O’LEVEL PHYSICS

CONTENT

1 General Physics .............................................................................................................................................. 6

1.1 Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement ........................................................................................... 6

Scalars and Vectors ................................................................................................................................... 6

Measurement Techniques ......................................................................................................................... 6

Measurement of Time............................................................................................................................... 7

2 Mechanics and Properties of Matter .............................................................................................................. 8

2.2 Kinematics .............................................................................................................................................. 9

Speed, Velocity and acceleration .............................................................................................................. 9

Free-fall .................................................................................................................................................... 9

2.3 Dynamics ...............................................................................................................................................11

The nature of a force ................................................................................................................................11

Balanced and unbalanced forces ..............................................................................................................11

Friction ................................................................................................................................................... 12

Circular Motion ........................................................................................................................................13

The effects of forces on motion .............................................................................................................. 14

2.4 Mass, weight and density ...................................................................................................................... 15

Mass and weight ..................................................................................................................................... 15

Gravitational Field Strength .................................................................................................................... 15

Density ................................................................................................................................................... 16

2.5 Turning effects of forces ........................................................................................................................ 17

Moments ................................................................................................................................................. 17

Centre of gravity ..................................................................................................................................... 18

Stability .................................................................................................................................................. 18

2.6 Deformation ......................................................................................................................................... 20

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 Elastic Deformation ................................................................................................................................ 20

2.7 Pressure ................................................................................................................................................ 22

Pressure .................................................................................................................................................. 22

Pressure Changes ................................................................................................................................... 22

Hydraulic Systems .................................................................................................................................. 23

Pressure in Gases .................................................................................................................................... 24

3 Energy and Thermal Physics ........................................................................................................................ 25

3.8 Energy Sources and Transfer of Energy ................................................................................................. 25

Energy Forms ......................................................................................................................................... 25

Major Sources of Energy ......................................................................................................................... 26

Nuclear Reactions ................................................................................................................................... 28

Work ....................................................................................................................................................... 28

Efficiency ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Power ..................................................................................................................................................... 29

3.9 Transfer of Thermal Energy ................................................................................................................... 30

Conduction ............................................................................................................................................. 30

Convection ............................................................................................................................................. 30

Radiation .................................................................................................................................................31

Total Transfer ..........................................................................................................................................31

3.10 Temperature ........................................................................................................................................33

Principle of Thermometry ........................................................................................................................33

Practical Thernmometers ....................................................................................................................... 34

3.11 Thermal Properties of Matter .............................................................................................................. 34

Specific Heat Capacity ............................................................................................................................ 35

Melting and Solidification ....................................................................................................................... 35

Boiling and Condensation ....................................................................................................................... 36

Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation ................................................................................................... 37

Thermal Expansion of solids, liquids and gases ....................................................................................... 38

3.12 Kinetic Model of Matter ....................................................................................................................... 39

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 States of matter ...................................................................................................................................... 39

Molecular Model ..................................................................................................................................... 39

Evaporation ............................................................................................................................................ 41

4. Waves ......................................................................................................................................................... 43

4.13 General Wave Properties ..................................................................................................................... 43

Describing Wave Motion ......................................................................................................................... 43

Wave Terms ............................................................................................................................................ 44

Wave Behaviour ...................................................................................................................................... 44

4.14 Light ................................................................................................................................................... 46

Reflection of Light .................................................................................................................................. 46

Refraction of light ................................................................................................................................... 47

Total internal reflection .......................................................................................................................... 48

Thin converging and diverging lenses ..................................................................................................... 50

4.15 Electromagnetic Spectrum .................................................................................................................. 52

Dispersion of Light .................................................................................................................................. 52

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves ..................................................................................................... 52

Applications of Electromagnetic Waves .................................................................................................. 53

4.16 Sound ................................................................................................................................................. 54

Sound Waves .......................................................................................................................................... 54

Ultrasound .............................................................................................................................................. 55

5 Electricity and Magnetism ........................................................................................................................... 56

5.17 Magnetism and Electromagnetism ...................................................................................................... 56

Laws of Magnetism ................................................................................................................................. 56

Magnetic Properties of Matter ................................................................................................................ 56

Electromagnetism .................................................................................................................................. 59

5.18 Static Electricity .................................................................................................................................. 63

Laws of Electrostatics ............................................................................................................................. 63

Principles of Electrostatics ...................................................................................................................... 63

Applications and Hazards of Electrostatics .............................................................................................. 66

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 5.19 Current Electricity ............................................................................................................................... 68

Current ................................................................................................................................................... 68

Electromotive Force................................................................................................................................ 68

Potential Difference ................................................................................................................................ 69

Resistance .............................................................................................................................................. 69

5.20 D.C. Circuits ........................................................................................................................................ 72

Current and Potential Difference in Curcuits ........................................................................................... 72

Series and Parallel Circuits ...................................................................................................................... 72

5.21 Practical Electricity .............................................................................................................................. 74

Dangers of Electricity .............................................................................................................................. 74

Safe use of electricity at home ................................................................................................................ 74

5.22 Electromagnetism ................................................................................................................................ 77

Force on a curent-Currying Conductor ..................................................................................................... 77

The d.c. Motor ........................................................................................................................................ 79

5.23 Electromagnetic Induction .................................................................................................................. 81

Principles of Electromagnetic Induction .................................................................................................. 81

The A.C. Generator ................................................................................................................................. 83

Transformers .......................................................................................................................................... 84

5.24 Introductory Electronics ...................................................................................................................... 86

Thermionic Emission .............................................................................................................................. 86

Properties of Electrons............................................................................................................................ 86

Cathode Ray Tube – Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O.) ....................................................................................... 87

Circuit Components ................................................................................................................................ 88

6. Atomic Physics ........................................................................................................................................... 89

6.26 Radioactivity ....................................................................................................................................... 89

Detection of Radioactivity ...................................................................................................................... 89

Characteristics of the three types of Emission ......................................................................................... 90

Half-Life ................................................................................................................................................. 91

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes including Safety Precautions ..................................................................... 91

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2.27 The Nuclear Atom ............................................................................................................................... 94

The Atomic Model .................................................................................................................................. 94

The Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................ 94

Nuclear Reactions ................................................................................................................................... 95

Nuclear Energy ....................................................................................................................................... 95

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 1 GENERAL PHYSICS

1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalar quantities are physical quantities which only possess a magnitude (size). A vector is a
physical quantity with a magnitude and a direction.

Scalars Vectors
Mass Displacement
Time Velocity
Distance Acceleration
Speed Force
Volume
Density
Work
Energy
Power

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Base Quantities and Units

Basic Physical Quantity Name of base unit Symbol for Unit

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram g
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
temperature
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

Prefixes

Prefix Symbol
9
10 Giga G

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 106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro µ

The SI unit for length is the metre, and length can be measured in several ways:

Length Instrument Accuracy of measurement

Several metres Measuring tape 0.1 cm
Several centimetres Metre or half-metre rule 0.1 cm
Between 1 cm and 10 cm Vernier calipers 0.01 cm (usually)
Less than 2 cm Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm (or 0.001 cm)

The Metre Rule

This instrument is commonly used in the laboratory to measure the length of wires or the
distance between two points. Greater accuracy is attained by measuring from the 1.0 cm
mark and then to subtract 1.0 cm from the result, because the zero mark is the end of the
ruler is vulnerable to wear and tear.

For accurate measurement, the eye must always be placed vertically above the mark to
avoid parallax errors.

