interrupters or parenthetical elements

Interrupters are little thoughts that pop up in the middle of a sentence to show emotion, tone,
or emphasis. A parenthetical element is a phrase that adds extra information to the sentence
but could be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. Both interrupters and
parenthetical elements should be set off with commas.
Incorrect: The weather I was happy to see was beginning to clear.
Correct: The weather, I was happy to see, was beginning to clear.
Incorrect: Geoff’s cooking skills if you can call them skills left something to be desired.
Correct: Geoff’s cooking skills, if you can call them skills, left something to be desired.
Incorrect: It was sadly the last day of camp.
Correct: It was, sadly, the last day of camp.
Incorrect: Mary unlike Anne is very organized.
Correct: Mary, unlike Anne, is very organized.

Commas between direct quotes and attributive tags

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An attributive tag is a phrase, like “they said” or “she claimed,” that identifies the speaker or
writer of a quote or piece of dialogue. Attributive tags can come before, after, or even in the
middle of a quote. Use commas to separate attributive tags from quotations.
The professor remarked, “How attentive you have been today!”
“Once you know the solution,” Tiffany said, “the whole problem seems very simple.”
“You have ice cream on your nose,” my friend giggled.
“When you leave the house,” my mother yelled, “don’t slam the door!”
If a quotation before an attributive tag ends in a question mark or exclamation point, however,
there’s no need for a comma.
Incorrect: “You have a spider on your nose!”, my friend yelled.
Correct: “You have a spider on your nose!” my friend yelled.
Incorrect: “Where did that spider come from?”, I asked.
Correct: “Where did that spider come from?” I asked.

Commas with quotation marks

In American English, commas always go before closing quotation marks.
“Pass me that thesaurus,” said Matthew.
“If you knew what was good for you, you’d finish that essay right now,” my roommate
said.
“We’re going down to the soup kitchen to help serve dinner,” her mother called.
In British English, however, unquoted punctuation typically follows the quotation marks. If you
are writing for a British audience, put the comma after the closing quotation mark.
(Furthermore, British English tends to use single quotes rather than double quotation marks.)

Commas with parentheses

Parentheses are used to give additional information to the reader—information that might
disrupt the flow of the sentence if written as a nonrestrictive clause. Commas may be placed
after the closing parenthesis but not before either the opening or the closing parenthesis. If the
sentence would not require any commas without the parenthetical material, it should not have
any commas with it.

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Correct: After opening the new cookie tin, Chester had a hard time replacing the lid.
Correct: After opening the new cookie tin (and eating several of the cookies), Chester had
a hard time replacing the lid.
Incorrect: After opening the new cookie tin, (and eating several of the cookies), Chester
had a hard time replacing the lid.
Incorrect: After opening the new cookie tin (and eating several of the cookies,) Chester had
a hard time replacing the lid.

Commas with question tags

A question tag is a word or short phrase that is added to the end of a statement to turn it into a
question. Writers often use question tags to encourage readers to agree with them. A question
tag should be preceded by a comma.
These willow trees are beautiful, aren’t they?
You didn’t actually write a 600-page vampire romance novel, did you?
I know, right?

Commas with direct address

When addressing another person by name, set off the name with commas.
Mom, I can’t find my shoes!
Cleo, there’s someone on the phone for you.
Hello, Chester.

Commas with as well as

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You generally don’t need a comma before the connective phrase as well as. However, if you
want the element of a sentence introduced by as well as to be read as an interrupter or a
parenthetical, setting it off with a comma or pair of commas can communicate that.
Please proofread for grammatical mistakes as well as spelling.
Spelling mistakes, as well as grammatical errors, are distracting to readers.

Commas with such as

The phrase such as requires commas if it introduces a nonrestrictive clause.
Coniferous trees, such as pine and spruce, do not drop their needles in the winter.
If such as introduces a restrictive clause, omit the commas.
Trees such as pine and spruce do not drop their needles in the winter.

Commas with too

Using a comma before the adverb too is generally unnecessary but not incorrect.
I like bananas too.
I too like bananas.
Setting too off with commas can add emphasis or make the sentence easier to parse.
I like bananas, too.
I, too, like bananas.

Comma mistakes to avoid

There are a few places in a sentence where a comma should (almost) never appear.

Between subjects and verbs

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With few exceptions, a comma should not separate a subject from its verb.
Incorrect: My friend Cleo, is a wonderful singer.
Writers are often tempted to insert a comma between a subject and verb this way because
speakers sometimes pause at that point in a sentence. But in writing, the comma only makes
the sentence seem stilted.
Correct: My friend Cleo is a wonderful singer.
Be especially careful with long or complex subjects:
Incorrect: The things that cause me joy, may also cause me pain.
Correct: The things that cause me joy may also cause me pain.
Incorrect: Navigating through snow, sleet, wind, and darkness, is a miserable way to travel.
Correct: Navigating through snow, sleet, wind, and darkness is a miserable way to travel.

In compound subjects or objects

In general, don’t put a comma between two nouns that appear together as a compound subject
or compound object.
Incorrect: Cleo, and her band will be playing at Dockside Diner next Friday.
Correct: Cleo and her band will be playing at Dockside Diner next Friday.
Incorrect: Cleo will wear a sparkly red blazer, and high heels.
Correct: Cleo will wear a sparkly red blazer and high heels.
Occasionally, when a subject or object is made up of two items and the second item is
parenthetical, or both items are long, the second item can be set off between two commas.
She, and her cat, live there.
The irritating behavior of certain other members of the food coop, and the recent steep
increase in prices of much of the produce there, inevitably dominated the conversation.
In these cases, the writer is using commas to let the reader know where in a sentence emphasis
and pauses should fall. They are not grammatically necessary, so the compound subjects still
take plural verbs.

In compound predicates

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A compound predicate is what you have when the subject of a sentence is shared by more than
one verb without being repeated. In a compound predicate that contains two verbs joined by a
coordinating conjunction, a comma should rarely be used between the verbs
Incorrect: Cleo will sing, and play the banjo.
Correct: Cleo will sing and play the banjo.
It’s easiest to make this mistake when the predicate is made up of long verb phrases.
Incorrect: I meant to buy tickets for Cleo’s show, but ran out of time.
Correct: I meant to buy tickets for Cleo’s show but ran out of time.
However, it’s occasionally helpful to use a comma in a compound predicate to prevent
misreading:
Correct: Cleo spotted the man who entered the diner, and waved.
In the sentence above, you need the comma to make clear that it was Cleo who waved, not the
man.

Between verbs and their objects

Don’t separate a transitive verb from its direct object with a comma.
Incorrect: I’m glad I trained, Charlie not to beg for scraps.
Correct: I’m glad I trained Charlie not to beg for scraps.
Incorrect: Mary said, she likes chocolate.
Correct: Mary said she likes chocolate.

With correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that come in pairs (such as either/or, neither/nor,
and not only/but also) and connect words or phrases in a sentence to form a complete thought.
Typically, commas are unnecessary with correlative conjunctions.
Incorrect: Either the blue shirt, or the red sweater will look good with your jeans.
Correct: Either the blue shirt or the red sweater will look good with your jeans.
Incorrect: You can wear a pashmina not only for warmth, but also for fashion.
Correct: You can wear a pashmina not only for warmth but also for fashion.

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Between articles and nouns
Don’t use a comma between an article and a noun.
Incorrect: The company managers accidentally scheduled the, meeting for Saturday.
Incorrect: A, bouquet of flowers may be created using more than one type of flower.
Incorrect: I’ll have an, apple.
Correct: The company managers accidentally scheduled the meeting for Saturday.
Correct: A bouquet of flowers may be created using more than one type of flower.
Correct: I’ll have an apple.
When speaking, we often pause while we think of the next word we want to say. In writing,
though, there’s usually no reason to add this pause. If you’re writing dialogue and you
specifically want to convey a pause while someone is thinking, use an ellipsis: I’ll have an . . .
apple.

With than comparisons

Don’t use a comma before than when you’re making a comparison.
Incorrect: This box is lighter, than that box.
Correct: This box is lighter than that box.
Incorrect: Hardcover books are more expensive, than paperback books.
Correct: Hardcover books are more expensive than paperback books.

2. Period/Full Stop

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Period in Punctuation: Rules & Examples
A period, or “full stop,” is a punctuation mark in English that expresses the end of a sentence
and sometimes abbreviations. It is one of the most used punctuation marks and the most
common way to conclude a sentence.
Period usage may seem easy enough, but there are a few rules that can get confusing, such as
where to put periods in quotation marks or how to use them in abbreviations. In this guide, we
explain everything you need to know to use periods like an expert!

What is a period?
A period, also known as a “full stop” in British English, is a punctuation mark that looks like a
tiny circle or dot. It appears at the bottom of a written line and directly follows the preceding
character without a space.
Example: etc.
Periods convey a definitive pause. In spoken English, a speaker will briefly stop talking in
between sentences—the period represents that momentary break in written English. The pause
indicated by a period is a significant one, more pronounced than the pause from other
punctuation marks like a comma or semicolon.
The main use of a period is to express the end of certain sentences, but it can also be used to
show shortened words or removed information. It also has unique uses in mathematics and
computing, as the “dot” in “dot com.”
Periods are one of the most common punctuation marks in English, with one study finding they
make up around half of all punctuation marks used.

What does a period do?

When it comes to English grammar, a period or full stop has two main purposes: ending a
sentence and indicating an omission.

End a sentence

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The primary function of a period is to signal the end of a sentence. Periods are one of
three punctuation marks for the end of a sentence , along with question marks and exclamation
points.
You can’t put a period at the end of every sentence, however. Specifically, you only use a period
to end declarative sentences (statements) or imperative sentences (commands).

Indicate an omission
The secondary purpose of a period is to indicate that some information has been removed, such
as letters in a word. In particular, periods are often used in abbreviations, especially Latin
abbreviations like etc., i.e., e.g., c., and et al.
Periods are also sometimes used for initials when only the first letter of a word or name is
present, such as in H. G. Wells. Three periods together make a new punctuation mark called
an ellipsis, which can indicate that some words or entire sentences have been omitted (we
explain more about ellipses below).

When should you use periods?

Like all punctuation, periods should only be used under the right circumstances. Below, we
explain precisely when to use periods in your writing.

Sentences
Periods come at the end of declarative and imperative sentences. These sentences are typically
simple statements, communicating information without urgency. If spoken out loud, the speaker
would use a neutral or calm voice, without excessive emotion.
If, however, you want to add emotion or extra emphasis to a statement or command, you would
use an exclamation mark instead of a period. Exclamation marks represent excitement, urgency,
or yelling in written English. Consider the example:
Binsa wore her sister’s gown to the party.
Because a period is used, this sentence is a basic declaration. There’s nothing right or wrong
about the statement; it’s just communicating a simple, if not boring, fact.
Binsa wore her sister’s gown to the party!

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Because of the exclamation mark, this sentence is now an exclamation—there’s a new layer of
meaning. It suggests that the speaker is outraged, excited, or otherwise alarmed about what’s
going on. Maybe Binsa didn’t ask her sister before borrowing the dress!

Indirect questions
Indirect questions are declarative sentences that talk about a question indirectly, such as
describing a person asking a question. Because these are technically declarative sentences and
not interrogative sentences (questions), they use a period instead of a question mark.
Kendal asked what time it was.
However, if the question is stated directly, use a question mark instead of a period.
Kendal asked, “What time is it?”

Abbreviations and initials

The use of periods in abbreviations and initials varies from case to case, country to country, and
even style guide to style guide. For example, the abbreviation for “doctor” is “Dr.” in American
English and “Dr” without a period in British English.
In American English, periods are also used to abbreviate formal titles: Mr./Mrs., Dr., Lt., and Rep.
to name a few. In some style guides, you would abbreviate academic degrees using periods such
as B.A. for Bachelor of Arts or Ph.D. for Doctor of Philosophy.
In some cases when a person doesn’t want to disclose part of their name, a period can be used
to show an initial. For example: A. A. Milne.
Despite the individual cases, there are a few uniform rules you can follow to make things easier:
 Abbreviations for specific time periods often use periods, including abbreviated months
(Jan., Dec.) and days (Mon., Sat.).
 Abbreviations for metric units of measures do not use a period (cm, kg). On the other
hand, abbreviations for non-metric units of measurement, like the American system, use
a period (in., lbs.).
 If a person uses initials for only part of their name, use periods (J. R. R. Tolkien). If a
person uses two or more initials to abbreviate their entire name, do not use periods.
(FDR, MLK).
 Latin abbreviations like etc., e.g., c., and i.e. always use periods.

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There’s another rule worth mentioning as well. If a sentence ends with an abbreviation that
uses a period, do not add a second period. The period in the abbreviation is sufficient.
Incorrect: They spent the day cleaning their living room, kitchen, bedroom, etc..
Correct: They spent the day cleaning their living room, kitchen, bedroom, etc.
Even so, it’s perfectly acceptable to add a comma, semicolon, or colon after a period, as long as
the period is used for an abbreviation.
Leafy green vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, kale, etc., are an excellent source of
nutrition.
Another common use of periods for abbreviations is with the time periods a.m. (“ante
meridiem”) and p.m. (“post meridiem”). Although periods in a.m. and p.m. are technically
correct, it is becoming increasingly popular to simply write am or pm without periods.
Periods were once common for acronyms as well, however, that usage is not as popular today.

Other uses
Periods are used outside of grammar as well. In mathematics, many countries use periods
instead of commas to separate the decimal part of a number (3.14).
Periods are also used in computing languages to separate elements, such as in URLs
(grammarly.com) or file names (setup.exe).

How periods are used

Periods make more sense when you see them in action. Below, we present some examples of
how periods are used in their common forms.
When periods are used with quotation marks, parenthesis, and ellipses, the rules get a little
more complicated. We discuss each of these individually in the following sections.

Sentences
If a sentence is either declarative or imperative, place the period directly after the final word.
It’s customary to leave a single space after a period before beginning a new sentence.
English is not an easy language.
Don’t arrive late again.

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However, there are exceptions to this rule, chiefly if the sentence ends in either of the
following:
 a quote that ends in a question mark or exclamation mark
 a proper noun that ends in a question mark or exclamation mark
In these cases, no period is necessary.
Incorrect: Robert De Niro’s character Travis Bickle famously asks, “Are you talkin’ to me?”.
Correct: Robert De Niro’s character Travis Bickle famously asks, “Are you talkin’ to me?”
Incorrect: It’s hard to pick just one, but my favorite Taylor Swift song is “… Ready for It?”.
Correct: It’s hard to pick just one, but my favorite Taylor Swift song is “… Ready for It?”
Incorrect: Adelina wanted to become a doctor after watching the anime Cells at Work!.
Correct: Adelina wanted to become a doctor after watching the anime Cells at Work!