Vernier Callipers

By means of a Vernier scale, the second decimal place in cm can be obtained without having
to estimate fractions of a division using the eye. They have a set of inside jaws which can
measure the internal diameters of tubes and containers.

Micrometer

A micrometer can be checked for any zero error, by turning the spindle until the anvil and
spinner meet. The zero mark has to lie directly opposite the datum line of the main scale.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME

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Due to different tome intervals that we wish to measure, we need different types of clocks
and watches. Watches and pendulum clocks can be used to measure long intervals of time,
and stopwatches and ticker tapes measure short intervals of time.

Clocks are based on a regular event or process such as repetitive motion or vibration. Such
motions are called oscillations. The time taken to complete one oscillation is known as the
period of an oscillation.

Pendulum Clock

The clock is used to measure long intervals of time. It gives the hour, minute and second.
The energy required for swinging comes from the coiled springs inside the clock or the
gravitational potential energy of a descending mass.

Watch

Modern watches and clocks work based on the vibrations of the quartz crystals to keep
time. Energy comes from a battery. They are also used to measure long intervals of time.
However, some are based on coiled springs which need rewinding.

Stopwatch

Stopwatches are used to measure short intervals of time. There are two types: analogue
which reads up to 0.1 s and digital which reads up to 0.01 s.

To measure a time interval, the stopwatch is manually operated by hand. This produces an
error called human reaction time, which is about 0.3 s.

Ticker-tape Timer

This is an electrically operated devise that marks short intervals of time on to a tape in the
form of dots. The timer is connected to an alternating electricity supply from the mains to
cause the metal strip attached to the timer to vibrate50 times every second. By means of a
carbon paper disc, the vibrating metal strip causes the paper tape that is pulled past the
timer to record 50 dots in in one second. The time interval between two consecutive dots is
1/50 or 0.02 s. As such the ticker tape measures in intervals of 0.02 s . It is used in the
determination of the acceleration of free fall, g .

2 MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

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 2.2 KINEMATICS

SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Distance Total length covered by a moving object, Metres, m

irrespective of direction
Displacement Distance measured in a straight line, and Meters, m and direction
specified direction
Speed Distance moved per unit time Metres per second, m/s
Velocity Rate of change of displacement Metres per second, m/s due
east
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity Metres per second per
second, ms2

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Uniform acceleration occurs when the speed
of an object changes at a constant rate. The acceleration is the same over time. Non-
uniform acceleration refers to variation in the rate of change in velocity. Simply put, it
means that acceleration changes during motion.

FREE-FALL

The acceleration of free-fall for a body near to the earth is constant. The acceleration is
about 10 m/s2.

Motions of bodies falling without air-resistance (vacuum):

 There is a constant (uniform) acceleration of 10 m/s2.

 The direction of the object is downwards, towards the centre of the earth.
 The acceleration does not depend on the masses or the weights of the objects. All
objects increase their speed at the same time.

Motions of bodies falling under air-resistance:

 Accelerates until air resistance is equal to the pull of gravity . It then continues to fall
at a constant velocity which is known as terminal velocity
 It can be observed that:
1. The velocity of the object increases with a large acceleration;

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2. The velocity of the object continues to increase but with a smaller
acceleration;
3. The velocity of the paper does not increase anymore but remains at a
constant = terminal velocity reached, and acceleration is zero.

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 2.3 DYNAMICS

THE NATURE OF A FORCE

A force is a push or a pull that one object exerts on another which produces, or tends to
produce, stops or tends to stop motion. A force can also change the shape of an object.

Type of force Nature of force

Weight The pull of the earth acting on an object.
Tension The pull at both ends of a stretched string, rope or spring.
Magnetic force The push or pull exerted between magnets, or the pull of
magnets on magnetic material.
Electric force The push or pull between electric charges.
Contact force The push when two objects are pressed together causing their
surface atoms to try to keep them apart.
Friction A contact which slows down moving things. It exists between the
surfaces of two objects in contact.
Resistance (viscous It is found in fluids or air. Both friction and resistance are
force) dissipative in nature i.e. the work done by them always leads to
the production and scattering of thermal energy.

The SI unit for force is newton (N), with 1N being the approximate amount of force that the
earth pulls on an object of mass 100g. A force is a vector quantity, with a magnitude and
direction.

Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have a magnitude (size) only. A vector is a
physical quantity with a magnitude and a direction. The addition of vectors must not only
take in account the magnitude, but also the direction of the vectors. When we add two
vectors, we mean to find a single vector with the same effect. The single vector is
sometimes called the resultant.

BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORCES

Balanced Forces

When two or more forces acting on an object produce no resultant force, we say that the
forces are balanced. From Newton’s First Law, we can deduce that the object is either
stationary or moving at a constant velocity.

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Unbalanced Forces

If there is a resultant force, than by Newton’s second law the object will experience an
acceleration.

FRICTION

Friction is a contact force that slows down motion. Whenever the surface of an object slides
over the surface of another object, each object exerts a frictional force on the other. This is
because of the irregularities of the two surfaces. Even if there is no relative motion between
the two objects, frictional forces exist between the two objects. Friction has negative and
positive effects.

Effects of Friction

Friction has both negative and positive effects.

Negative effects Positive effects

1. Reduces the engine power of cars by 1. Essential for walking, holding a pen
up to 20% etc.
2. Causes wear and tear of moving parts 2. Used in braking pads to slow down
in engines, motors and machines. cars

The common methods used to minimise the negative effects of friction are:

 using highly polished surfaces for moving parts;

 introducing a layer of lubricant between the two surfaces to prevent the surface
irregularities from holding on to one another;
 using steel balls bearings to enable surfaces to roll over rather than slide over each
other.

Friction on the road

For any vehicle travelling at a constant velocity, the resultant force is zero. This is because
the force of its engine is balanced by the resistive forces . The braking distance needed to
stop a vehicle in a certain distance depends on :

 the speed of the vehicle when the brakes are first applied;
 the mass of the vehicle.

resultant force = mass × acceleration, in which the braking force is the resultant force.

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 1. The greater the speed, the greater the deceleration needed to stop the vehicle in a
certain distance. Therefore, the braking force must be greater than at low speed.
2. The greater the mass, the greater the braking force needed for a given deceleration.

Stopping distances

The stopping distance is the safest distance a vehicle can stop in, and is in two parts:

The thinking distance: the distance travelled by the vehicle during the drivers reaction time.

The braking distance: the distance travelled by the vehicle during the time the braking force
acts.

stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

Factors affecting stopping distances

1. Tiredness, alcohol and drugs all increase reaction times. These factors increase the
thinking distance (thinking distance = speed × reaction time).
2. The faster a vehicle is travelling, the further it travels before stopping, because
both the thinking and braking distance increase with in creased speed.
3. In adverse road conditions, on wet or icy roads as drivers have to brake with less
force to avoid skidding.
4. Poorly maintained vehicles, worn brakes or tyres, take longer to stop because they
are less effective.

CIRCULAR MOTION

Circular motion is movement along a circular path or a circular orbit. A body describing a
circle is not at rest. It does not move with constant velocity because whether the speed is
changing or constant, the direction of the motion continuously changes. From Newton’s
First Law, a resultant force must be acting on the body, and from his Second Law this force
equates mass times acceleration so the body must be accelerating.

E.g. the moon describes a path around the earth. The force which the earth exerts upon the
moon is the force of gravity which pulls the moon towards the earth. If this force did not
exist the moon would move off at a tangent to its’ path around the earth. This phenomenon
also applies to a satellite orbiting the earth; and electrons orbiting the nucleus with a force
of the positive protons acting on them.