Periods and quotation marks

When writers get confused about periods, it’s usually because they aren’t sure where to put
them in relation to other nearby punctuation, in particular quotation marks. In American
English, the period goes inside the closing quotation mark at the end of a sentence.
My mother loved to remind me of the old saying “waste not, want not.”
Phillip said, “I can’t remember where I heard about the banjo concert, but I sure want to
go.”

Periods and parentheses

When a complete, independent sentence is entirely enclosed by parentheses, the period goes
inside the closing parenthesis:
Charlie scarfed up every Cheeto that fell out of the bag. (I wasn’t fast enough to stop
him.) At least we won’t have to sweep the floor.
But, if the parenthetical material is nested inside another sentence, the period should go on the
outside:
Charlie barked wildly when he caught the scent of fresh bacon (his favorite).

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Ellipses
An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) looks like three periods in a row with spaces in between them. There
are two main uses for ellipses. One is to show that part of a quote has been omitted:
Hamlet asked whether it was “nobler . . . to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous
fortune or to take arms against a sea of troubles.”
In the sentence above, the words “in the mind” have been omitted from the quote.
Occasionally, you might need to leave out part of a quote because it’s irrelevant or makes the
quote hard to understand in the context of the sentence. The ellipsis shows that you have left
something out.
You can also use an ellipsis for literary effect, to represent a dramatic pause or a thought that
trails off. Sometimes, this type of ellipsis is also referred to as “suspension points.”
The bus was supposed to come at 3:00, so we waited and waited . . . and waited.
Wait a minute . . . If you’re not watching Charlie, who is?
I guess we could meet you there later. If there’s time . . .
This usage is fine in fiction, but you should avoid it in formal writing.

Period FAQs

What is a period symbol?

A period symbol is a punctuation mark that expresses the end of a sentence or an abbreviation.
It looks like a tiny circle or dot at the bottom of a written line.

How do you use a period in a sentence?

Periods are placed at the end of declarative sentences (statements) and imperative sentences
(commands). They’re also placed at the end of abbreviated words within a sentence.

Do periods go in quotation marks?

21
In American English, periods are placed inside quotation marks, before the closing quotation
mark.

3. Colon

When to Use a Colon, With Examples

A colon introduces an element or series of elements that illustrates or amplifies the information
that precedes the colon.
Though using a colon may seem confusing, its function is straightforward. Think of it as an arrow
that points to the information following it. When a colon appears in a sentence, it usually gives
the silent impression of “as follows,” “which is/are,” or “thus.”
Still confused? Read on to learn everything you need to know about the grammatical colon:
what it is, when you should use one, when not to use one, and the difference between a colon
and a semicolon.

What is a colon?
A colon is a punctuation mark that’s used to connect sentences, put emphasis on a word or
phrase, or introduce a quote or explanation.
The rules for using a colon can change depending on how you use it, and we’ll explain how in a
moment, but the two things it connects (be that a list or sentences) must be closely related.
That is, whatever follows a colon should be connected to what came before it.

When to use colons

A colon can be used to separate two independent clauses when the second clause is directly
related to the first clause (not just vaguely related), or when the emphasis is on the second
clause.
While you can also use a semicolon or a period between two independent-yet-related clauses,
the colon is a little softer than the period, but a little harder than the semicolon.
Here’s an example of how to use a colon.
There are three types of muscle in the body: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.

22
The colon in this sentence signals that you are about to learn the names of the three types of
muscles the sentence already mentioned. We might silently read the sentence this way.
There are three types of muscle in the body (and they are): cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.
Colons are often used with lists, as in the example above. They can also be used to signal further
clarification.
We have two options here: stay and fight, or run like the wind.
One might silently read the above sentence in this way:
We have two options here (and they are as follows): stay and fight, or run like the wind.

When should you use a colon?

There are many times when a colon might be used in your writing: Here are a few.

1. Lists
Colons are most often used to introduce lists.
Taylor Swift has written a few songs about John Mayer: “Dear John,” “The Story
of Us,” and “Would’ve, Could’ve, Should’ve.”

2. Nouns or noun phrases

Colons can be used before a noun or a noun phrase.
The movie had everything I wanted: action and suspense.

3. Quotes
Colons can introduce a quotation.
He ended with the immortal words of Neil Young: “Rock and Roll can never die.”

4. Examples
A writer may use colons to illustrate their point by providing certain examples.

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 There is one big reason we don’t talk about Bruno: His premonitions frightened
the family.

5. Numbers
Colons are used to separate units of time and ratios.
11:11 a.m.
2:1

6. Titles and subtitles

A colon can be used to separate a movie, book, or another piece of work’s title from its
subtitle.
Colon-oscopy: The Best Punctuation Puns

When not to use a colon

A colon should not separate a noun from its verb, a verb from its object or subject complement,
a preposition from its object, or a subject from its predicate.
To illustrate, here is one of our sentences from above rewritten incorrectly.
The three types of muscle in the body are: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.
Putting the colon here separates the verb “are” from its subject complements (“cardiac,”
“smooth,” and “skeletal”).
When I graduate, I want to go to: Rome, Israel, and Egypt.
In this sentence, the colon separates the preposition “to” from its objects (“Rome,” “Israel,” and
“Egypt”). To write this sentence correctly, the colon should be removed.
When I graduate, I want to go to Rome, Israel, and Egypt.
Lastly, colons should not be used after “including,” “especially,” or other similar phrases. As we
explained earlier, a colon essentially replaces these words, so using them before one would be
redundant.

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Colon vs. semicolon
Think of the semicolon as the colon’s cousin; they serve a similar purpose but accomplish it in
different ways.
For example, a semicolon can also be used to connect two independent clauses, but it acts as
a conjunction rather than “as follows” or “including.”
I think I’ll go to the mall today; I need new pants and a pair of shoes.
The semicolon here takes the place of a conjunction because the second part expands on the
first part.
Semicolons can also be used to separate items in a lengthy list or if the list contains additional
punctuation that might trip up the reader.
My European football tour will consist of trips to Manchester, England; Glasgow,
Scotland; Lille, France; and Turin, Italy.

Should you capitalize the word after a colon?

In British English, the word following a colon is not capitalized unless it is a proper noun or
an acronym.
In American English, styles differ, but it is best to capitalize the first word after a colon if what
follows forms a complete sentence.
There were warning signs that he might not finish the marathon: He barely trained in
the days leading up to the race, and he wore the wrong shoes that day.
You should also capitalize the first word after a colon if it’s part of a proper noun.
There was only one team she wanted to play for: Seattle Storm.
No matter what stylebook you’re following, you should never capitalize the word after a colon if
it begins a list.

Colon examples

25
Here are five sentences that use colons in different ways.
 There are several grocery stores where you can buy apples: Trader Joe’s, Aldi, and
Kroger, among others.
 They’re my ideal partner: outgoing and smart.
 It’s like my grandmother said: “The journey is the destination.”
 And now it’s time to tell you why I’ve gathered you all here: time-shares.
 Computer: A History of the Information Machine

Colon FAQs

What is a colon?
A colon is a punctuation mark that introduces an element or series of elements that illustrates
or amplifies the information that preceded the colon.

How does a colon work?

A colon works by signaling that what comes after it is connected to the preceding sentence. It
might be a list, a noun or noun phrase, or a separate independent clause.

When should you use a colon?

A colon should be used to separate two independent clauses when the second clause is directly
related to the first, or when the emphasis is on the second clause.

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 4. Ellipsis

What’s an Ellipsis? Definition and Examples

An ellipsis, or ellipses in the plural form, is a punctuation mark of three dots (. . .) that shows an
omission of words, represents a pause, or suggests there’s something left unsaid. Known
casually as dot, dot, dot, the ellipsis is a favorite tool of writers because it can symbolize silence
in text, but it’s also used more practically to show that a direct quote has been altered.
Ellipses can be powerful tools for writing . . . if you know how to use them. Below, we give a
more thorough ellipsis definition and explain how to use those three dots in writing. We also
clear up the ellipsis vs. ellipses debate and share plenty of ellipsis examples to demonstrate its
use.

What is an ellipsis?
The ellipsis (pronounced il-LIP-sis) is a type of punctuation that represents a pause or that
something has been intentionally left out. Specifically, it shows that words have been cut from a
direct quote, so the reader knows the original passage has been modified.
In form, the ellipsis is three dots or periods. Different style guides have different regulations for
ellipses, but we prefer the version with spaces between the periods (. . .) from The Chicago
Manual of Style.
In formal writing and journalism, the ellipsis is placed between brackets when used within a
quote [. . .] to show that the editors added the ellipsis, not the original speaker.

Ellipsis, dash, and colon

When it comes to usage, the ellipsis resembles a couple of other punctuation marks:
the dash and the colon.

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While the ellipsis and the dash both represent breaks in text, the dash—or more precisely,
the em dash—represents an abrupt interruption. The dash can also be used to represent a
pause, but a more emphatic one than the “soft” pause of an ellipsis.
The colon also represents a break in text, although for much more deliberate reasons. Colons
are used to introduce a list, quote, or explanation of what precedes it. However, unlike ellipses
and dashes, they do not represent silence.
Furthermore, neither the dash nor the colon can represent omitted words; only the ellipsis can
do that.

Ellipsis vs. ellipses

There’s a lot of confusion over ellipsis vs. ellipses, but the truth is that they’re the same
word. Ellipsis is singular, and ellipses is plural.
Even this can be confusing because there are three dots involved. So to be clear, a
single ellipsis is one group of three dots, while multiple ellipses are two or more groups of three
dots.

When to use an ellipsis, with examples

While there are many types of ellipses in linguistics, an ellipsis in writing carries out four main
duties:

1. Omitted words
In writing, ellipses are used to show the reader that words have been removed, typically
from direct quotes. More often than not, this is done to cut out parts of the quote that
aren’t relevant to the topic or to make the quote more succinct.
For example, if you want to include what a speaker said at the beginning and the end of
a quote, but there’s a part in the middle that’s unnecessary, you can remove that middle
part and replace it with an ellipsis.
[ORIGINAL QUOTE]
It must be obvious, from the very start, that there is a contradiction in wanting to be
perfectly secure in a universe whose very nature is momentariness and fluidity.
[QUOTE WITH AN ELLIPSIS]

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 It must be obvious [. . .] that there is a contradiction in wanting to be perfectly secure in
a universe whose very nature is momentariness and fluidity.
—Alan Watts
When using an ellipsis to omit part of a quote, be sure to pick the right spot. It’s best to
remove a part that leaves the remaining sentence grammatically correct, as if nothing
had been cut at all. In the ellipsis example above, the part removed came between two
commas, so the sentence still works fine without it.
Though it’s less common, an ellipsis can also come at the beginning of a quote to show
that the earlier part of a speech or conversation has been cut off. This is an effective way
to open a scene in the middle of a dialogue, where the reader must guess at what the
characters were talking about beforehand.
“. . . and you wouldn’t believe the smell! We spent the rest of the afternoon cleaning it
up.”

2. Pause for dramatic effect or suspense

An ellipsis can also be used to depict a small pause or silence in text, which is ideal for a
dramatic effect. Often, the ellipsis comes before an anticipated part, like the punchline
of a joke. The idea is to build suspense before a big reveal.
With sweaty palms, I reached out for the knob and threw the door open to reveal . . . a
lost puppy.

3. Trailing off into silence

In speech, we sometimes leave sentences unfinished for a variety of reasons. Maybe we
forgot what we wanted to say, or maybe our listeners already know what we’ll say, so we
don’t need to say it.
In writing, this occurrence is represented by an ellipsis. When an ellipsis comes at the
end of a sentence or quote, it means that the speaker has trailed off before finishing.
Would you like sugar for your coffee, or . . .

4. To suggest there’s more

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 When an ellipsis comes at the end of a complete sentence, it’s usually a dramatic device
to insinuate that there’s more to come. One of the most common examples is the
phrase to be continued . . ., where the ellipsis hints that there’s more to the story.
This can be a great storytelling tool in the right spot. It essentially challenges the reader
to imagine what will happen next, heightening their anticipation and engaging them
more deeply. It works best for cliffhangers and other endings, but be sure to use it
sparingly so you don’t waste its effect.
And then only two remained . . .

Ellipsis FAQs

What is an ellipsis?
An ellipsis is a punctuation mark of three dots (. . .) that shows an omission of words, represents
a pause, or suggests there’s something left unsaid.

How does an ellipsis work?

If an ellipsis is placed at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence, it means something has
been removed, or it represents a silence or pause, as if the speaker trailed off. If an ellipsis
comes at the end of a sentence, it suggests that there’s more to the story.

When should you use an ellipsis?

If you remove part of a direct quote, use an ellipsis as a placeholder to show the reader that
something has been omitted. In storytelling, you can also use an ellipsis in key parts to build
anticipation and give the reader something to think about.

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 5. Semicolon

5 Ways to Use a Semicolon, With Examples

What is a semicolon?
What is correct semicolon use? The most common semicolon use is joining two independent
clauses without using a coordinating conjunction like and. Semicolons can also replace commas
when listing items that already use commas, such as listing cities and states.
Semicolons (;) are as basic as a period stacked on top of a comma. Does that mean you can use
it like either one? Don’t get your hopes up. But don’t let this punctuation mark get you down
either.

How to use a semicolon correctly

The most common use of the semicolon is to join two independent clauses without using a
coordinating conjunction like and.
Do you use a capital letter after a semicolon? The general answer is no. A semicolon should be
followed by a capitalized word only if the word is a proper noun or an acronym.
We can go to the museum to do some research; Mondays are pretty quiet there.
Remember, semicolons are not interchangeable with commas or periods. Instead, they’re
somewhere in between: stronger than a comma but not quite as divisive as a period. Sounds
pretty cunning to us.
Here are the rules for using semicolons correctly; we hope you’re taking notes.

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1. Use semicolons to connect related independent clauses
You can use a semicolon to join two closely related independent clauses. Let’s put that
another way. The group of words that comes before the semicolon should form a
complete sentence, the group of words that comes after the semicolon should form a
complete sentence, and the two sentences should share a close, logical connection:
I ordered a cheeseburger for lunch; life’s too short for counting calories.
Martha has gone to the library; her sister has gone to play soccer.
The examples above are each made up of two complete, grammatically correct
sentences glued together.
That’s exactly why you can’t substitute a comma for a semicolon. Using a comma instead
of a semicolon in the sentences above would result in a comma splice. And there’s
nothing as painful as a comma splice.

2. Skip the coordinating conjunction when you use a semicolon between two
independent clauses
A semicolon isn’t the only thing that can link two independent clauses. Coordinating
conjunctions (that’s your ands, buts, and ors) can do that too. But you shouldn’t use a
semicolon and a conjunction. That means that when you use a semicolon, you use
it instead of the ands, buts, and ors; you don’t need both.
Here’s a hint: You know how you can use a comma and an and to link two related ideas?
Think of the period that forms the top part of the semicolon as a replacement for and.
I saw a magnificent albatross, and it was eating a mouse.
I saw a magnificent albatross; it was eating a mouse.
You need a comma plus something to avoid a comma splice. That something can either
be the right conjunction or the period that turns a comma into a semicolon.
A semicolon can replace a period or a comma and a coordinating conjunction to
demonstrate contrast between independent clauses instead of agreement. This is part of
the same rule, but the conjunction in question is but instead of and. In other words:
This is part of the same rule; the conjunction in question is but instead of and.
To summarize, a semicolon links up two related ideas by narrowing the gap between the
ideas of two separate sentences or by replacing a coordinating conjunction between the

32
 ideas. That goes for showing contrast too: just because two ideas are opposed or
contradictory, that doesn’t mean they aren’t related closely enough to earn themselves
a semicolon.

3. Use semicolons in a serial list

You can use semicolons to divide the items of a list if the items are long or contain
internal punctuation. In these cases, the semicolon helps readers keep track of the
divisions between the items.
I need the weather statistics for the following cities: London, England; London,
Ontario; Paris, France; Paris, Ontario; and Perth, Scotland; Perth, Ontario.
My plan included taking him to a nice—though not necessarily expensive—
dinner; going to the park to look at the stars, which, by the way, are amazing this
time of year; and serenading him with my accordion.
Let’s recap: So far we’ve got semicolons for linking two independent clauses; replacing a
conjunction (whether showing similarity, like and, or opposition, like but); and showing
the divisions between items in long, punctuation-loving lists. Yup, that was one there.

4. Use semicolons with conjunctive adverbs

When you have a conjunctive adverb linking two independent clauses, you should use a
semicolon between the clauses. Common conjunctive adverbs include words
like moreover, nevertheless, however, otherwise, therefore, then, finally, likewise, cons
equently, and many others.
I needed to go for a walk and get some fresh air; also, I needed to buy milk.
Reports of the damage caused by the hurricane were greatly exaggerated; indeed, the
storm was not a hurricane at all.
The students had been advised against walking alone at night; however, Cathy
decided walking wasn’t dangerous if it was early in the evening.
I’m not all that fond of the colors of tiger lilies; moreover, they don’t smell very
good.
These words sometimes show up in other parts of a sentence; therefore, the semicolon
rule applies only if it helps the conjunctive adverb join two independent clauses. (See
what we did there?)

33
 This conjunctive adverb rule is similar to the coordinating conjunction rule. In both
cases, check whether the two ideas are independent clauses that could stand on their
own as sentences. If so, then you’re grammatically good to go as far as the semicolon is
concerned.

5. Use a semicolon to give a wink 😉

The semicolon is a good punctuation mark to have in your back pocket. Or on top of
your parenthetical smile. So whether you’re using it to whip up a good complex sentence
or to give someone a wink, now you know how to do it right.

6. Apostrophe

How to Use Apostrophes: Rules and Examples

Apostrophes can be tricky. Sometimes they form possessives. Sometimes they
form contractions. Can they ever make something plural?

Apostrophe use: Contractions and omissions

A contraction is a shortened form of a word or group of words that omits certain letters or
sounds. In a contraction, an apostrophe represents missing letters. The most common
contractions are made up of verbs, auxiliaries, or modals attached to other words: “He would” =
“He’d.” “I have” = “I’ve.” “They are” = “They’re.” “You cannot” = “You can’t.”
Some writers use less common contractions when they want to represent a particular style of
speech. They might write somethin’ to represent the way people often don’t pronounce the
final g of something in speech. Occasionally, you might see e’er (instead of ever) in poetry. And,
of course, in the American South, you will probably encounter y’all (you all). Decade names are
often contracted as well: the ’60s (the 1960s).

Contraction Uncontracted Examples

-n’t not Isn’t (is not), hasn’t (has not)
-’re are They’re (they are), we’re (we
are), you’re (you are)
-’d had, would She’d (she had, she would),
I’d (I had, I would)
-’ll will We’ll (we will), you’ll (you

34
 will)
-’s is He’s (he is), it’s (it is)
I’m I am —
let’s let us —

Contractions are usually considered to be relatively casual. If you’re writing something very
formal, you may want to avoid using them except in cases like o’clock, where the full phrase (of
the clock) truly is rare.

Apostrophes and possessive nouns

The rules about forming possessive nouns probably cause the most apostrophe confusion. They
vary a bit, depending on what type of noun you are making into a possessive. Here are the rules
of thumb:
For most singular nouns, add -’s:
Examples: The dog’s leash
The writer’s desk
The planet’s atmosphere
For most plural nouns, add only an apostrophe:
Examples: The dogs’ leashes
The writers’ desks
The planets’ atmospheres
For plural nouns that do not end in s, add -’s:
Examples: The children’s toys
The geese’s migration route
Style guides vary in their recommendations of what to do to make a singular proper noun that
ends in s possessive. Some recommend adding only an apostrophe:
Examples: Charles Dickens’ novels
Kansas’ main airport
Others say to add -’s:

35
 Charles Dickens’s novels
Kansas’s main airport
No matter which style you use, add only the apostrophe to plural proper nouns that end in s:
Examples: The Harrises’ house
The Smiths’ vacation
Use whichever style matches the style guide you use for your writing. If you don’t have a style
guide, it’s OK to just pick one of the methods, as long as you don’t switch back and forth within
the same document.

Apostrophes and possessive pronouns

Personal pronouns, unlike regular nouns, do not use apostrophes to form possessives. Most
writers don’t have trouble with the possessive pronouns my, mine, his, her, and our.
It’s your, yours, hers, its, ours, their, and theirs that tend to cause the confusion. The relative
possessive pronoun whose is also frequently the victim of apostrophe abuse. Note that none of
these forms use an apostrophe. In fact, for some of these pronouns, adding an apostrophe
forms a contraction instead of a possessive (see the table above).

Pronoun Possessive Pronoun Absolute (Independent)

Form
me my mine
you your yours
he his his
her her hers
it its —
was our ours
them their theirs
who whose —

Apostrophes and joint possession

What do you do with the apostrophe when you’re talking about things that belong to more than
one person? When one thing belongs to two or more people jointly, make only the final name
possessive:

Example: Bob and Jim’s bait shop (Bob and Jim co-own a bait shop.)

Example: Ryan, Jessica, and Elinor’s parents (All three have the same parents.)

36
When you’re talking about separate things that belong to different people but you’re discussing
the things together, make all the names possessive:

Example: Bob’s and Jim’s bait shops (Bob owns one bait shop, and Jim owns a different
one.)

Example: Ryan’s, Jessica’s, and Elinor’s parents (Each has a different set of parents)

Using possessive personal pronouns in joint constructions often sounds awkward (You have
their and my gratitude). Usually, the best solution is to rephrase the sentence to avoid the joint
construction (You have our gratitude or You have their gratitude and mine).

Apostrophes and plurals

Using an unnecessary apostrophe to form the plural of a noun is a very common mistake.
Sometimes, it’s called the grocer’s apostrophe because of how frequently it is spotted in grocery
store advertisements (3 orange’s for $1!). Don’t do it! With very few exceptions, apostrophes do
not make nouns plural.

The one notable exception to this rule is the plural form of lowercase letters, which are formed
with an apostrophe to prevent misreading:

Incorrect: Don’t forget to dot all your is.

Correct: Don’t forget to dot all your i’s.

Apostrophes with surrounding punctuation

An apostrophe is part of the word it belongs to, so it should not be separated from that word by
a period, a comma, a question mark, or any other punctuation mark.

Example: Can I ask you somethin’?

Example: “’Twas the night before Christmas,” he said.

In the second example, take note of the apostrophe at the beginning of ’twas. Apostrophes that
fall at the beginning of a contraction are often mistyped as left-hand single quotation marks,
when the apostrophe is actually identical to the right-hand single quotation mark. Word
processors tend to do this by default, as they assume you are beginning a quote. Keep this in
mind, especially when you are writing about specific decades, such as the ’60s or the ’90s.

37
When to check a style guide
Sooner or later, you’ll come across a phrase that sounds fine out loud but looks weird on paper
because of apostrophes. Do’s and don’ts? Dos and don’ts? Do’s and don’t’s? For cases like these,
it’s best to check a comprehensive style guide, such as The Chicago Manual of Style or
the The Associated Press Stylebook (it’s do’s and don’ts, according to AP). A good dictionary may
also be able to offer you some guidance. If you can’t find a precedent, it’s probably best to use a
different word or phrase; unduly creative apostrophe use will inevitably distract your readers.

7. Hyphen

How to Use a Hyphen Correctly

What is a hyphen?
 A hyphen (-) is a punctuation mark that’s used to join words or parts of words. It’s not
interchangeable with the various dashes.
 Hyphens are often used in compound modifiers when the modifier comes before the
word it’s modifying.
 If you’re not sure whether a compound word has a hyphen, check your preferred
dictionary.

Hyphens with compound modifiers: Multiple-word adjectives before nouns

Using hyphens to connect words is easy. Picking the right words to connect is a little harder.
Let’s start with compound modifiers, also known as phrasal adjectives.
A compound modifier is made up of two or more words that work together to function like one
adjective in describing a noun. When you connect words with a hyphen, you make it clear to
readers that the words work together as a unit of meaning.
Incorrect: It’s recommended you don’t take down any load bearing walls when renovating.

38
It would be easy to read the above sentence as saying that you shouldn’t take down any load
that is holding up a wall. A hyphen should be inserted between load and bearing to make it
clear that we’re talking about walls that are bearing a load.
Examples: It’s recommended you don’t take down any load-bearing walls when renovating.
This rock-hard cake is absolutely impossible to eat.
We’re looking for a dog-friendly hotel.
She makes one-of-a-kind engagement rings in her studio.
The new house has state-of-the-art features.
Generally, you need the hyphen only if the two or more words are functioning together as an
adjective before the noun they’re describing. If the noun comes first, we usually leave the
hyphen out.
Examples: This wall is load bearing.
It’s impossible to eat this cake because it is rock hard.
Is this hotel dog friendly?
You never use a hyphen when your modifier is made up of an adverb ending in -ly and an
adjective.
Incorrect: Do you expect me to believe this clearly-impossible story?
Correct: Do you expect me to believe this clearly impossible story?

Hyphens and compound modifiers with participles

Compound modifiers that include present or past participles follow the same rules as any other
compound modifier.
Hyphens in compound modifiers with present participles
When we combine an adjective, a noun, or an adverb that doesn’t end in -ly with a present
participle (the –ing form of a verb) to describe another word, we use a hyphen to make the
meaning of the combined descriptor clear.
Incorrect: There are some beautiful looking flowers in the garden.
Without the hyphen between beautiful and looking, your reader may stumble over the
sentence. Perhaps there’s a new type of daisy called the “looking flower”?
Examples: There are some beautiful-looking flowers in the garden.

39
 Fast-acting medication can be useful when one has a headache.
The belt-tightening measures at the company included some layoffs.
I prefer a forward-facing seat on the train.
Don’t use a hyphen when the modifier comes after the noun it’s describing.
Example: This medication is fast acting.
Don’t use a hyphen when you are combining an adverb ending in -ly and a participle.
Incorrect: The room was like a heavily-decorated chocolate box.
Correct: The room was like a heavily decorated chocolate box.

Hyphens in compound modifiers with past participles

Compound modifiers that contain a past participle follow the same rules as other compound
modifiers. Use a hyphen when the compound goes before the noun it modifies:
Examples: The municipal government is funding a community-based education system.
Wind-powered generators can be excellent sources of electricity.
Many veterinarians find meat-fed cats to be quite healthy.
A well-known local singer will perform tonight.
Don’t use a hyphen when the compound comes after the noun it describes.
Example: The singer performing tonight is well known.

Hyphens with high and low

When using high or low as part of a compound modifier, use a hyphen when the compound
comes before the noun it’s modifying.
Examples: Low-flying airplanes contribute to the noise pollution in the area.
This car runs best on high-octane gasoline.
Low-income families often face more stress than their higher
income counterparts.
A high-interest savings account is one of the best ways to save money.

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Hyphens and compound words
Hyphenated compound words are muti-word terms with a hyphen or hyphens between their
component words. Over time, many hyphenated compounds become closed compounds—
teen-ager became teenager, for instance. Check a dictionary if you’re not sure how to treat a
compound. Here are a few examples of common hyphenated compound words:
Examples: Mother-in-law
Half-pipe
Ten-year-old
Six-pack
Foot-pound
[expand]President-elect[/example]

Closed compound words

Hyphenated words tend to become closed compounds (single words, with no spaces and no
hyphens) over time. Email instead of e-mail, for example, is increasingly common. If you aren’t
sure whether a word is a closed compound or a hyphenated one, check your preferred
dictionary.
Examples: Notebook
Halftime
Waistcoat
Fundraiser
Chairperson

Open compound words

Open compounds are typically made up of two nouns that are used together to represent a
single idea. “Open” means that there is a space between the two words and no hyphen. Again,
a good dictionary is the best place to find out how to treat compounds—if the compound isn’t
in the dictionary, that means it should be open.
Examples: Living room

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 Real estate
Dinner table
Home base

Hyphens and numbers

Numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine should be hyphenated when they’re spelled out.
Example: My parents arrived in Bratislava twenty-four hours ago.
Example: This is the eighty-first baseball game of the regular season.
Example: I’ve got ninety-two of these gizmos to sell.
Spelled-out two-word simple fractions are also hyphenated. One-word simple fractions (such
as half and quarter) as part of a compound are not joined by hyphens to the other word or
words of the compound in its noun form, however.
Example: I’ve seen about one-third of the movies on the AFI’s list.
Example: We’ve been sitting here for about a half hour.