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THE EFFECTS OF FORCES ON MOTION

Newton’s First Law

Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless a
resultant force acts on it to change its state. This law states that if there is no resultant force
acting on an object on rest, the object will remain at rest; and if there is no resultant force
acting on an moving object, the moving object will continue to move at a constant speed in
a straight line i.e. constant velocity. Newton’s first law describes the behaviour of objects
when there is no resultant force acting on them.

Newton’s Second Law

When a resultant force acts on an object of constant mass, an acceleration will result with
the product of its mass and acceleration equal to the resultant force, the direction of
acceleration being in the same direction as that of the resultant force. This law states that
when there is a resultant force acting on an object, the object will either decelerate or
accelerate.

F = ma, where F = resultant force

m = mass of the object

a = acceleration of the object

Newton’s Third Law

If body A exerts a force F on body B, then body B exerts a force of -F (of equal size but in
opposite direction) on body A.

Newton’s third law states that forces always occur in pairs. These forces are called action
force and reaction force. These forces are equal in magnitude and they act opposite to each
other. They act on different bodies.

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 2.4 MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY

MASS AND WEIGHT

The mass of an object is a measure of the matter in it. It depends on the number of atoms it
contains and the size of those atoms. This property cannot be changed by the location,
shape and the speed of the body. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). Large masses are
measured in tonnes ( 1 tonne = 1000kg), and small masses are measured in grams
(1g = 10-3 kg).

Masses can be measured by either the sliding mass balance or the electronic mass balance.
For the sliding mass balance, the unknown mass is placed onto the pan and its mass is
obtained by sliding the movable masses on the beams until the beams are balanced. The
electronic balance is more accurate to use than the sliding beam balance. The mass is
placed on top of the pan and its mass is displayed on a screen.

Inertia

All objects possess inertia. The inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of an objects to
start moving if it is stationary in the first instance or the reluctance of an object to stop
moving if it is moving in the first instance i.e. it resists change from its state of rest or
motion. Drivers need to wear seatbelts for safety, because if the driver suddenly brakes, he
will continue to move forward due to his inertia and crash into a windscreen.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH

The gravitational pull on an object is known as its weight. The gravitational field is a region
in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction. The gravitational field
strength, g, is defined as gravitational force acting per unit mass on an object. On earth the
gravitational field strength is 10 N kg-1 , i.e. a 1kg object has a force of 10 N pulling on it due
to earth. Since weight, W, is the gravitational force acting on an object:

Weight = mass × gravitational field strength

W=m×g

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Weight and Mass

The weight of a body is the pull of gravity on the body, which is different to the mass.

Weight Mass
 Is the pull of gravity on a body  Is the amount of matter in a body
 Has both magnitude and direction  Has only magnitude
 Is measured in newtons, N  Is measured in kilograms, kg
 Changes from place to place  Is constant regardless of the place or
location
 Is measured by a spring balance, or a  Is measured by a beam balance or an
compression balance electronic balance

DENSITY

When we are comparing the masses of equal volumes of different substances, we are
actually comparing their density. The density of a substance is defined as its matter per unit
volume.

Density = mass ÷ volume

p=m÷v

The SI unit for density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3), or gram per cubic centimetre (g
cm-3). The density of a substance gives the amount of matter contained in a unit volume of a
substance, whereas the mass of a substance gives the amount of matter in the whole
substance. The density of a substance determines whether it will float or sink in different
liquids (or gases).

Measuring density

The volume of a liquid is often measured using a measuring cylinder.

When
reading the
volume of 1. Keep the measuring cylinder vertical
liquid in a
measuring 2. Place your eyes level with the surface of the liquid
cylinder keep
your eyes 3. Read to the lower surface of the meniscus
level with the
A measuring cylinder liquid (A meniscus is the tiny curve on the water surface where the wate
surface. touches the edge of the container)

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 2.5 TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES

MOMENTS

The turning effect of a force is called the moment of a force or torque. The moment of a
force is defined as the turning effect of the force about a pivot, and is calculated by the
product of the force F, and the perpendicular distance d, from the line of action of the force
to the pivot. The SI unit for the moment of a force is the newton metre (Nm). The moment
of a force can be clockwise of anticlockwise.

Moment of a force (Nm) = force (F) × perpendicular distance from the line of action to the
pivot (d)

The moment of a force can be increased by:

i. increasing the force applied;

ii. increasing the perpendicular distance from the line of action to the pivot.

Everyday examples of moments are:

 opening a bottle with an opener;

 opening a door;
 steering wheel.

Levers

A crowbar is a lever that can be used to raise one end of a heavy object. The weight of the
object is called the load, the force applied to the crowbar is called the effort and the point
about which the crowbar turns is called the pivot (or fulcrum).

The principle of Moments

This principle is about objects balancing when the moments of all the forces acting are
balanced. At balance the sum of the clockwise moments about the pivot is equal to the sum
of the anticlockwise moments. The principle of moments states:

For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point (acting as a
pivot) equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.

The principle of moments is related to the centre of gravity and the stability of an object.

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of an object is defined as the point through which its whole weight
appears to act for any orientation of the whole object. The centre of gravity is sometimes
confused with the centre of mass. The centre of mass of an object is that point in a body
which moves as if the entire mass of the body existed at that point. The centre of gravity
coincides with the centre of mass provided the object is placed in a uniform gravitational
field. Therefore these two points are treated as the same point.

The centre of gravity (centre of mass) is at the geometrical centre of the object and the
centre of gravity can even lie outside the object (for regular shaped objects). The centres of
gravity of irregular shaped objects or objects of non-uniform thickness can be determined
by means of a plumb line experiment.

Experiment

To determine the centre of mass of a plane lamina with an irregular shape or non-uniform
thickness or density. Apparatus: retort stand, plumb line, cork and pin.

1. Make three small holes near the edge of the lamina. The holes should be as far apart
as possible from each other.
2. Suspend the lamina through one of the holes using a pin.
3. Hang a plumb line on the pin in front of the lamina.
4. When the plumb line is steady, draw a line on the lamina over the plumb line.
5. Repeat the above for the next two holes.
6. The point of intersection of the three lines is the position of the centre of mass.

STABILITY

Stability is closely related to the centre of gravity (mass) of an object. Stability refers to the
ability of an object to regain its original position after it has been tilted slightly. To increase
the stability of an object:

 The centre of gravity should be as low as possible.

 The area of the base should be as wide as possible.

These two factors will ensure that the vertical line through the centre of gravity of the
object will lie inside the base of the object when it is tilted or inclined.

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Suspended equilibrium

If an object is suspended in air and released it will come to rest with its centre of mass
directly below the point of suspension. The object is then in equilibrium. Its weight does not
exert a turning effect on the object because its centre of mass is directly below the point of
suspension. If the object is turned from this position and then released, it will swing back to
its equilibrium position . This is because its weight has a turning effect that returns the
object to its equilibrium. The object is said to be freely suspended if it returns to its
equilibrium position.

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 2.6 DEFORMATION

ELASTIC DEFORMATION

A force acting on an object may change its shape, size or direction. An elastic object regains
its original shape when the forces deforming it are removed.

Experiment

The elasticity of an object can be measured by hanging weight form it.