Hyphens in compound modifiers involving numbers

When a number appears as the first part of a compound modifier that comes before a noun in a
sentence, the compound modifier is hyphenated. This applies whether the number is spelled
out or in numerals, and whether it is cardinal or ordinal.
Example: The president of the company gave a ten-minute speech to the board of
directors.
Example: The shopping mall installed a 107-foot-tall LED tower.
Example: He is knowledgeable about thirteenth-century politics.
Example: The kid threw a rock at the second-story window.
However, a hyphen is not required if the number is the second word in the compound adjective.
Example: She has type 2 diabetes.
Example: There’s no basement 3 button in this elevator because it doesn’t go down that
far.
Hyphens are also not used between a number and the word percent appearing before a noun.

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Example: The channel got a 90 percent bump in subscribers after the video went viral.

Hyphens in compound modifiers involving fractions

When a fraction (e.g., half or quarter) is used as part of a compound adjective appearing before
a noun, it should be hyphenated.
Example: I went on a three-quarter-mile run yesterday.
Example: They pitched an idea for a half-hour comedy to the network.
The word half also combines with other words to form compounds in nonmathematical
contexts. These compounds are generally hyphenated when they are used as adjectives (before
or after a noun) and open when they are used as nouns or verbs.
Example: She managed to salvage quite a bit of the half-burned sauce.
Example: I was only half-awake when I answered your call.
Example: He made a half attempt to contribute to the conversation, but he didn’t really
mind just listening to the others.
Example: They half wished for a live-in assistant.

Hyphens with prefixes: Ex-, self-, all-

Use a hyphen with the prefix ex- (meaning former).
Example: Don’t seat Masami and Ira next to each other! They are ex-partners!
Example: Though she no longer held an official position, the ex-mayor still attended all the
town’s functions.
Use a hyphen with the reflexive prefix self-.
Example: Lying on the floor beside the plant he had knocked over and chewed on, the cat
looked extremely self-satisfied.
Example: The famous artist’s self-absorption was often noted.
When using all as part of a compound, use a hyphen if the compound is adjectival and leave the
compound open if it is adverbial.
Example: It’s a bad leader who thinks of themself as all-powerful.
Example: The team went all in to meet the deadline for their project.

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 8. Dash

The Complete Guide to Dashes

A dash is a little horizontal line that floats in the middle of a line of text (not at the bottom;
that’s an underscore). It’s longer than a hyphen and is commonly used to indicate a range or a
pause. Dashes are used to separate groups of words, not to separate parts of words like a
hyphen does. (Learn more about the difference between a dash and a hyphen here). There are
three kinds of dashes: the em dash, the en dash, and the double hyphen.
The most common types of dashes are the en dash (–) and the em dash (—). A good way to
remember the difference between these two dashes is to visualize the en dash as the width of
the letter N and the em dash as the width of the letter M. These dashes not only differ in length,
however, they also serve different functions within a sentence.

What are em dashes?

Em dashes save the day when other punctuation would be awkward. For instance, a single em
dash can replace a pair of parentheses around material at the end of a sentence, or a pair of em
dashes can replace a pair of commas around a clause that contains other commas, to make the
sentence easier to understand.
Example: After a split second of hesitation, the second baseman leaped for the ball (or,
rather, limped for it).

44
Example: After a split second of hesitation, the second baseman leaped for the ball—or,
rather, limped for it.
Example: The rain in the forecast, because it came after a long, unbroken stretch of sunny
days, at a time of year that is usually quite wet, made the gardeners happy
even though they had to reschedule the event.
Example: The rain in the forecast—because it came after a long, unbroken stretch of
sunny days, at a time of year that is usually quite wet—made the gardeners
happy even though they had to reschedule the event.
Colons enable a writer to introduce a clause that amplifies whatever came before the colon.
They are more formal than em dashes. However, em dashes are more emphatic than colons.
When you want to generate strong emotion in your writing or create a more casual tone, use
em dashes. Compare these sentences:
Example: He is afraid of two things: spiders and senior prom.
Example: He is afraid of two things—spiders and senior prom.
Writers and transcriptionists often replace unknown or intentionally omitted letters with em
dashes. In these cases, em dashes appear two or three in a row.
Example: A former employee of the accused company, ———, offered a statement off the
record.
Example: Carved into the dresser drawer was a faded inscription: “Made for Kristina, by
your de——ted sailor.”

What are en dashes?

Recall that en dashes are slightly narrower in width than em dashes. En dashes may look similar
to em dashes, but they function in a much different way.

En dash indicating spans or ranges

The en dash is often used to indicate a span of time or a range of numbers. In this context, the
dash should be interpreted as meaning either “to” or “through.” Consider the examples below:
Example: The teacher assigned pages 101–181 for tonight’s reading material.
Example: The scheduled window for the cable installation is 1–3 p.m.
Example: The 2021–2022 fiscal year was the most profitable one on record for the new
business.

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En dash indicating a connection
The en dash may also be used to indicate a connection between two words. You can use an en
dash in a complex compound adjective when one or both of its elements are already
hyphenated compounds, although it’s also acceptable to use hyphens in these kinds of
constructions—just be consistent.
Example: The pro-choice–anti-abortion argument is always a heated one.
Example: The pro-choice-anti-abortion argument is always a heated one.
When one element of a complex compound adjective is a proper noun made up of two or more
words, however, the proper noun is left open and connected to the rest of the phrase with an
en dash:
Example: The Nobel Prize–winning author will be reading from her book at the library
tonight.

En Dash

An en dash is a midsize dash (longer than a hyphen but shorter than an em dash) that is mostly
used to show ranges in numbers and dates. It can also be used for clarity in forming complex
compound adjectives. The en dash derives its name from the fact that it is meant to be the
same width as the letter N.
To type an en dash on your Mac, type Option + Minus (-). To type an en dash on Windows, hold
down Alt and type 0150 on the numeric keyboard; the en dash will appear upon releasing the
Alt key.

Using an en dash with number and date ranges

A properly executed en dash is especially important in scientific and mathematical writing
because it is used between numbers to represent the word to. It is also used when writing
times, dates, and page numbers in the sense of up to and including or through.
Example: Our part-time employees work 20–30 hours per week.
Example: By Monday, you should have read pages 79–113.
Example: The years 1861–1865 were a dark time in American history.

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Keep in mind that if a number or date range is introduced with from, the word to should be
used instead of an en dash to keep the construction parallel. Similarly, when a range is
introduced with between, the word and should be used.
Incorrect: Nelson Mandela was president of South Africa from 1994–1999.
Correct: Nelson Mandela was president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999.
Incorrect: Homer eats between 60–75 donuts per month.
Correct: Homer eats between 60 and 75 donuts per month.

Use an en dash with scores and directions

When used with things such as sports scores, votes, and directions, an en dash bears the sense
of to.
Example: The Nationals defeated the Mets 5–1 last night.
Example: A Denver–London flight takes about nine hours.
Example: The National Wandmakers Union voted 10–9 in favor of a strike.

Using an en dash with complex compound adjectives

An en dash should be used for clarity when one of the elements in a compound adjective is an
open compound (made up of two words with a space between them) or when both elements
contain hyphenated terms. In terms of clarity, this is especially helpful when one of the terms is
a capitalized proper noun.
Example: Amanda only decorates with Ming Dynasty–style furniture.
Example: I plan on wearing my great-grandmother’s World War I–era dress at my wedding.

En dash functions in word processing programs

You can always use an Insert>Symbol function to insert a proper en dash into your writing.
However, the pros use these shortcuts:
In MS Word: Option/Ctrl+ Minus Key (with Num Lock enabled)
In Pages: Option/Alt + Hyphen or Minus Key (with Num Lock enabled)

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Google Docs is typographically more basic, but if you use Google Docs a lot, you should take the
time to set up a shortcut like those above by going to Tools>Preferences.

When to Use an Em Dash

Writers love em dashes. It’s not difficult to understand why—em dashes are versatile tools.
Once you find out about these handy dashes, you may fall in love with them too.

How to type an em dash

On computers, they’re easy to type—on a Mac, go for Shift+Option+Minus (-); on Windows use
Ctrl+Alt+Minus (-).

What is an em dash?
Em dashes differ from other hyphens and dashes not only in usage, which we will discuss
shortly, but also in appearance. In fact, the em dash is named after its length—it’s about the
same width as the capital letter m. Its alphabetical cousin, the en dash, is about the same width
as the letter n. Figuratively speaking, the hyphen pulled the short end of the stick.

Use em dashes to set off parenthetical information

Em dashes are often used to set off parenthetical information. Using em dashes instead
of parentheses puts the focus on the information between the em dashes.
For this usage, make sure you use two em dashes. Use one before the parenthetical information
and one after it. Putting spaces before and after an em dash is a matter of preference; just be
consistent. Consider the examples below for reference:

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Example: While I was shopping—wandering aimlessly up and down the aisles, actually—I
ran into our old neighbor.
Example: An etymological dictionary is one of the few books—no, it’s the only book—you’ll
ever need.
Example: There has recently been an increase—though opposed fiercely by many people—
in alternative education practices.
Example: He was going to call off the project—or was he?—when the client increased the
payment.
Example: Traveling—that is, traveling by public transit—can be a relaxing activity if you
bring music and reading material along with you.

Use an em dash to set off appositives that contain commas

An appositive is a small section of extra information that is inserted into a sentence for
clarification. Commas are usually used to offset the appositive, but if the appositive contains
one or more commas, adding additional commas would be confusing for the reader. When
using an appositive that contains a comma, offset it with dashes, instead.
Example: Four of us—Mike, Amanda, Katy, and I—went to the conference last week.
Example: Mr. M. glanced surreptitiously at his watch—his gold, diamond-encrusted watch
—and suggested the meeting might adjourn for the day.
Example: If you need something, call my assistant—Catherine, not Margaret—and she’ll
help you.
Example: Materialism—always wanting something more, something different—is good for
the economy but bad for the soul.
Example: The question words—who, what, when, where, why, and how—are used to
retrieve information in English.

Use an em dash to bring focus to a list

When a sentence begins with an independent clause and ends with a list, you can use a colon
between the clause and the list. When the list comes first, it’s better to use a dash to connect
the list to the clause. This helps to take three potentially random things and focus them toward
one idea, which is easier for the reader to process.
Example: Dishes, laundry, dusting—they’re all done now, and I need a rest.

49
Example: Crocodiles, alligators—they both look the same to me and they look equally
dangerous!
Example: Chocolate, strawberry, vanilla—all ice cream tastes good, especially on a hot
summer’s day.
Example: Do this, do that, go here, go there—there’s so much to do that I don’t actually
get much accomplished during the day.

Use an em dash to mark sharp turns in thought

Em dashes can also signal an interruption or a sudden change in the direction a writer was
heading with a particular sentence. This technique is best suited for creative or informal writing.
If you use it in academic writing, you might look unsure of yourself. Consider the examples
below:
Example: Mary, could you—no, Mikey, don’t touch the sharp knife!—Mary, could you
please set the table?
Example: Dinner is at 6:30—not 6:29 or 6:31.
Example: Where the heck is my—wait, what was I looking for?
Example: Would you please—oh, never mind.

Em dash vs. en dash

En dashes are slightly shorter than em dashes. They also have a different function. The two
main uses of en dashes are to indicate number ranges and to act as a kind of super-hyphen for
compound modifiers.

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 9. Quotation Marks

Quotation Marks: Rules and Examples

Quotation marks are a type of punctuation used to show direct quotes, dialogue, and certain
titles or otherwise to set aside words in text. They have a few important functions in grammar
that can make them confusing, especially when you’re wondering whether to use double versus
single quotation marks.
In this guide, we explain all the must-know information about quotation marks. We discuss
when to use quotation marks in titles, how scare quotes work, and what the difference is
between double and single quotation marks. We also share plenty of quotation marks examples
so you can see how they’re used.

What is the quotation marks symbol?

The quotation marks symbol is a type of punctuation used for setting words and passages apart
from the rest of the text. Quotation marks, or “quotes” for short, look just like commas, except
quotation marks are at the top of a line instead of at the bottom. Double quotation marks are
simply two “commas” next to each other, while single quotation marks use only one comma.
But, unlike commas, quotation marks can face both directions. The direction a quotation mark
faces depends on whether it comes before the quote or after.
“How do we use quotation marks?” the student asked their teacher.

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When to use quotation marks
It helps to break down rules for quotation marks by their function. So below, we list out the six
main uses for quotation marks.

1. Quote a source directly

One of the most common uses of quotation marks is to indicate a direct quote, a
passage that is copied verbatim from another source. If you’re using the same word,
sentence, or phrase as another author, put those words in between quotation marks.
Naturally, there are different types of quotes, but whenever you are copying someone
word for word, you need quotation marks. This is most common in nonfiction writing,
when a writer uses a phrase or sentence from a preexisting source, usually to support
their thesis.
Stephen Hawking warned that the Higgs boson could potentially lead to
“catastrophic vacuum decay” in the universe, caused by “a bubble of the true
vacuum expanding at the speed of light.”

2. Show dialogue or transcribe speech

Quotation marks are used to represent speech in written text. In nonfiction, they’re
commonly used to transcribe what a person said, as with an interview or eyewitness
account. In fiction, they’re used for writing dialogue or whenever a character says
something out loud.
“Where is the emergency room?” he asked the nurse urgently.
However, if you’re paraphrasing what someone said, you don’t need quotation marks.
He urgently asked the nurse where the emergency room was.

3. Signal the titles of short works

Aside from quotes and speech, English also uses quotation marks for the titles of works.
Certain types of works—but not all—use quotation marks around their titles so the
reader knows they’re a reference.
Typically, the titles of short-form works like poems, short stories, and songs use
quotation marks. Titles of long-form works, like books, films, and stage plays, use italics

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 instead. You can see a complete list of when to use quotation marks for titles and when
to use italics in our guide “When to Use Quotation Marks in Titles.”
Written by Sylvia Plath, “Tulips” is a sad poem with a happy title.

4. Set apart a word to show irony, sarcasm, or skepticism (scare quotes)

Scare quotes are used to show that the writer doubts the validity of a word. They are
commonly used to show irony, sarcasm, or how something is “popularly termed.” They
can have the same meaning as the phrase so-called, including suspicious insinuation.
Scare quotes generally appear as quotation marks around a single word or sometimes a
phrase. They also require the proper context so the reader understands why the writer
doubts or is qualifying the word’s usage. Scare quotes in writing are the origin of the air
quotes gesture in in-person speech.
My “pet” is really just a stray cat that comes by once a day.