1. The strip of material to be tested is clamped at its upper hand. A weight hanger is
attached to the material to keep it straight.
2. The length of the strip is measured using a metre ruler. This is its original length.
3. The weight hung from the material is increased by adding weights one at a time. The
strip stretches each time more weight is hung from it.
4. The length of the strip is measured each time a weight is added. The total weight
added and the total length of the strip are recorded and displayed by an extension-
load graph.

The increase of length from the original is called the extension. This is calculated each time
a weight is added and recorded:

extension of material at any stage = its length at the stage – its original length

Elastic energy

When an elastic object is stretched, elastic potential energy is stored in the object. This is
because work is done on the object by the force. When the force is removed, the stored
energy is released. Some of this energy may be transferred into kinetic energy of the object
or make its atoms vibrate more making the object warmer.

Hooke’s Law

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied, provided its limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.

20
If the extension of any stretched object or material is directly proportional to the stretching
force, it obeys Hooke’s Law. If the force is too large the spring stretches more than
predicted. This is because the spring has been stretched beyond its limit of proportionality .

Hooke’s Law may be written as an equation:

Force applied (N) = spring constant (N/m) × extension (m)

F = k × e, where: F = force in newtons, N

k = spring constant in newtons per metre , N/m

e = extension in metres, m

The spring constant of a spring is the force per unit extension needed to stretch it, assuming
it limit of proportionality is not reached.

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 2.7 PRESSURE

PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as force acting per unit area. The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa)
which is equal to 1 newton per square metre (N m-2).

p = F/ A where: p = pressure

F = force (N)

A = area (m2)

PRESSURE CHANGES

Liquid column

 The taller the liquid column (with narrow base), the larger the amount of liquid
contained, the greater the weight of the liquid to exert pressure
 The amount of pressure in the same liquid column is different at different depths.
 The greater the depth, the greater the weight of the liquid above it, the greater the
pressure.

Pressure in a liquid

Liquids are difficult to compress because the particles are very closely packed together. The
particles hitting the container and any objects in the liquid causes pressure. Pressure in a
liquid acts equally in all directions.

The pressure depends on the forces exerted on a particular area. A big force concentrated in
a small area giver a higher pressure.

The pressure in liquids is due to its weight. E.g. a tall vessel with water has side tubes fitted
at different heights. Water flows out furthest from outlet 3, followed by outlet 2 and then
outlet 1. This shows that liquid pressure increases with depth.

To determine the pressure at a certain depth of a liquid consider a column of liquid of height
h, base area A, and density ρ.

 The volume of a liquid is given by, V = Ah

 The mass of the liquid is given by, m = ρV

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  The weight of the liquid column is given by: W = mg; = ρ(V)g; = ρ(Ah)g
 The pressure at the base of the liquid column is : p = W/ A; = ρAhg/ A ; p = hρg

This equations shows that the pressure in a liquid depends on the depth and density of the
liquid.

Pressure due to a liquid column = height of column × density of the liquid × gravitational
field strength

The pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions. If any level of water is higher than the
other, the excess pressure difference will force it, to drop.

Manometer

The manometer is used to measure gas pressure. The manometer consists of a U-tube
containing a column of liquid, which can be mercury, water or oil.

 In its simplest form the manometer is a U-tube about half filled with liquid. With
both ends of the tube open, the liquid is at the same height in each leg.
 When positive pressure is applied to one leg, the liquid is forced down in that leg and
up in the other. The difference in height, "h," which is the sum of the readings above
and below zero, indicates the pressure.
 When a vacuum is applied to one leg, the liquid rises in that leg and falls in the other.
The difference in height, "h," which is the sum of the readings above and below zero,
indicates the amount of vacuum.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Liquids are used in hydraulic systems to transmit forces from one part of a machine to
another.

Hydraulic Press

An hydraulic press acts as a force multiplier. An effort force on piston A1 puts pressure on
the liquid. The pressure is the same at all places in the liquid, which means that the same
force acts on piston A2. Piston A2 is twice the size of piton A1, so the load force exerted by
piston A2 is twice as big as the effort force, because piston A2 has twice the area of piston
A1, and therefore only moves half the distance moved by piston A1.

23
Braking Systems

Car braking systems use hydraulics to multiply the force that the driver applies to the brake
pedal. A piston attached to the brake pedal applies a force to the hydraulic fluid in the
master cylinder. This increases the pressure in the fluid, which is transmitted to the wheels.
Pistons near the wheels push pads against discs attached to the wheels. The friction
between the discs and the wheels slows the car down.

PRESSURE IN GASES

Pressure in gases is due to collisions of molecules with the walls on the container. If a
container is closed and left to stand, it will not collapse because the air molecules in the
container exert an outward pressure equal to that of the atmospheric pressure acting on the
container. Upon impact the force exerted by the air molecule on the wall is equal and
opposite to the force exerted by the wall on the molecule (Newton’s Third Law of Motion).
The collisions produce a force on the container walls . The force per unit area is the pressure.
Therefore, the pressure of a gas is due to the collisions of gas molecules with the walls on
the container.

Pressure-volume (p-V) relationship of gas

The pressure of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas
when the temperature is constant.

p ∝ 1/V or, p = k/V

i.e. pV = k where k is constant or, p1V1 = p2V2

When the volume of a container is decreased by half, the number of molecules per unit
volume will be doubled. This would mean that the number of collisions of the molecules
with the walls will also be doubled. Therefore, the pressure will double. If the volume were
to decrease by one-third the pressure would increase by three times the original. Therefore,
the pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

24
 3 ENERGY AND THERMAL PHYSICS

3.8 ENERGY SOURCES AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY

ENERGY FORMS

Different forms of energy include light, sound, electrical, elastic, nuclear, magnetic,
mechanical (kinetic and potential) and chemical.

 Chemical energy is stored in fuel, food and batteries. This energy is released when
chemical reactions take place (battery, food).
 Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object (roller coaster, cycle).
 Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position
(raised ball).
 Elastic potential energy is stored in a springy object when it is stretched, squashed or
twisted (elastic).
 Electrical energy is energy transferred by an electric current (motor).
 Nuclear energy is stored inside atoms (atoms).

The principle of conservation of energy states: energy cannot be created or destroyed; it

can only be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated. The total amount of energy does not
change.

Energy

Energy is defined as the capacity of a body to do work. The SI unit for energy is the joule (J).

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. The defining
equation for kinetic energy is:

Ek = ½ mv2 where, Ek = kinetic energy (in J),

m = mass of the body (in kg) and

v = speed of the body (in m s-1)

This equation shows that for two objects with the same mass moving at different speeds,
the faster object has greater kinetic energy; and for two objects of different masses but
moving at the same speed, the object of greater mass has greater kinetic energy.

25
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or condition.
The gravitational P.E. of a body near the surface of the earth is the product of its weight mg,
and its height h, above a reference level e.g. the ground.

Gravitational P.E., Ep = mgh

MAJOR SOURCES OF ENERGY

Non-renewable energy sources

Fossil fuels are formed in a process that takes millions of years. Fossils fuels are being used
faster than they are being formed. They are called non-renewable energy sources because
once they are finished they are none to replace it. Fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural
gas.

Renewable energy sources

These include:

 Biofuels are any fuels obtained from living or recently living organisms such as
animal waste or woodchip. They include ethanol, straw, nutshells, plants, methane
and biodiesel. A biofuel is carbon-neutral because the carbon it takes in from the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide can balance the amount released when it is burned.
 Nuclear power is generated in nuclear power stations by using plutonium and
uranium as fuel. This is not a chemical reaction, but the splitting of atoms during
which thermal energy is released to produce steam.
 Wind power is generated by a wind turbine which is an electricity generator at the
top of a tower. The wind’s force drives the turbine’s blades around which turns the
generator.
 Wave power is generated by a wave generator which uses the waves to make a
floating generator move up and down. This motion makes the generator produce
energy.
 Hydroelectric power is generated when rainwater is collected in a reservoir, flows
downhill and drives the turbines that turn electricity generators at the foot of the
hill.
 Tidal power is produced at a tidal power station which traps water from the high
tides behind a barrage. The high tide can then be released into the sea through
turbines which drive generators in the barrage.
 Solar power is generated in solar cells which convert the sun’s energy into electricity.
Solar cells are connected together to make solar cell panels. A solar heating panel

26
 heats water that flows beneath it. A solar power tower uses thousands of mirrors to
reflect sunlight on to a large water tank.
 Geothermal energy comes from energy released by radioactive substances deep in
the earth. This energy heats the rocks and as a result energy is transferred by
heating towards the earth’s surface. Geothermal power stations are built in areas
with hot rocks where water is pumped into to produce steam. The steam drives
electricity turbines.

A power station

Energy stored in fuel is used to heat water and turn it into steam. The steam turns a turbine
which in turn makes the generator run.

Environmental issues

Fossil fuels produce increased levels of greenhouse gases which could cause global
warming. It also produces sulphur dioxide which causes acid rain. Fuel rods of nuclear
reactors contain radioactive waste which has to be stored for centuries. If an explosion were
to occur at a nuclear power station, nuclear material can be spread over a wide area which
would be affected for many years. Renewable energy resources can affect plant and animal
life.

27
NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process of forcing two nuclei close enough together so they form a
single larger nucleus. It can be brought about by making two light nuclei collide at a very
high speed. Energy is released when two light nuclei are fused together. Nuclear fusion in
the sun’s core released energy. A fusion reactor needs to be at a very high temperature
before nuclear fusion can take place. The nuclei to be fused are difficult to contain.

Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a nucleus into two, approximately equal fragments and the
release of two or three neutrons. It occurs when a neutron hits a uranium-235 nucleus or a
plutonium-239 nucleus and the nucleus splits. When a nucleus undergoes fission, it releases:

 two or three neutrons at high speeds ;

 energy in the form of radiation, plus kinetic energy of the fission neutrons and the
fragment nuclei.

The fission neutrons may cause further fission, resulting in a chain reaction.

WORK

When an object is moved by a force, than work is done on the object by the force. The force
therefore transfers energy to the object. The amount of energy transferred to the object is
equal to the work done on it.

Energy transferred = work done

The work done by the force depends on the size of the force and the distance moved:

Work done (J) = force applied (N) × distance moved in the direction of the force (m)

W=F×d where, W = work done

F = force

d = distance

28
EFFICIENCY

All energy transfers waste energy. The efficiency of a device is a measure of the amount of
energy that is usefully transferred. The energy transfers of a device can be represented
using a Sankey diagram. Efficiency can be calculated using the energy or power transferred
by a device. Power is the energy transferred per second, and is measured in Watts (W) or
kilowatts (kW).

Efficiency = useful energy out ÷ total energy in (× 100%)

Efficiency = useful power out ÷ total power in (× 100%)

POWER

Power is the rate of transfer of energy. The more powerful an appliance, the faster the rate
at which hit transfers energy. The power of an appliance is measured in watts (W) or
kilowatts (kW).

1 watt is a rate of transfer of energy of 1 joule per second (J/s).

1 kilowatt is equal to 1000 watts (i.e. 1000 joules per second or 1kJ/s).

Power is calculated using:

P=E÷t where, P = the power in watts

E = the energy transferred in joules

T = the time taken in seconds

29
 3.9 TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

When two bodies of different temperatures are placed together in thermal contact than a
transfer of energy will take place, from the body with a higher temperature to the body with
lower temperature until both bodies reach the same temperature. These bodies then exist
in a state known as thermal equilibrium. Heat (thermal energy) can be transferred by means
of three processes: conduction, convection and radiation.

CONDUCTION

Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy without any flow of the medium. Substances
are made of tiny particles called atoms or groups of atoms called molecules. When a solid is
heated the molecules begin to vibrate vigorously and bump into neighbouring molecules,
transferring kinetic energy, making them vibrate as well. Thus, thermal energy is
transferred from the hot end to the cold end.

This method of thermal transfer through molecules is common to both metals and non-
metals. However, in metals a second process of heat transfer takes place, through the
diffusion of free electrons. These electrons can move throughout the metal, and when
heated the free electron moves faster as a result of a gain in kinetic energy. These fast
moving electrons carrying energy diffuse into the into the cooler parts of the metal and
transfer their kinetic energy through collision.

Liquids and gases are much more poor conductors compared to solids. Conduction in these
two states involves the transfer of fast moving molecules to slow moving ones through
collisions. These collisions are not very frequent in liquids and even less in gases where the
molecules are further apart.

The two mechanisms for conduction are molecular vibration and electron diffusion.

CONVECTION

Convection is the transfer of heat energy by means of a fluid (liquid or gas) through bulk
movement of the fluid itself. When a fluid is heated it expands (particles take more space
due to increased movement) which makes it less dense, so the hot fluid rises passes the cold
fluid. This sets up a convection current. Convection currents can form around any object
which are cooler or warmer than its surroundings. E.g. energy from a cup of tea will be
transferred to the air around it making less dense and rise up. Cooler air takes its place and

30
this cools the tea down. Convection currents also form around cold objects. Energy is
transferred from the air to the cold object so the air cools down. The air becomes more
dense and sinks. Warmer air takes its place.

A convection current is the movement of fluid caused by the change in densities in various
parts of a fluid.

RADIATION

Radiation is the continual emission of infrared waves from the surface of all bodies,
transmitted through space, without the aid of a material medium. Infrared radiation is
absorbed by all objects and surfaces which experience a temperature rise. Infrared radiation
is also emitted by all surfaces and objects which causes the temperature to fall. Generally, a
good emitter of radiant heat (or vice-versa).

The rate at which energy is transferred by radiation depends on three factors: colour and
texture of the surface, dull-black surfaces are better emitters of infra-red radiation than
shiny-white surfaces; surface temperature, the higher the temperature of the surface of the
object relative to room temperature, the higher rate of energy transfer; and surface area, if
two objects have the same mass and are made of the same material, the object with the
larger surface area will emit infra-red radiation at a greater rate.

TOTAL TRANSFER

There are three main ways heat can be transferred into homes:

 Radiation: heat that travels from a heat source to warm a surface, e.g. sun radiation
shining through a window heating the floor and furniture.
 Conduction: heat transferred through solid objects, e.g. heat being transferred from
the outside surface of a block (the outside of the home), to the inside surface of a
block (the inside of the home).
 Convection: heat carried by the circulation of fluids, the circulation continues until
the temperature evens out, e.g. when hot air in a room rises, drawing cooler air from
below.

Heat energy is transferred from homes by conduction through the walls, floor, roof and
windows. It is also transferred from homes by convection. For example, cold air can enter
the house through gaps in doors and windows, and convection currents can transfer heat
energy in the loft to the roof tiles. Heat energy also leaves the house by radiation through
the walls, roof and windows.