5. Discuss words as words

If you want to discuss a word, phrase, or letter in writing without using its intended
meaning, set it apart with quotation marks. Depending on the styling format, some
writers alternatively use italics, without quotation marks, for this purpose (like us on the
Grammarly blog).
The “p” in “pterodactyl” is actually silent.

6. Differentiate a nickname from a given name

Last, if you are writing a person’s nickname together with their given name, set the
nickname apart with quotation marks so the reader knows it’s not part of their formal
name. The standard is to place the quoted nickname between the first name and the
surname, although that’s not necessarily a rule.
Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson can’t escape his origins as a wrestler.
If the nickname is how a famous person is most commonly recognized, as with many
historical figures, then no quotes are necessary.
Many historians believe that Richard the Lionheart was gay, but that evidence
has been removed from historical records.

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When to use single quotation marks
One of the most common points of confusion with quotes is when to use single versus double
quotation marks. In American English, single quotation marks are used only for quotes that
appear inside other quotes. For example, if you’re quoting a passage that already has a quote in
it, use double quotation marks for the main quote and single quotation marks for the quote
within a quote.
“My last boss used to always say, ‘You sell more before lunch than the others sell in a week,’”
Amira mentioned in her job interview.
However, this applies only to American English, which is also used by the majority of Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand. In British English, the rules are reversed: Single quotes are used
primarily for quotes, dialogue, titles, etc., and double quotes are used only within other quotes.

Quotation marks rules for grammar

When it comes to grammar, luckily there aren’t too many rules for how to use quotation marks.
In fact, if you can remember the three main rules below, you should be in good shape.

1. Place punctuation marks inside quotation marks

When using a period, comma, or exclamation mark with quotation marks, place the
punctuation inside the quotes.
“We won!” shouted the coach to no one in particular.
If you’re breaking up a sentence, place a comma after the first part, also inside quotes.
“My goodness,” said my father, “take off your dirty shoes before coming in the
house.”
Just like the use of single quotation marks, however, this applies only to American
English. British English places punctuation outside quotation marks.

Do question marks go in quotes?

Question marks are a little different. If the question mark is part of the quote, place it
inside the quotation marks.
She asked, “Will this be on the test?”

54
 If the question mark is not part of the quote, and instead the quote is part of a question,
place it outside of the quotation marks.
Did they just say “free pizza”?
This rule also applies to exclamation points.
They just said “free pizza”!

2. Capitalize the first letter of the quoted sentence

If you’re quoting a complete sentence, capitalize the first letter of the first word, just like
a normal sentence. But if the quotation is placed midsentence, forming a syntactical part
of the sentence, it begins with a lowercase letter, even if the original sentence begins
with a capitalized letter.
The letter opened with, “We regret to inform you your application has been
denied.”
Anne Frank reminded us that “whoever is happy will make others happy too.”
However, if you’re not quoting a complete sentence, no capitalization is necessary. This
includes individual words, phrases, or separate clauses.
The manager said that the situation was “under control.”

3. Include an opening quotation mark at the beginning of each new quoted paragraph
Some quoted passages are longer than others. If you’re quoting two or more
paragraphs, place opening quotation marks at the beginning of each new paragraph.
However, place closing quotation marks only at the end of the entire passage, not at the
end of each paragraph.
Here’s what the email said:
“It’s been a long time. I hope you’re well.
“I’m writing because I’m coming to Atlanta for work, and I was wondering if you’d
like to meet up.”

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Quotation marks FAQs

What is the function of quotation marks?

Quotation marks are primarily used to set apart certain words, usually to indicate direct quotes
but also to signify the titles of certain works or that a phrase does not use a word’s intended
meaning.

When are quotation marks used?

Quotation marks are used to indicate a direct quote, transcribe speech to text, signify titles of
small works like poems, show that the validity of a word is doubted, discuss words as words
without referencing their intended meaning, and to set apart nicknames from formal names.

What’s the difference between quotes and italics for titles?

Both quotes and italics are used for the titles of works, but certain types of works use only
quotes, and others use only italics. In general, short-form works like poems, songs, or short
stories use quotation marks, while long-form works like books, films, or stage plays use italics.

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 10. Question Mark

What Is a Question Mark?

Without question marks, we’d miss out on all kinds of things: invitations, jokes, the Riddler . . .
No doubt, the question mark is a nice little piece of punctuation. And, best of all, it’s easy to
use!

What is a question mark for?

The main purpose of a question mark, perhaps unsurprisingly, is to indicate that a sentence is a
question. Direct questions often (but not always) begin with a wh- word (who, what, when,
where, why).
Examples: Why did the chicken cross the road?
Who wants to know?
Is it really that important?
But, not all questions are phrased as questions. Sometimes we phrase questions the same way
we would phrase a declarative sentence. In speech, the way your voice rises at the end of the
sentence usually makes it clear that you’re asking a question and not just making a statement.
But in writing, you need a question mark to signal to readers that they should read the sentence
as a question.
Examples: You came all this way to ask me about a chicken?
Cross the road? Never!

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Phrasing a question as an imperative or declarative statement is an emphatic way to express
surprise, doubt, or disbelief.

Question marks and quotation marks

When your sentence is a straightforward question, the question mark goes at the very end and
serves as the terminal punctuation mark. But things can get tricky when you have other
punctuation nearby.
At first glance, the rules about question marks and quotation marks can seem complicated. But
the logic is fairly simple. Keep the question mark inside the quotation marks if it logically applies
to what is enclosed by the quotation marks. You’ll often see this in written dialogue:
Examples: The chicken asked, “Why is everyone so concerned about where I’m walking?”
“What do you have to hide?” asked the nosy reporter.
If the question mark applies to the sentence as a whole instead of to the phrase inside the
quotation marks, put it at the very end:
Example: Haven’t you ever heard the expression “It’s a free country”?
This holds true even when you have a quotation containing a question:
Example: “When I spoke to the chicken, she said ‘Why won’t you leave me alone?’”
recalled the reporter.
And for a quoted question containing a quoted statement:
Example: “What did the chicken mean,” the reporter wondered, “when she said ‘It’s a free
country’?”
When you have a question mark that applies to both the quoted phrase and the rest of the
sentence, just use one question mark:
Example: Who said “Why did the chicken cross the road?”

Question marks and parentheses

The rules for question marks and parentheses are similar to the rules for question marks and
quotation marks. If a question mark applies to the parenthetical information, place the question
mark inside the parentheses:
Example: I saw the chicken (or was it the rooster?) crossing the road.

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Example: The chicken wrote a bestselling memoir called My Road (published abroad
as Who Needs a Crosswalk?).
When the question applies to the whole sentence, put it outside the parentheses:
Example: Will the chicken cross the road again tomorrow (April 1)?

Indirect questions
There is one type of question that never takes a question mark: the indirect question. Indirect
questions are embedded within declarative statements:
Example: The chicken asked whether anyone wanted to cross the road with her.
Example: We all wondered why the chicken was so obsessed with that road.
Sometimes, with one-word questions, it’s hard to decide whether it’s a direct or indirect
question. In most cases, it’s fine to treat it as an indirect question:
Example: As the chicken contemplated crossing the road, she asked herself why.

When a question mark isn’t enough

As useful as the question mark is, sometimes it’s tempting to embellish the end of your
sentence with extra punctuation, especially when you’re trying to convey something really
surprising and exciting.
Example: Did you hear that the chicken crossed the road and found a million dollars on the
other side???
Example: Are you saying the chicken is a millionaire?!
Example: Can you believe it‽
If you don’t recognize the symbol at the end of the last sentence, it’s called an interrobang, and
it’s a combination of a question mark and an exclamation point. Interrobangs, multiple question
marks, and combinations of question marks and exclamation points might be fine for casual
writing, but in formal writing, it’s best to limit yourself to just a plain old question mark.
Sometimes, you can make the choice easy with just a little rewriting:
Example: Did you hear? The chicken found a million dollars on the other side of the road!
And that’s everything you need to know to go out and use the question mark. What are you
waiting for?

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 11. Exclamation Point

Exclamation Point (or Exclamation Mark): How It’s Used

The exclamation point, also called an exclamation mark, is a punctuation mark that goes at the
end of certain sentences. It’s less common than the period or question mark, but it’s very easy
to use. Some might say it’s too easy to use.

What is an exclamation point for?

Periods go at the end of declarative sentences, question marks go at the end of interrogative
sentences, and exclamation points go at the end of exclamatory sentences. An exclamatory
sentence is one that expresses a strong or forceful emotion, such as anger, surprise, or joy.
Examples: I got a perfect score on the SAT!
Get out of my sight!
Exclamation points are also commonly found with sentence fragments or sudden interjections.
Occasionally, you might see one at the end of a sentence that is phrased as a question.
Examples: Careful! That spider is poisonous.
Holy cow!
How could I have forgotten to pack underwear!

Exclamatory quotations

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Using an exclamation point is usually quite simple—you just put it at the end of the sentence.
But it can get a little tricky when you also have a quotation mark at the end of the sentence.
Here are the rules:
Put the exclamation point inside the closing quotation marks if it applies to the words enclosed
by the quotation marks.
Example: “There’s a spider on my arm!” yelped Jeremy.
If the exclamation point applies to the sentence as a whole, then place it at the very end.
Example: And then the paramedics tried to tell Jeremy it was “only a spider”!

Exclamation points and parentheses

Put the exclamation point inside the parentheses when it applies to the words inside the
parentheses.
Example: Jeremy didn’t find out until later what kind of spider it was (a black widow!).
Put the exclamation point outside the parentheses if it applies to the whole sentence.
Example: They settled out of court and Jeremy got a million dollars (cash)!
Using exclamation points and parentheses this way is relatively rare.

Exclamation abuse
The hardest thing about using an exclamation point is probably knowing when not to use one.
In writing, it’s often hard to convey the emotion and intent behind a simple statement. If you
spoke the words “I can’t believe you threw me a surprise party” aloud, it would be clear from
the tone of your voice and body language whether you meant this as an expression of gratitude
or reproach. An exclamation point can help make it clear by conveying your excitement: “I can’t
believe you threw me a surprise party!”
But using too many exclamation marks makes them less effective. F. Scott Fitzgerald said that
using exclamation marks is like laughing at your own jokes. After a while, your readers will
simply ignore them, or worse, become annoyed by them. On top of that, they’re considered to
be relatively casual, so using them in business or formal academic writing is a no-no. Instead of
relying on exclamation points to convey your urgency or excitement, use more vivid vocabulary.
Instead of “Make sure you finish this by tomorrow morning!” try “It’s crucial that you finish this
before tomorrow morning’s deadline.”
Congratulations! You just learned everything you need to know about exclamation points.

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 12. Slash

How to Use Slashes in Writing

There are two types of slashes: a backslash (\) and a forward slash (/). The backslash is used
only for computer coding. The forward slash, often simply referred to as a slash, is a
punctuation mark used in English. The only time it is appropriate to use a comma after a slash is
when demonstrating breaks between lines of poetry, songs, or plays.

What does / mean between words?

An explanation of what a forward slash means in a text depends on the context. Slashes can
mean many different things, depending on how they are used.
To separate lines in prose
A slash can show a line break in a poem, song, or play, usually if several short lines are being
written together on one long line. Consider the two examples below:
Example: Mary had a little lamb/ little lamb, little lamb/ Mary had a little lamb/ whose
fleece was white as snow.
Example: The quality of mercy is not strained/ it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven/
upon the place beneath. It is twice blest:/ It blesseth him that gives and him that
takes.
Note that there is a space after each slash.

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To indicate or
Often, when a slash is used in a formal or informal text, it is meant to indicate the word or. The
examples below illustrate this meaning of the forward slash:
Example: When leaving the classroom, the teacher noticed that a student had left his/her
backpack.
Example: College freshmen should bring a mattress and/or cot to sleep on during
orientation.
Example: If/when Mary ever shows up, we can all head out to the party together.
Example: Burgers or pizza for dinner? Yeah, either/or is fine with me.
To form abbreviations
Slashes can also be used to form some abbreviations or shortened forms of words or phrases,
although these shouldn’t be used in formal writing.
Examples: w/o = without
w/ = with
c/o = care of (used when posting a letter or parcel)
a/c = air conditioning
Notice that in these cases, no space is necessary after the slash.

To indicate connecting and conflicting relationships

Slashes can also be used to note that there is a connection or conflict between two words or
phrases in a sentence. Some examples include:
Example: The pro-life/pro-choice debate is a hot-button issue for many voters this election.
Example: The designer often works in his bonus room/home office.

To denote dates and fractions

One of the most commonly recognized usages of the forward slash is to indicate dates and
fractions:
Example: ½
Example: 11/17/16

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Space before and after slash
Many people wonder whether to use a space before and after slashes. It depends. When a slash
signifies alternatives between only two words, don’t use spaces before or after.
When using slashes to signify alternatives between phrases or multi-word terms or compounds,
a space before and after the slash makes text easier to read. Another time it’s acceptable to use
a space after a slash is when breaking up lines of a poem, song, or play. In this case, a line break
should be made after the slash.
Example: Add chili flakes and/or black pepper to the recipe.
Example: World War I / First World War

Examples:
Mary had a little lamb /
Its fleece was white as snow

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 13 & 14.Parentheses and Brackets

Parentheses vs. Brackets: Definitions and Examples

Parentheses and brackets are punctuation marks used to set apart certain words and sentences.
Parentheses, ( ), are used to add extra information in text, while brackets, [ ], are used mainly in
quotations to add extra information that wasn’t in the original quote.
A common point of confusion in English is when to use parentheses vs. brackets—or, as they’re
known in British English, round brackets vs. square brackets. So below, we explain the difference
between brackets and parentheses.

When to use parentheses

Parentheses are punctuation marks used to set aside tangential or unnecessary information.
They’re typically used for complementary explanations or personal commentary from the
author, as well as for defining acronyms.
Aside from their use in grammar, parentheses are also used for in-text citations in
the APA, Chicago, and MLA formats. Additionally, if you want to show that a word can be either
singular or plural, you can put an s in parentheses at the end of it.

Parenthesis vs. parentheses

A common grammar question people ask is, “How do you spell parentheses?” The answer
depends on whether the word is singular or plural.
 Parenthesis with an i is singular, referring to one curved line: (.

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  Parentheses with an e is plural, referring to both curved lines or more: ( ).