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Heat is lost through:

 the roof - fit loft insulation

 windows - fit double glazing and curtains
 gaps around the door - fit draught excluders
 the walls - fit cavity wall insulation
 the floor - fit a carpet

Ways to reduce heat loss

There are some simple ways to reduce heat loss, including fitting carpets, curtains and
draught excluders.

Heat loss through windows can be reduced using double glazing. There may be air or a
vacuum between the two panes of glass. Air is a poor conductor of heat, while a vacuum can
only transfer heat energy by radiation.

Heat loss through walls can be reduced using cavity wall insulation. This involves blowing
insulating material into the gap between the brick and the inside wall, which reduces the
heat loss by conduction. The material also prevents air circulating inside the cavity,
therefore reducing heat loss by convection.

Heat loss through the roof can be reduced by laying loft insulation. This works in a similar
way to cavity wall insulation.

32
 3.10 TEMPERATURE

PRINCIPLE OF THERMOMETRY

Temperature is the measure of the degree of ‘hotness’ or coldness’ of a body. The

temperature of a body is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its’ particles. Because it
is the average kinetic energy of a particle, it does not depend on the size of the object.

 Internal energy is the total energy of all the particles;

 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the individual particles.

Temperature can be measured using a thermometer, which makes use of the physical
properties of a thermometric substance which changes continuously with temperature .

Physical property Thermometer

1. Volume of a fixed mass of liquid Mercury-in-glass thermometer; alcohol-in-
glass thermometer
2. Electromotive force (e.m.f.) Thermocouple
3. Resistance of a piece of metal Resistance thermometer
4. Pressure of a fixed mass of gas at Constant-volume gas thermometer
fixed volume

Fixed Points

Before a thermometer can be used, it must be calibrated by placing it into ice and then
boiling water, marking the scale each time. These two points are known as the fixed points:

0°C – the ice point – the freezing point of pure water at atmospheric temperature;

100°C – the steam point – the boiling point of pure water at atmospheric pressure.

Features of a thermometer

 Responsiveness: measures how quickly the thermometer can register changes in the
environment
 Sensitivity: measures the amount of change in thermometric property per unit
change in temperature.
 Range: denotes the minimum and maximum temperatures that the thermometer
can measure.
 Linearity: scale is linear when the marks are evenly spaced.

33
PRACTICAL THERNMOMETERS

Some common liquid-in-glass thermometers include:

Laboratory thermometer Clinical thermometer

Thin-wall glass allows conduction of heat Thin-wall glass allows rapid conduction
quickly through glass to the liquid
Bulb is small to contain a small amount of Bore of capillary tube is made fine to
liquid which respond more quickly to a improve sensitivity by allowing a large
change in temperature change in length of the mercury thread for a
small change in temperature
Bore is fine and uniform allowing noticeable A narrow constriction ensures that the
movement of the liquid and the uniform maximum temperature of the body is
tube ensures even expansion of the liquid recorded by preventing rapid backflow of
the liquid.
Walls of the glass stem are made thick to Scale is limited to a small range which
act as a magnifying glass for easy reading of allows greater accuracy and the stem can be
the mercury thread in the stem made reasonably short
Size of thermometer is relatively small Cross section is pear shaped which acts as a
making it portable and cheap to produce magnifying glass in one direction

Thermocouple Thermometers

A thermocouple thermometer consists of two wires made of different metals where the
ends of the two wires are joined together to form two junctions. If the two junctions are at
different temperatures than the greater the difference the, then greater the e.m.f.
produced across the ends of the two junctions. One junction is kept at a constant
temperature so the other junction can be used to act as a probe to measure temperatures
other than the fixed temperature.

Advantages:

1) Measure a very large temperature range of -200°C to 1500°C.

2) As the wire junctions are very small, the thermometer can be used to measure
temperatures at a point.
3) Due to its low thermal capacity it is very responsive to rapidly changing
temperatures. The low thermal capacity is due to its small mass and because of the
metals conductivity.
4) As the output is an electrical signal, it can be connected to suitable electrical
equipment for checking rapid or sudden temperature changes.

3.11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

34
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Heat is the thermal energy that is supplied from the hotter object to the cooler object. The
unit of measurement for energy is the joule. Energy is supplied to water when heated. It is
transformed into the internal energy of the water molecules which is in two forms: kinetic
and potential energy. Heat is then a measure of the change in the total internal energy of
the body.

The heat capacity of an object is the amount of energy which must be supplied to it to raise
its temperature by 1°C. The heat capacity of an object depends on the material it is made of
and the mass of the substance. Metal objects heat up easily – their heat capacities are low.
Objects made of non-metals and liquids have higher heat capacities.

Energy required = heat capacity × temperature rise, E=C×θ

Where C = heat capacity

Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the energy required to raise the temperature of
1 Kg of the substance by 1°C.

Energy required = mass × specific heat capacity × increase in temperature, E=m×c×θ

Where c = specific heat capacity

MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION

Melting

Melting is the process by which a solid changes into a liquid. The melting point is the
temperature at which melting occurs; at a definite or constant temperature. A pure
substance only melts at its melting point. The presence of impurities lowers the melting
point of a substance. If a substance expands when it changes from a solid to a liquid,
increased pressure will raise its melting point.

During the process of melting temperature change only occurs when the substance remains
in the same state when heated, The heat absorbed by the solid, breaks down the
intermolecular bonds between the molecules of the solid. When the bonds are broken the

35
molecules move from their fixed positions, and the solid has melted. During this change of
state, no change of temperature has occurred.

Solidification

Solidification (or freezing) is the process by which a liquid turns into a solid. The freezing
point of a substance is the temperature at which freezing occurs, which is the same as its
melting point (in a pure substance).

During the change of state from liquid to solid, there is no change in temperature even
though heat is lost to the surroundings as the substance cools. This heat is released as the
intermolecular bonds are formed when the liquid atoms or molecules come together to
form a solid. Temperature changes only when the substance is cooled in the same state.

Effects of impurities and pressure

Impurities in a substance lower its melting and freezing point. E.g. salt is put onto roads to
prevent the freezing of ice. It also lowers the freezing point of water.

Putting pressure on ice lowers its melting point, e.g. when ice cubes or lumps of snow are
pressed together, the parts of snow under high pressure begin to melt. When the pressure is
released the water refreezes and therefore joins the two cubes or lumps together.

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Boiling is the change of state from a liquid into a vapour, occurring at a constant
temperature called the boiling point. The boiling point of a substance is the temperature of
a substance at which it boils. During the process of boiling, the heat supplied to the liquid
does work in separating the molecules and pushing back the surrounding atmosphere
(increase in volume). The heat that is absorbed without a change in temperature is called
latent heat of vaporisation of the substance.

Condensation is the reverse of boiling, that is when the vapour of the same substance is
cooled at the same temperature as its boiling point. Heat is given out during condensation.

Effect of impurities on the boiling point of water

The addition of impurities such as salt or sugar to water raises its boiling point. Sea water
has a slightly higher boiling point than water.