Parentheses examples
Parentheses are used to add extra information that isn’t necessary but is still helpful.
Marilyn Monroe (born Norma Jeane Mortenson) was as iconic as her life was tragic.
This extra information often includes defining acronyms, especially the first time they’re used in
a text.
There was political pushback during the initial proposal of NAFTA (North American Free
Trade Agreement).
The European Space Agency (ESA) has its headquarters in Paris.
Less commonly, an author of a text may use parentheses to add personal commentary, as if
speaking directly to the reader.
The newly elected CEO said that things will be different this time. (Isn’t that what they
all say?)
In special situations where a word can be either singular or plural, add an s in parentheses at
the end of the word.
Any question(s) you have should be answered in the next chapter.

Parentheses in a sentence
Parenthetical information should not be necessary to the rest of the sentence. The number one
rule for using parentheses is: If you remove the text in parentheses, the sentence should still
be complete and correct.
Incorrect: Mom wants (us home before 3 p.m.).
In this example, if we remove the text in parentheses, the sentence doesn’t make any sense.
What does mom want? Because want is a transitive verb, it needs a direct object outside of
parentheses.
Correct: Mom wants us home (before 3 p.m.).
Here, if we remove the text in parentheses, the sentence still makes sense. Some details are
missing, but the main idea is the same, and the sentence is grammatically correct.
By extension, this means the text in parentheses is often a sentence fragment. It also means
that subject-verb agreement should ignore anything in parentheses.

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Incorrect: The teacher (and all the students) were late to the field trip.
Correct: The teacher (and all the students) was late to the field trip.

Punctuation and parentheses rules

When it comes to parentheses and other punctuation, there are a couple of rules to follow.

1. If the text in parentheses is a complete sentence and is separate from surrounding

sentences, the period goes inside the parentheses. Additionally, a phrase that could
stand alone as a complete sentence can also be contained inside another complete
sentence. If it’s not a complete sentence, the period goes outside the parentheses.
Our daughter has light brown eyes. (My wife has brown eyes, too.)
Our daughter has light brown eyes (they are round and soulful) and wavy hair.
Our daughter has light brown eyes (just like my wife).
This rule also applies to exclamation marks and question marks.
My parents had no idea I was still awake. (I was being quiet, so how could they know?)

2. Use commas after parentheses, not before.

Knowing how to use commas in your writing is important, especially when dealing with
parentheses. Because parenthetical text usually relates to what’s directly before it, it
shouldn’t follow a comma. However, it’s completely normal to place a
comma after parentheses, without a space.
Incorrect: My dog seemed sick, (his nose was dry) so I took him to the vet.
Correct: My dog seemed sick (his nose was dry), so I took him to the vet.

What are brackets in writing?

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Brackets look similar to parentheses but have squared corners instead of curved lines. They are
also used to set aside complementary information, but they serve different functions too.
Brackets are not as common as parentheses and are generally used only for quotations.
Specifically, brackets show that new information, usually from the author or editor, was added
to the original quote. If you ever need to put parentheses within parentheses (this usually only
happens in bibliographic citations), you use brackets for the second set. Brackets can also be
used in place of parentheses, but this occurs mainly in bibliographic citations.

Brackets in a quote
Brackets are often found inside quotations to show text added to the original quote. When
referencing someone else’s work, it’s best to use only the passages that are relevant to your
topic. Because of this, an important word or phrase may be missing from the passage you kept,
in which case you could add the missing context in brackets.
We’ve included some examples of brackets so you can see what we mean.
[Original] “My first year at the company was full of ups and downs. I met most of my
goals, but not without some concessions. All in all, I’d say it went well.”
[Abridged] “All in all, I’d say [my first year] went well.”
Notice how the text in brackets was not part of the original quote but provided context to help
the reader understand what was being discussed by defining the pronoun it. When using
brackets, it’s important to replace the original text with words or phrases that still make the
sentence grammatically correct.
Another common use of brackets is when you want to capitalize the first letter of a quotation
that is not capitalized in the original. As long as the part of the sentence you’re using is not a
sentence fragment, you can use brackets around the first letter to capitalize it.
[Original] “Try not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of
value.” —Albert Einstein
[Abridged] “[T]ry to become a man of value.”
If you want to show the reader you omitted part of a quotation, especially in the middle of a
sentence or passage, add an ellipsis between brackets.
[Original] “If most of us remain ignorant of ourselves, it is because self-knowledge is
painful and we prefer the pleasures of illusion.” —Aldous Huxley
[Abridged] “If most of us remain ignorant of ourselves, it is because [. . .] we prefer the
pleasures of illusion.”

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Lastly, you may have seen a strange word in brackets: [sic]. This is used in quotes to show that
the original quotation included an error, which the secondary writer or editor acknowledges,
but they kept it for posterity.
To use [sic], put it directly after the error; the word sic should be in italics, but the brackets
should be in the same style as the rest of the sentence. For example, in An American
Tragedy author Theodore Dreiser famously misspells “ships” as “chips.”
“[. . .] harmoniously abandoning themselves to the rhythm of the music—like two small
chips [sic] being tossed about on a rough but friendly sea.”

Parentheses vs. brackets FAQs

What are parentheses?

Parentheses, ( ), are punctuation marks used to set aside text that’s not necessary but is still
related to the topic.

What are brackets?

Brackets, [ ], show that text has been added to a quotation. They’re generally used by writers
and editors to separate the original wording from any additions.

When should you use parentheses?

Use parentheses when you want to add extra information that’s not necessary but is still
helpful. Make sure that the sentence is still grammatically correct if you remove the text in
parentheses.

When should you use brackets?

Use brackets to add text that is missing from or helps clarify the original quote. Brackets are
mainly used to add text to quotations, so if you’re adding text to something that’s not a quote,
use parentheses instead.

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 Punctuation Rules

Comma Splice

What Is a Comma Splice? With Examples

 When you join two independent clauses with a comma and no conjunction, it’s called
a comma splice. Some people consider this a type of run-on sentence, while other
people think of it as a punctuation error.
 Here’s an example of a comma splice: Koala bears are not actually bears, they are
marsupials.
 There are three ways to fix a comma splice. You can add a conjunction, change the
comma to a semicolon, or make each independent clause its own sentence.

What is a comma splice?

A comma splice is a particular kind of comma mistake that happens when you use a comma to
join two independent clauses. Here’s an example:
Incorrect: Koala bears are not actually bears, they are marsupials.
How can you tell that’s a comma splice? Look at the group of words before the comma.
Example: Koala bears are not actually bears
Did you notice that this group of words can stand by itself as a complete sentence? That means
it’s an independent clause.

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Now look at the group of words after the comma.
Example: They are marsupials
This group of words can also stand by itself as a complete sentence. It’s another independent
clause.
When you have two independent clauses, a comma is not strong enough to glue them together.

How to fix a comma splice

There are three common ways to fix a comma splice. Let’s look at a new example:
Incorrect: I am not angry with you, I am not happy with you, either.

Fix #1: Add a conjunction

One way to fix a comma splice is to add a conjunction immediately after the comma. With most
comma splices, the conjunction you’ll want to add is probably and, but, or so.
Correct: I am not angry with you, but I am not happy with you, either.
Fix #2: Change the comma to a semicolon
If adding a conjunction doesn’t seem to work, you can change the comma to
a semicolon instead. Unlike commas, semicolons are strong enough to glue two independent
clauses together.
Correct: I am not angry with you; I am not happy with you, either.
If you decide to use a semicolon, make sure there is a close, logical connection between the two
independent clauses.
Fix #3: Make separate sentences
If adding a conjunction doesn’t seem to work and using a semicolon feels too stuffy, you can fix
a comma splice by simply making each independent clause a separate sentence.
Correct: I am not angry with you. I am not happy with you, either.

Examples of comma splices

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Are you getting the hang of it? Here are a few more examples of comma splices and possible
corrections.
Incorrect: I’m thinking of skipping English class, it’s really boring.
Adding a conjunction like and or but after the comma in the sentence above doesn’t really make
sense. But there does seem to be a close, logical connection between the first independent
clause (I’m thinking of skipping English class) and the second independent clause (it’s really
boring). This is the perfect situation for a semicolon.
Correct: I’m thinking of skipping English class; it’s really boring.
You could also break those two independent clauses apart and make them separate sentences.
Correct: I’m thinking of skipping English class. It’s really boring.
Let’s try another:
Incorrect: Daniel was late, we left without him.
In this case, the conjunction so fits the bill.
Correct: Daniel was late, so we left without him.
Or you could use a semicolon.
Correct: Daniel was late; we left without him.
Or you could make two sentences, especially if you want to sound blunt.
Correct: Daniel was late. We left without him.

Are comma splices ever OK?

Yes! You should avoid comma splices in formal writing, but now that you know the rule, you can
sometimes break it in more artistic types of writing.
In fiction, for instance, you might use a comma splice to convey a character’s racing thoughts or
observations.
Example: She was beautiful, she was gorgeous, she was ravishing.
Comma splices can also create a sense of grandeur in rhetoric, but only if they’re used sparingly.
Example: I came, I saw, I conquered.
And in poetry, of course, the rules are even more relaxed. Sometimes, a comma splice creates
just the right rhythm.

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Example: Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of
day . . .
That’s it! Now you’re ready to get out there and use your commas with confidence.

Comma Before And

When to Use a Comma Before “And”

Whether or not you put a comma before and depends on how you’re using and. There’s no
single rule that applies to all situations. You usually put a comma before and when it’s
connecting two independent clauses. It’s almost always optional to put a comma before and in
a list.

Comma before and in lists

A lot of people have strong feelings about putting a comma before and in a list. Exactly why this
particular quirk of comma usage stirs such passion is hard to say; it’s just one of those things. If
you’ve ever heard someone arguing about serial commas or Oxford commas, this is what they
were talking about.
Let’s say your dog has so many great qualities that you just have to tell the world about them.
When you list your dog’s qualities, you have to use a comma after each quality you
list except the one that comes immediately before and. That comma is optional.
Example: The dog is young, well-trained, and good-natured.
Example: The dog is young, well trained and good-natured.
The sentence is correct with or without the comma before and. (There are a few exceptions that
require you to use the Oxford comma in a list, but they are pretty rare.) Just be consistent. Don’t
switch back and forth in the same document between using the Oxford comma and not using it.

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By the way, this punctuation rule applies to lists of three or more items. You should not use a
comma before and if you’re mentioning only two qualities.
Incorrect: The dog is well-trained, and good-natured.
Correct: The dog is well-trained and good-natured.
This is true for proper names, ordinary nouns, verbs, or anything else.
Incorrect: Sam, and Sarah take excellent care of their pets.
Correct: Sam and Sarah take excellent care of their pets.
Incorrect: The dog barks, and plays.
Correct: The dog barks and plays.

Comma before and that joins two independent clauses

The word and is a conjunction, and when a conjunction joins two independent clauses, you
should use a comma with it. The proper place for the comma is before the conjunction.
Example: On Monday we’ll see the Eiffel Tower, and on Tuesday we’ll visit the Louvre.
The sentence above contains two independent clauses, so it requires a comma before and. (You
can tell they’re independent clauses because each one could stand on its own as a complete
sentence.)
Let’s look at another example.
It’s cold outside, and I can’t find my coat.
Once again, we have two independent clauses: “It’s cold outside” plus “I can’t find my coat.”
Therefore, we need a comma before and.
Don’t use a comma before and when one of the clauses it’s connecting is a dependent clause.
Incorrect: Sam tossed the ball, and watched the dog chase it.
The first clause, “Sam tossed the ball,” could stand on its own as a complete sentence, which
means it’s an independent clause. But the second clause, “watched the dog chase it,” can’t
stand by itself as a complete sentence. That means it’s a dependent clause, so we should not
use a comma before and.
Correct: Sam tossed the ball and watched the dog chase it.

Exceptions to the comma before and rule

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But wait! There’s an exception. (Isn’t there always?) When you have two independent clauses
joined by and, most style guides say that it’s OK to leave the comma out as long as the two
independent clauses are very short and closely connected. Here’s an example:
Example: Arthur cooked and Melvin cleaned.
It’s not wrong to add a comma before and in the sentence above, but doing so might make the
sentence a little choppy.
Want to learn about other ways to use a comma? Check out our general guide to comma usage.

Comma Before Too

Commas With “Too”: When Do You Use Them?

You’ve likely read sentences in which there was a comma before and/or after the
adverb too when it is used to mean “besides” or “also,” but is this correct usage? The fact is,
there’s only one circumstance when commas are required with this kind of too, and there are
other times when it’s up to the writer and the way they want a sentence to be read. Read on for
the rules and options that guide this use of too.

Too in the middle of a sentence

The only time commas with too are a grammatical requirement is when it is inserted in the
middle of a sentence; it needs to be set off by a pair of commas so that readers don’t trip on it.
In this way, the word follows the same rule as adverbial phrases; when it interrupts the logical
flow of the sentence, you need to put commas around it:
Example: I, too, like bananas.
Example: Some of the people in town who would be affected by the new regulations,
too, were unable to attend the meetings about them.

Too at the end of a sentence

The other place too frequently appears is at the end of a sentence, and there, it is never
necessary to use a comma before too:

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Example: I like bananas too.
Example: Some people in town who were opposed to the new regulations attended the
meetings and sent letters too.
However, if a writer wants to emphasize the word too at the end of a sentence, it’s not incorrect
to include a comma before it; since commas denote a pause, reading the sentence aloud and
listening for whether you naturally pause there may be helpful. Here are a couple of examples
of sentences in which you might choose to include a comma before too:
Example: I’m going to call and tell my council member what I think about these
regulations, and I’m going to make sure they understand my frustration, too!
Example: It’s important to plan for the future, but I want to enjoy my life in the present,
too.

Comma After Question Mark

Comma After Question Mark

In English, we typically use a comma to separate a quotation from an attributive tag—a tag that
tells the reader who is speaking or acting (e.g., “he thought” or “said he”)—even if the quote
would usually end in a period. However, if the quote is a question, a question mark needs to be
used to show the reader that the sentence is an interrogative sentence.

In cases when a question mark is used, there is no need to use a comma as well; instead, the
attributive tag should come immediately after the closing quotation marks. Consider the
example below:
Incorrect: “Do you want to come to the movies with us?”, Mary asked.
Correct: “Do you want to come to the movies with us?” Mary asked.
The comma between the quote and the attributive tag is not required, and should be removed.
The same rule applies to exclamation points. See the examples below:
Incorrect: “I am trying to sleep here!”, my roommate yelled.
Correct: “I am trying to sleep here!” my roommate yelled.