36
Effects of pressure on the boiling point of water

Boiling just means allowing the particles of a liquid to separate and begin flying about
independently as a gas. There are two competing forces at work: the kinetic energy of the
individual particles, which all together is the heat in the substance, and the attractive forces
holding the particles together. In addition, the pressure of other substances on the surface
of the liquid can squeeze the liquid, pushing on the liquid's molecules and holding them
together. Thus, in order to let the liquid's molecules zoom off as a gas, you can:

1. Add heat to the substance, so that a larger percentage of the total molecules in the liquid
will have enough kinetic energy to break free from the intermolecular attractions, or

2. Remove some of the outside pressure which is holding the surface molecules of the liquid
in place.

Therefore, reduced pressure decreases the boiling point of water, and increased pressure
raises the boiling point of water. The boiling point of water (and water-based liquids) is
determined by the ambient pressure. Pressure cookers always require liquid in order to cook
food under pressure. At atmospheric pressure and at sea level, the boiling point of water is
100 °C (212 °F) and excess heat only increases the rate at which water evaporates into
steam vapour; more heat does not increase the temperature of the water. At higher
altitudes above sea level, the atmospheric pressure is lower and thus the boiling point of
water is lower, because the lower pressure pushing on the water makes it easier for the
water molecules to escape to the surface compared to higher pressure.

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION AND VAPORISATION

Latent heat of fusion , Lf of a solid is the heat required to change it from solid to liquid state
or vice versa without any change in temperature. The unit for Lf is the joule(J). The latent
heat of an object depends on its mass.

The specific latent heat of fusion, lf of a solid is the heat required to change one kg of it from
solid to liquid or vice versa without any change in temperature. The unit for lf is joule per kg
(J kg-1).

Lf = lf × m

Latent heat of vaporisation , Lv of a solid is the heat required to change it from liquid to
vapour state or vice versa without any change in temperature. The unit for Lv is the joule(J).
The latent heat of an object depends on its mass.

37
The specific latent heat of fusion, lv of a liquid is the heat required to change 1 kg of it from
liquid to vapour or vice versa without any change in temperature. The unit for lv is joule per
kg (J kg-1).

Lv = lv × m

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Thermal expansion is the expansion of a material when its temperature rises. Generally,
solids expand the least, followed by liquids and then gases.

Uses of expansion

 Rivets are used to join materials . A red-hot rivet is passed through holes in two
metal plates and then hammered until the ends are rounded . As the rivet cools, it
contracts and pulls the two plates tightly together .
 A cap or lid may stick to a bottle. Heating the lid causes it to expand, so the lid
loosens and can be removed.
 A steel tyre may be fitted to a locomotive while the tyre is very hot. It then cools and
contracts so that it fits tightly on the wheel.

Consequences of Expansion

 Metal bridges and railway lines expand on hot days and there is a possibility that
they might buckle. To avoid this, bridges are made in sections, with expansion joints
between the sections.
 Glass containers may crack when hot liquid is placed in them This is because the
inner surface of the glass expands rapidly , before the heat has conducted through to
the outer surface.

38
 3.12 KINETIC MODEL OF MATTER

STATES OF MATTER

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space (volume). Matter exists in
three physical states:

State Volume Density Shape Fluidity

solid fixed high definite no
liquid fixed moderate to takes shape of generally flows
high container easily*
gas expands to fill low takes shape of flows easily*
container container

*Liquids and gases are called fluids

The three states respond differently to changes in temperature and pressure. They increase
in volume with an increase in temperature. The effect is much bigger for a gas. The volume
of a gas at a fixed temperature can easily be reduced by increasing the pressure because
they are compressible. Liquids are slightly compressible and solids are not.

MOLECULAR MODEL

The kinetic theory of matter describes the three states of matter, and the changes between
them, in terms of the movement of particles. The main points are:

 all matter is made up of very small particles ;

 the particles are moving all the time ( the higher the temperature the higher the
average energy of the particles);
 the freedom of movement and the arrangement of particles is different for the three
states of matter.

Solid
The particles in a solid are:
 Closely packed
 Regular arrangement (lattice)
 Vibrate in fixed positions

When the temperature is raised the particles gain energy and vibrate more strongly;
the particles occupy more space which cause the solid to expand. Eventually, the
particles will have enough energy to break the forces holding the lattice together,
and they can move around – the solid melts.
39
Liquid
The particles in a liquid are:
 Closely packed
 Irregularly arranged
 able to move around

On heating, the liquid expands. Those that gain enough energy, evaporate from the
surface, and as the temperature rises more particle have energy to escape. At the
boiling point, particles have enough energy to break from the attractive forces
acting between them. The particles move very fast and separate from each other.

Gas
The particles in a gas are:
 Totally irregularly arranged
 Spread very far apart
 Move randomly

40
EVAPORATION

Evaporation is the change of state from a liquid to its vapour at any temperature. Although
both boiling and evaporation involve the change of state from a liquid to a vapour, there are
important differences.

Boiling Evaporation
1. Occurs at a fixed temperature 1. Occurs at any temperature
2. Quick process 2. Slow process
3. Takes place within the liquid 3. Takes place on the surface of the liquid
4. Bubbles are formed in the liquid 4. No bubbles
5. Constant temperature during boiling 5. Temperature may change
6. Heat supplied through energy source 6. Heat supplied by the surroundings

Evaporation of liquid occurs due to molecules, at the surface, with greater energy than the
average kinetic energy escaping from the rest of the liquid. At any temperature , the
molecules of a liquid are in a continuous random motion with different speeds. The liquid
absorbs heat from the surroundings, and an increase in air over the substance increases the
rate of heat absorption. At the surface of the liquid the more energetic molecules escape
into the atmosphere, leaving behind the less energetic molecules and less heat energy. A
liquid with slow moving molecules is a cooler liquid because the temperature is directly
proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. Therefore the temperature of
the liquid falls during evaporation.

Evaporation causes a cooling effect to the object in contact due to absorption of heat by the
liquid from the objects surface, also by the energetic molecules escaping along with heat
energy.

Factors effecting the rate of evaporation

 Raising the temperature of a liquid will increase the rate of evaporation. A warmer
liquid means that there are more energetic molecules to escape the surface.
 The rate of evaporation decreases with increased humidity. This is because as the air
already holds a high percentage of water vapour there is little room for excess
vapour.
 Movement of air above the surface (or draught) increases the rate of evaporation,
because the moving air removes the molecules of the liquid as soon as it has
evaporated.
 Decreasing atm pressure increases the rate of evaporation. If air pressure is high on
the surface of the water then the water will not evaporate easily, as the pressure
pushing down on the water makes it difficult for the molecules to escape.

41
 The nature of the liquid is also important, as substances with lower boiling points
evaporate easier than those with higher.

42
 4. WAVES

4.13 GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

DESCRIBING WAVE MOTION

Wave motion is activity that carries energy from one place to another without actually
moving any matter. In wave motion, energy—the ability to perform work, or to exert force
over distance—is transmitted from one place to another without actually moving any matter
along the wave.

Demonstrations of wave motion:

The source of any wave is a vibration or oscillation.

Ropes:

The wave on a rope can be produced by tying one of its ends to a wall, and moving it up and
down on the other end. These movements make up the vibrations and oscillations. The rope
waves travel sideways whilst the rope itself is moved up and down. The rope is the medium
through which the rope waves move or propagate.

Ripple tank:

A ripple tank is a shallow glass-bottomed tank containing a small amount of water. A light
shining downwards through the water casts a shadow of the ripples on the floor below,
showing up the pattern that they make.

Springs:

A stretched ‘slinky’ spring can show waves. One end of the spring is fixed and the other end
is moved side to side. The waves travel along the spring. A second type of wave can be
demonstrated by moving the free end back and forth. A series of compressions and
rarefactions travel along the spring. These are two different types of waves:

 Transverse waves, in which the particles carrying the wave move from side to side,
at right angles to the direction in which the wave is moving;
 Longitudinal waves, in which the particles carrying the wave move back and forth,
along the direction in which the wave is moving.