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 Commas in Dates

Commas in Dates
When writing a date, a comma is used to separate the day from the month, and the date from
the year.
Correct: July 4, 1776, was an important day in American history.
Correct: I was born on Sunday, May 12, 1968.
But if you’re writing the date in day-month-year format, you don’t need a comma.
Correct: The project will commence on 1 June 2018.

Do use a comma if you’re including a day of the week with the date. Note the use of the comma
after the date when it appears in the middle of a sentence.
Correct: On Friday, October 28, at four o’clock, we’ll have a small gathering in the office
kitchen to celebrate Mark’s birthday.
Correct: Please come out on Saturday, April 15, 2017, to show your support for the
marathon runners.
When you’re giving only a month and a year, you don’t need a comma.
Correct: I haven’t seen this much snow since January 2002.
Notice how in our examples above, the dates are expressed as cardinals, not ordinals—as in,
there’s no th, rd, or nd after the numeral: April 15, 2017 instead of April 15th, 2017. In formal

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writing, always express cardinal numbers in dates, even though when we might say a date out
loud we express it as an ordinal: “January third.”
If you use a construction with of, it is OK to use an ordinal number. It is also acceptable to use
an ordinal number when referring to a specific day without referring to the month.
Correct: Xiomara gave birth on the 10th of June.
Correct: Xiomara’s baby was born on the tenth.
When you’re expressing a date in this way, with the ordinal before the month, you don’t need a
comma.

Oxford Comma

Why Is the Oxford Comma a Heated Debate?

If you stare awhile at the string of characters that a sentence comprises, the squiggles lose all
meaning. That humans somehow manage to agree on the use of these symbols well enough to
communicate at all can seem miraculous.
But what about when we don’t quite agree—when it seems a writer has added a superfluous,
bafflingly out-of-place comma, perhaps, or inexplicably used the wrong pronoun? Maybe
they’re simply mistaken. Or maybe they’re in the vanguard of a futuristic linguistic trend that,
decades or centuries hence, will be widely embraced and regarded as correct.
Our language is forever evolving, and the year 2017 was no exception. Two key authorities on
proper usage—the Associated Press Stylebook and the Chicago Manual of Style—both made
modernizing tweaks in their updates.
We’ll give a rundown of a few of the recent changes that felt consequential, and then delve into
one particularly contentious stylistic faultline we’re still watching—the Oxford comma.

Both style guides are through with capitalizing internet and web
Associated Press editors made this move last year, and the Chicago Manual has now followed
suit. Not to make anyone feel old, but if you remember the sound of a dial-up modem, you’ve
witnessed the arc of these terms trending from exotic to mundane. Same goes for this one:

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It’s now email, not e-mail
Chicago Style lagged a few years after the AP made this shift, but it’s now unanimous—no
hyphen required. Similarly:

AP Style now has an entry for esports

The e is not a typo; we’re talking about competitive multiplayer video games. One could argue
that 2017, the year of Starcraft: Remastered, approximates a 20-year anniversary for esports,
which have now become commonplace—and so lucrative that popular streamers on Twitch
have their own agents.

AP editors also added an entry for autonomous vehicles

It will likely be years before you get a chance to ride in a self-driving car, but in the meantime,
journalists can’t stop thinking about them. Just don’t call them driverless unless there truly isn’t
a human onboard who can take the wheel.

They can now be singular—sometimes

AP and Chicago Style editors both cracked this door open in 2017, but neither yet seems ready
to charge fully through it, prompting the Columbia Journalism Review to declare “it’s the middle
of the end for the insistence that ‘they’ can be only a plural pronoun.”
The style guides allow for a singular they when referring to someone who doesn’t identify
as he or she, but they also note you can often just write your way around this by reworking the
sentence. Here are highlights from the new AP entry:
They, them, their — In most cases, a plural pronoun should agree in number with the
antecedent: The children love the books their uncle gave them. They/them/their is
acceptable in limited cases as a singular and-or gender-neutral pronoun, when
alternative wording is overly awkward or clumsy. However, rewording usually is possible
and always is preferable…
In stories about people who identify as neither male nor female or ask not to be referred
to as he/she/him/her: Use the person’s name in place of a pronoun, or otherwise reword
the sentence, whenever possible. If they/them/their use is essential, explain in the text
that the person prefers a gender-neutral pronoun.
Whether this shift heralds the widespread adoption of what’s known as the “epicene they,”
we’ll have to wait a few more editions and see.

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Whither the Oxford comma?
No discussion of warring stylebooks would be complete without considering the Oxford
(or serial) comma. For the uninitiated, that’s the last comma in a list of three or more things, as
in this example:
“My goals for the coming year are to learn how to use commas like a champion, to run a half-
marathon, and to get good at poaching eggs.”
Whether that last comma is necessary is hotly debated.
Chicago style recommends its use in almost all instances, while AP style leans somewhat against
it. The AP’s position is squishy, though, as it recently noted in a series of tweets that began “We
don’t ban Oxford commas!” Rather, they say you should use it when it adds clarity and ditch it
when it’s nonessential.
As AP Stylebook lead editor Paula Froke told a roomful of colleagues this spring, “The stylebook
doesn’t ban the use of a serial comma. Whether you put it in at all times is a different debate.”
That’s hardly a hard-and-fast declaration, but the Oxford comma is divisive, as anyone who’s
served as a copy editor at a student newspaper can attest. Brittney, Grammarly’s resident style
maven, puts it this way:
Brittney notes that Grammarly is pro-Oxford comma, in part because many long-timers (“the
OG Grammarly users”) have voiced fondness for it. “It’s really carried over into our blog, social
media, emails,” even in settings where AP style might be more typical: “We’ve kept the Oxford
comma just to keep things consistent.”
And consistency, alongside clarity, she says, should be more important than pitting one stylistic
tribe’s abstract symbols against another.
“When it comes to AP vs. Chicago style, I think a lot of people forget the importance of the
word style. The important thing to remember is when the style isn’t working for you, you should
do what works.”

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 Quotation Marks in Titles

When to Use Quotation Marks for Titles

Do you know when to use quotation marks for titles? Knowing whether to use italics or
quotation marks for titles is one of the most common problems students have, especially when
it comes to academic writing where you discuss your sources. Luckily, there are consistent
themes that can help you pick the right format for each title, no matter what style guide you’re
following.
Below, we explain exactly when to use quotation marks in titles (and when to use italics
instead). We’ll cover the title rules for the three main style guides—APA, MLA, and Chicago—
and give you some guidelines for figuring out which kinds of titles use which format.

How to properly quote a title with quotation marks

Quotation marks (“ ”) are mostly for showing speech or copying passages verbatim from other
works, but sometimes they’re used for more than just punctuation. For certain types of works,
they’re used to set apart titles.
The general rule is to use quotation marks for titles of short works such as articles, poems,
songs, essays, or short stories. By contrast, use italics for larger works such as books, movies,
and the names of periodicals. We provide a complete list below.

When to use italics or quotation marks for titles

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Some types of work italicize titles, and some use quotation marks, but how do you know which
is which? Here’s a quick list of what kinds of works use each.

Works that use quotation marks in titles

 journal articles
 newspaper and magazine articles
 blog and online news articles
 essay titles
 poems (except epic poems)
 short stories
 songs
 chapters
 lectures
 episode titles of TV shows, podcasts, and other serial works
 page titles for websites
 section or part titles within a larger work
 short-form videos, such as those on YouTube

Examples of titles with quotation marks

Journal:
“A Policy Framework for the Growing Influence of Private Equity on Health Care Deliver”
(Journal of the American Medical Association)

Newspaper:
“Sonoma County Board of Supervisors to consider sewer rate increase”
(The Press Democrat)

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“E.U. Approves Microsoft’s $69 Billion Deal for Activision”
(The New York Times)

Poem:
“A Dream Deferred”
(Langston Hughes)

Short story:
“Everything that Rises Must Converge”
(Flannery O’Connor)
“A Lonely Coast”
(Annie Proulx)

Songs:
“(Sittin’ On) The Dock of the Bay”
(Otis Redding)
“Think About Things”
(Daoi Freyr)

Chapters:
“The Wolves”
(The Wild Robot Escapes)
“The First Tee”
(The Match: The Day the Game of Golf Changed Forever)

Lectures:
“The Danger of a Single Story”

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(Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie)
“Creativity in Management”
(John Cleese)

Podcast episodes:
“The Lives of Others”
(This American Life)
“Alone@Work: Miles To Go Before I’m Me”
(Rough Translation)
Web page:
“Responsible AI”
(Grammarly.com)
“Volleyball”
(Wikipedia.com)

Works that use italics in titles

 books
 volumes
 anthologies
 reports
 epic poems (not regular poems)
 periodical names (magazines, newspapers, and news websites)
 movies
 plays
 radio shows
 TV shows (not individual episodes)
 podcasts (not individual episodes)

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  music albums
 apps
 video games
 operas and long musical compositions
 classic art like paintings and sculptures
 dissertations
 legal cases
 large vehicles such as ships, aircrafts, and spacecrafts

When to use quotation marks for titles for each style guide
While the basics are the same—italics for the titles of long works and quotation marks for the
titles of short works—some minor details may vary. Here’s a quick rundown of when to use
quotation marks in titles for the APA, MLA, and Chicago styles.

Quotations marks in titles for APA

The APA format follows the list above: It uses quotation marks for all types of work mentioned.
The only particular rule they have about quotation marks in titles is that they are not used in
the reference list for articles and chapters.
In APA, the reference list is the name of the bibliography, like a works cited page. When writing
a full citation that mentions an article or book chapter, simply write the title with neither
quotation marks nor italics. However, if the same title is written within the text (or in a
copyright attribution), use quotation marks.
Quotations marks in titles for Chicago
In general, Chicago style follows the list above. It does, nevertheless, list a few extra types of
works that the other style guides do not.

Quotation marks for titles:

 fairy tales and nursery rhymes

Italics for titles:

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  pamphlets
 maps
 serialized cartoons and comic strips

Quotations marks in titles for MLA

The use of quotation marks in titles for MLA format is very straightforward. Simply use the
appropriate format for the type of work, as indicated in the large list above.

When to use single or double quotation marks for titles

There are two types of quotation marks: single quotation marks (‘ ’) and double quotation
marks (“ ”).
In general, American English uses double quotation marks. The only time we use single
quotation marks for titles is to replace quotation marks within another pair of quotation marks.
For example, if you were writing an article about Langston Hughes’s poems—highlighting
“Harlem” in particular—the title of your article might be something like this:
“Reflections on ‘Harlem’ and Other Poems”
Notice how, when we talk about the poem “Harlem” on its own, we use the standard double
quotation marks. However, when we mention it within another pair of quotation marks, we use
single quotation marks instead.
This is done simply for the sake of clarity. It would be confusing to use double quotation marks
within double quotation marks, so this makes reading a bit easier. Let’s look at another
example:
EPISODE TITLE: “The Winds of Winter” (episode of Game of Thrones)
ESSAY TITLE: “Why ‘The Winds of Winter’ Is the Best Episode of Game of Thrones”
Keep in mind that if a title in quotation marks is used within an italicized title, double quotation
marks are used. For example, look at how we write the title of a full book that collects Roald
Dahl’s short stories:
“The Landlady” and Other Short Stories
It’s also worth noting that this is only the convention in American English. In British English,
single quotes and double quotes are switched! That means titles and speech quotes use single

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quotation marks most of the time and double quotation marks are used only within single
quotes. Keep that in mind if you’re ever reading a British piece of writing.

Quotation marks for titles FAQs

Why use quotation marks for titles?

Quotation marks set apart the titles of short works like articles, poems, songs, essays, or short
stories. Longer works like books or movies use italics instead.

When do you use quotation marks for titles?

Use quotation marks for the titles of articles, essays, poems, short stories, songs, chapters,
lectures, pages for websites, episodes of serial works (such as TV shows or podcasts), names of
sections or parts in larger works, and short-form videos such as those on YouTube.

When do you use italics?

Use italics for the titles of books, movies, plays, TV shows, podcasts, video games, apps, classic
art (like paintings and sculptures), music albums, legal cases, dissertations, anthologies, reports,
periodicals (like magazines or newspapers), operas and long musical compositions, and large
vehicles (like ships or aircraft).

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 Quotation Marks Around a Word

When to Put Quotation Marks Around a Single Word

Quotation marks around single words can occasionally be used for emphasis, but only when
quoting a word or term someone else used. Usually, this implies that the author doesn’t agree
with the use of the term.
Example: He said he was “working”; it looked to me like he was procrastinating.
Example: You call this filthy room “clean”?!
When quotation marks are put around a word in this way, they are called scare quotes.

Rules for quotation marks around a single word

The rules for using quotation marks around a single word for emphasis have changed since
people began using word processors for their writing. If a word needs to be emphasized but is
not being quoted, you should avoid putting the word in quotes and use italics instead. If you are
writing by hand or using a typewriter, you can use quotation marks for emphasis to separate a
certain word from the rest of the sentence—for example, when you are writing about words as
words:
Example: “They’re,” “their,” and “there” are easily confused because they’re homophones.
Example: “Cool” can refer to temperature, or it can mean something is good; “sweet” is
also a slang term for “good.”

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For further information on using quotation marks, check out our article Quotation Marks:
Grammar Rules.

Quotation Marks in Dialogue

Quotation Marks and Dialogue

Quotation marks are used to identify words that someone has said. You’ll often find them in
fiction, where they signify dialogue, the words spoken by the characters. In newspapers,
journalists use quotation marks to signify that something is a direct quote from a person in the
article. In academic papers, quotation marks can signify that you are quoting material that was
written by someone else. Quotation marks always come in pairs; the first set opens the quote
and the second set closes the quote.

American vs. British quotation marks

American English and British English differ in the way they use quotation marks. American
English uses double quotation marks (“ ”) for quotes and reserves single quotation marks (‘ ’) for
quotes within quotes. In British English, the convention is the opposite. Another difference is
that in American English, periods and commas go before closing quotation marks. In British
English, they go after the closing quotation mark. The guidelines below apply to American
English.

Dialogue quotation marks

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When writers become confused about quotation marks, it usually has to do with where to put
other nearby punctuation. Below is an example of a conversation between two characters, with
their dialogue correctly punctuated.
Martin said, “I’m going over to Jennifer’s house for a few hours.”
“You can’t be serious!” cried Fauntleroy.
“Oh, but I am,” Martin replied.
“How will you get there?” Fauntleroy asked.
“I thought I’d take the bus.”
“And,” Fauntleroy continued, “exactly how long is ‘a few hours’?”
“Probably two or three.”
“Well . . . fine. Tell Jennifer I said hello.”
In the first sentence, Martin makes a declarative statement that ends in a period. The period
goes inside the quotation marks. Treat anything within quotation marks as separate from the
rest of the sentence you’ve written, and make sure it has its own correct punctuation. If the
quote is a full sentence, it must begin with a capital letter, even though it is within the larger
structure of another sentence.
The second sentence begins a new paragraph because a different character is speaking.
Fauntleroy responds with an outburst, ending with an exclamation mark. When an exclamation
mark belongs to the sentence inside the quotation marks, it goes before the closing quotation
mark.
In the third sentence, Martin is making another declarative statement. This time, however, the
statement is followed by the dialogue tag Martin replied. In dialogue, when a sentence that
would normally end in a period is followed by a dialogue tag, the period becomes a comma. It
should go before the closing quotation mark.
In the fourth sentence, Fauntleroy’s query ends with a question mark. As with exclamation
marks, a question mark goes before the closing quotation mark when it belongs to the sentence
inside the quotation marks.
In the fifth sentence, Martin is speaking, but there is no dialogue tag. Writers often omit
dialogue tags when the context of a conversation makes it clear who the speaker is.
In the sixth sentence, the dialogue tag Fauntleroy continued appears in the middle of
Fauntleroy’s sentence. Notice the placement of the commas after And and continued; commas
go before quotation marks. This sentence also contains a quote within a quote, which is
enclosed with single quotation marks. Fauntleroy is repeating Martin’s words a few hours.

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The final two sentences of the conversation also omit the dialogue tags, because it’s clear which
character is speaking in both instances.

Non-dialogue quotations
In nonfiction or academic contexts, you may want to quote someone without styling it as
dialogue. The same rules for where to put other punctuation in relation to the quotation marks
apply. But you should also take care to construct your sentence so that the quoted words fit
within it grammatically.
Correct: The mayor said his two golden retrievers were “the best dogs in the world” and
added that he was not a cat person.
Incorrect: The mayor said his two golden retrievers were “the best dogs in the world. I’m
not a cat person.”
In the second example, the sentence begins in the third person and past tense but abruptly
switches to the first person and present tense halfway through the quote. The result is jarring
for the reader, and sometimes hard to follow.

Scare quotes
Occasionally, writers enclose certain terms they wish to distance themselves from in quotation
marks. Quotation marks used this way are commonly called scare quotes or shudder quotes. It’s
a way of implying that you’re using a term in an unusual way or that you don’t necessarily
approve of it. For example:
Silicon Valley has fully embraced the “sharing economy.”
The scare quotes around sharing economy suggest that it’s not a fully accepted term. Perhaps
the writer feels that it’s jargon or just doesn’t like it. But, unless you’re writing for an audience
who is totally unfamiliar with the subject, it’s better to leave the quotation marks out and
instead provide enough context to make the meaning of the term clear. Overusing scare quotes
will quickly annoy readers, so reserve them for terms that truly require them:
For too many people, “computer security” is an oxymoron.
In the sentence above, the scare quotes are needed to indicate that the writer is not talking
about computer security in general, but rather the term itself.
Because scare quotes usually suggest a sniff of disapproval or sarcasm from the writer, you
should never use them purely for emphasis or decoration. A sign outside a restaurant that
proclaims Best “Flapjacks” in Town will make people stop and wonder why the flapjacks need

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the scare quotes. Are they really flapjacks? Or are they some kind of inferior imitation? Likewise,
if you write someone a note that says I “love” you, the recipient will probably assume that you
meant the exact opposite!

Capitalization in Quotes

Capitalize the first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

When quoting, the first word of a complete sentence should be capitalized, regardless of its
placement within the main sentence.
We know that capitalization is reserved for the beginnings of sentences, so when we see a
capital letter mid-sentence, it might seem like a mistake. When using quotations, though,
capitalization in mid-sentence is common. More specifically, when quotations form complete
sentences, they must be capitalized no matter where they appear in the main sentence. All of
the sentences below are correct, for example:
Correct: Matthew said, “In that case, I’m going out for a walk!”
Correct: “We are not amused.” – Queen Victoria
Correct: Neil Young’s admonishment “It’s better to burn out than it is to rust” is not
appreciated by everyone.

Don’t capitalize quotes that are partial sentences

Quotations within a sentence aren’t always capitalized, however. When the quote is a piece of a
bigger quote or a sentence fragment, no capitalization is necessary. Consider the sentences
below, and note the lack of capitalization in quotes within these sentences:

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Correct: William Butler Yeats said that education should not be passive and dull, but that
it should be seen as “. . . lighting a fire.”
Correct: When accused, Richard Nixon maintained that he was “not a crook.”

Semicolon vs. Colon vs. Dash

Ah, the old debate: semicolon vs. colon vs. dash. Which punctuation is the right one for the
sentence you’re writing? How do you know? Is it a clear-cut choice where one is correct and the
others are wrong, or is it more of a stylistic decision, like using the Oxford comma?
The confusion surrounding semicolon versus colon versus dash is understandable, but once
you’ve learned the basics, the answer is usually clear. There’s rarely a situation where either a
semicolon or a colon can be correct; it’s typically one or the other. The same goes for dashes—
unless you’re purposely breaking punctuation rules for a stylistic reason (like writing poetry,
writing a character’s unique dialogue, or breaking convention to grab readers’ attention), there
are right ways and wrong ways to use a dash.
Not sure when to use a dash or whether a colon or semicolon is the way to go? No worries—we
break it down and make it easy-peasy.

Colon vs. semicolon: What’s the difference?

The two punctuation marks colon (:) and semicolon (;) may look similar, but they have different
uses:
 A colon (:) is used to introduce information set up by the previous clause. It’s typically
used before a list, example, or explanation.
 A semicolon (;) is used to join related independent clauses together in the same
sentence without a conjunction.

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Now let’s discuss the details on when and how to use each and where the dash ( — ) fits in.

When do I use a colon?

A colon looks like this: :
In a sentence, a colon’s job is to introduce information and give it context. Think of it as
shorthand for “which is/are,” “as follows,” or “thus.”
For example: “There are three kinds of soda on the menu: ginger ale, Pepsi, and Dr. Pepper.”
This can also be written as “There are three kinds of soda on the menu and they are, as
follows, ginger ale, Pepsi, and Dr. Pepper.”
A colon can also separate a sentence into two independent clauses when the two clauses are
directly related and you mean to emphasize the second clause. Take a look at the colon in action
here:
The roads are icy: It’s dangerous to drive today.
Separating a sentence into two independent clauses is one of the rare instances where either a
colon or a semicolon would be correct. While a semicolon can gently separate two independent
clauses, a colon does so more concretely. Compare this sentence to the one above:
The roads are icy; it’s dangerous to drive today.
See how the version with the semicolon feels more conversational, while the one with the colon
feels more direct? You might have also noticed that in the first example, the clause after the
colon starts with a capital letter. We explain why in the next section.
First, here’s an easy trick to see if you’re using a colon or semicolon correctly to separate
clauses: Replace it with a period. An independent clause is a clause that can be its own
sentence, so when you’ve got two independent clauses separated by a colon, you’ve essentially
got two sentences. Consider this variation on our example: The roads are icy. It’s dangerous to
drive.

Capitalization after colons

Whether you should capitalize the word following a colon depends on whether you’re writing
in American English or British English. In American English, the first word after a colon is
capitalized when it begins a new sentence and when it’s a proper noun or acronym. In British
English, the first word after a colon is only capitalized when it’s a proper noun or acronym.

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When do I use a semicolon?
A semicolon looks like this: ;
As we mentioned above, a semicolon joins two independent clauses together to create a
detailed sentence. Take a look at this example:
My favorite meal is rigatoni with bolognese sauce and crusty bread; these foods remind
me of my grandmother’s cooking.
You’ve got two distinct sentences there, but when they’re joined by a semicolon, they paint a
fuller picture than they would if kept separate. The semicolon communicates a deeper
relationship. Think of it as shorthand for a conjunction. Another way to write our example
sentence is: My favorite meal is rigatoni with bolognese sauce and crusty bread because these
foods remind me of my grandmother’s cooking.

When do I use a dash?

Remember: A single hyphen is not a dash. A single hyphen is a separate punctuation mark that
serves a completely different purpose: to join two words to create a compound word, for
example.
There are three different dashes you can use in your writing:
Em dash: —
En dash: –
Double hyphen: ⸗
The em dash (—) is a super versatile punctuation mark. Here are all the different ways you can
use one:
 Interject or abruptly change the subject
 Offset an appositive that contains commas
 Offset parenthetical information
 Replace a colon for emphasis
 Connect a list and another clause in the same sentence when the list comes first
 Communicate that a word or part of a word is missing, either because it’s been
purposefully omitted or is unknown. When using an em dash in this way, two or three
em dashes are typically used for each missing word or portion of a word.
We’ll show you examples of each of these uses in a moment. First, we’ll explain the en dash.

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The en dash (–) is slightly shorter than the em dash, but still longer than a single hyphen. Unlike
the versatile em dash, the en dash has just three jobs:
 Replace the word to in ranges and scores
 Create complex compound adjectives
 Represent conflict or connection between two nouns
Compound adjectives are two-word adjectives, and when the two words in a compound
adjective aren’t hyphenated, like light gray, or when both words are hyphenated, like in record-
breaking two-week period, an en dash between the adjective and the noun it’s describing
makes the sentence clear.
For example: I’ve recently started dabbling in dark academia–style fashion.

And you’d use a double hyphen (⸗) when you use a hyphenated word at the end of a line of text
and the second half of the word is split off and starts the next line. Generally, non-hyphenated
words are given hyphens in this situation to show the reader that the word continues on the
next line. When the word already has a hyphen, a second one is added to show it’s both
hyphenated and split across two lines—and that second hyphen creates the double hyphen.

Do I use a colon or a semicolon before a list?

A colon. But, colons aren’t for every list.
A colon is only necessary (and correct) when the list follows a complete independent clause.
Here’s an example:
I have many different art supplies in my basement: clay, acrylic paints, watercolors,
colored pencils, and five kinds of paper.
“I have a lot of different art supplies in my basement” can be a sentence on its own, but the list
that follows it can’t. In the example sentence above, the list of supplies adds detail to the
statement about having art supplies in the basement but doesn’t change its meaning.
When a list doesn’t follow a complete independent clause, a colon is unnecessary and incorrect.
Here are a few examples of lists that shouldn’t be preceded by colons:
 When I went to the art supply store, I bought colored pencils, a new sketchpad, and
some charcoal.
 To complete the course, you need to watch all the lectures, pass both quizzes, and write
a final essay.

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When a semicolon is part of a list, it’s between items in the list, rather than at the beginning.
You’d use a semicolon in a list to clearly separate items, especially if the items already
contain commas.
For example: When I traveled through Asia last year, I stopped in Tokyo, Japan; Osaka, Japan;
Seoul, South Korea; and Bangkok, Thailand.

Colons, semicolons, and dashes in action

Take a look at these examples to see how colons, semicolons, and different kinds of dashes work
in sentences:

Colon
To make a Shirley Temple, you need three ingredients: ginger ale, grenadine, and a maraschino
cherry.
It was a beautiful day: The sun was shining and the flowers were in full bloom.

Semicolon
The semifinalists included Bob from Chicago, Illinois; Jessica from New York, New York; Karen
from Seattle, Washington; and David from Camden, New Jersey.
My cats love to harass my dog; they spent all afternoon chasing him through the house.

Em dash
I drank my coffee—as I do every day—on the porch.
Please call my sister—Amy, not Rebecca—to find out the best time to stop by.
HP, Dell, Apple—we sell every kind of computer here.
Hey—oh wait, never mind.
The suspect is believed to be a minor named — — —, who lives in the same building as the
victim.

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En dash
I have to work from 10 a.m.–6 p.m. today.
She’s a brand-new Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist.
Our San Diego–San Francisco road trip will take about eight hours if we don’t make any stops.

Double hyphen
At the museum, I had the opportunity to see a well⸗preserved specimen of a beetle in amber.

Capitalization After Colons

Capitalization After Colons: Rules and Examples

Capitalization: First word after a colon

In American English, the first word after a colon is sometimes capitalized if it begins a complete
sentence; in British English, the first letter after a colon is capitalized only if its a proper noun or
an acronym.
Here are some tips for using colons properly:
 When a colon introduces a list of things, do not capitalize the first word after the colon
unless it is a proper noun.
 When a colon introduces a phrase or an incomplete sentence that is meant to add
information to the sentence before it, do not capitalize the first word after the colon
unless it is a proper noun.
 When a colon introduces a complete sentence, you may capitalize the first word after
the colon according to some style guides. Read on for details.
When’s the last time you used a colon in your writing? Many writers avoid this punctuation
mark because they’re unsure how to use it properly. Colons can be quite useful, though. Not
only do they introduce lists, but they also alert the reader to an explanation of the previous

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sentence. Colons provide a way of expounding upon information in such a way that connects
the ideas in two or more sentences.

Capitalize after colon: APA format

One of the tricky issues many writers deal with when it comes to colons is whether or not to
capitalize the word following the colon. As with so many things in the English language,
capitalization with colons can be complex, and many times, it’s more of a style issue than one of
correctness. According to APA format, the first word after the colon is capitalized only if it begins
a complete sentence. Consider the examples below:
Incorrect: It’s been snowing for three days straight: the roads around here aren’t very safe
for driving.
Correct: It’s been snowing for three days straight: The roads around here aren’t very safe
for driving.

Capitalize after colon: Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style has a slightly different perspective on whether to capitalize after
colons. In their view, the word following a colon should be capitalized only if there
are two explanatory sentences following the colon. Look at the examples below:
Incorrect: Maggie wears a brimmed cap at all times: Strong light often gives her a
headache.
Correct: Maggie wears a brimmed cap at all times: strong light often gives her a
headache.
Correct: Maggie wears a brimmed cap at all times: Strong light often gives her a
headache. She also likes the way it looks.

Never capitalize after a colon when introducing a list

Both style manuals agree on one thing, though. It is never ok to capitalize the word after a colon
when the word introduces a list. The following sentences illustrate this rule:
Incorrect: Jan needed a few more items to complete her job application: A résumé, cover
letter, and references.
Correct: Jan needed a few more items to complete her job application: a résumé, cover
letter, and references.

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