43
WAVE TERMS

Crests and troughs: the top and bottom points reached by transverse waves.

Wavelength (λ) : the distance from one wave crest or trough to the next. The SI unit for the
wavelength is the metre (m).

Amplitude: is the height of the wave crest or the depth of the trough from the middle,
which is the position of the rope at rest, to its’ point.

Frequency: the number of wave crests passing a fixed point per second. The SI unit is the
hertz (Hz). A wave passing a point every second is a frequency of 1Hz.

Period: the time taken to produce one complete wave. The SI unit is second(s).

Speed: distance travelled by one wave in a second. The SI unit is metres per second(m/s).

Wave front: a wave front is an imaginary line or surface, in the path of a wave motion,
where all the displacements at any point have the same phase. A point source leads to
circular wave fronts, at large distances from the source they are straight lines. A ray is a line
that shows the direction of the wave and is perpendicular to the wave fronts.

For all waves there is a relationship between frequency, wavelength and velocity:

Velocity (v) = frequency (f) × wavelength (λ)

WAVE BEHAVIOUR

All waves can be reflected, refracted and diffracted, and these behaviours can easily be
observed with water waves.

Reflection: When waves strike an interface between materials, they be reflected. A ripple
tank can be used to demonstrate the reflection of water waves. When a flat metal barrier is
placed in a ripple tank, straight ripples are reflected when they strike the flat surface of the
barrier. The metal barrier acts like a mirror, and the ripples bounce off it. The ripples are
reflected by the metal barrier so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

Refraction: When waves cross an interface between two materials they may change
direction which is called refraction. A ripple tank is used to demonstrate refraction due to a
change in speed. A glass plate is immerged in the water, to make the water shallower in that

44
part of the tank. There the ripples move more slowly because they drag on the bottom of
the tank (which is actually the upper surface of the submerged glass plate).

45
 4.14 LIGHT

REFLECTION OF LIGHT

The reflection of a light ray can be investigates using a ray box and a plane mirror.

 The normal is the line drawn perpendicular to the mirror.

 The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 The angle of reflection is between the reflected ray and the normal.

Measurements show that any light ray reflected by a mirror has the following properties:

i. the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray to the surface all lie on the same
plane,
ii. angle of incidence = angle of reflection

These are the first and second laws of reflection respectively.

Types of reflection

There are two types of reflection: regular and diffused. In a regular reflection light is
reflected in one direction, and it occurs on smooth surfaces. Diffused reflection occurs on
rough surfaces and light is reflected through a range of different angles. However, both
these types obey the rules of reflection.

Experiments

Law of reflection: to demonstrate the laws of reflection an apparatus can be set up

using a ray box, protractor, strip of plane mirror and pieces of paper. The ray box is placed at
an angle opposite the mirror at which the incidence ray is reflected. Vary the incidence ray
and measure the angle of reflection.

Laws:

 the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray to the surface all lie on the same
plane,
 angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Position image formed by a plane mirror: to find the position and characteristics of an
image formed by a plane mirror an experiment can be set up with the following apparatus:
plane mirror, three pins, graph paper and a wooden holder. The graph paper is placed on

46
top of the soft board on top of which the plane mirror is placed held by the wooden holder.
The pins are pinned into the board in front the mirror , from which an image is formed.
Count the number of squares between the pins and the mirror, as well as between the
images and the mirror to find the distances d1 and d2. Compare these distances.

The characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror can be summarised as follows:

 same size
 laterally inverted
 virtual
 both the object and the image are equidistant from the plane mirror, d1 = d2

Plane mirrors are commonly used for optical testing, in periscopes, for blind corners and
instrument scales.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction is the bending of light when it enters a medium. It is the change of direction of
waves when they travel across a boundary. At an air glass interface a ray of light changes
direction when it enters from air into glass and when it exits from glass to air again. This
bending is refraction.

When light enters a denser medium, its speed slows down. Glass is an optically denser
medium than water and water is an optically denser medium than air. Refraction is caused
by the different speeds of light in different optical media.

Laws of Refraction

To demonstrate the refraction through a piece of glass block an experiment with the
following apparatus can be set up: rectangular glass block with one face frosted, two ray
boxes, piece of paper. Place the glass block on the paper with the frosted side face down.
Send two narrow rays through the glass block, one at an angle and the other perpendicular.
Observe the path of the two rays. Vary the angle of incidence (i) and measure the angle of
refraction (r).

From this experiment a number of conclusions can be drawn;

 the ray perpendicular to the glass block passes through the glass and out into the air.
Therefore, an incident ray perpendicular to the boundary of two media, passes
through without bending although its speed is slower in the optically denser
medium.

47
  The angled ray of light bends towards the normal as it passes in through the glass
block i.e. the angle of incidence (i), is larger to the angle of refraction (r). Therefore,
an incident ray of light at an acute angle to the boundary of the media, produces a
refracted ray bend towards the normal when light travels from an optically less
dense into an optically dense medium. The contrary is also true.
 The angle of incidence (i) is not equal to the angle of refraction in refraction, unlike in
reflection. The ratio of (sin i/ sin r) gives a constant.

Laws:

 The first law of refraction states that the incident, normal and refracted ray all lie in
the same plane.
 The second law states that for two particular media, the ratio of the sine of the angle
of refraction is a constant i.e.: (sin i/ sin r) = constant

In the case of a light ray passing from a vacuum into a given medium the constant ratio (sin
i/sin r) is known as the refractive index, n for that medium: n = (sin i/sin r). The greater the
value of the refractive index n of a medium ,the greater the bending of light when it passes
from air into that medium.

Refractive index and the speed of light

The speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108m/s. Light passing from a vacuum into a medium:

Refractive index of medium = speed of light in vacuum ÷ speed of light in medium

n=c÷v

The refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed
of light in the medium.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection occurs when:

 The ray of light passes from a denser to a less dense medium;

 The angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle.

The critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence in the optically dense medium for
which the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90°. If the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle than no refraction occurs. The light is strongly reflected,
which is called total internal reflection.

48
A relationship between the critical angle and the refraction index can be drawn, when e.g. a
light ray travels from a dense medium into a less dense medium, the angle of incidence i,
becomes the critical angle c, so the angle of refraction r is 90° i.e. : i = c and r = 90°

Therefore, by the principle reversibility of light : n = sin 90°/ sin c = 1/sin c

Therefore, sin c = 1/n

Total internal reflection can be demonstrated using a semi-circular glass block and a ray
box:

1) Place the semi-circular block in the middle of a sheet of white paper. Draw around
the block to record its position.
2) Direct a ray of light at the curved surface of the block so that it passes straight in and
reaches the midpoint of the flat side of the block.
3) Observe the refracted ray passing through the block. Observe also the reflected ray.
4) Mark two dots on the incident ray to record its position. Repeat with the reflected
ray and the refracted ray. Remove the ray box and the block.
5) Using the dots as a guide, lay the ruler along the position of the incident ray and
draw a line to represent this ray. Repeat with the reflected ray and the refracted ray.
6) Draw the normal to the flat surface of the block. Mark the angle of incidence i and
the angle of refraction r. Measure these angles and record their values.
7) Replace the block and the ray box on a fresh sheet of paper.
8) Gradually move the ray round (increasing the angle of incidence) until the refracted
ray travels along the surface of the block. (The angle of refraction is now 90°.)
9) Mark and draw the rays. The value of the angle of incidence is now the critical angle.
Increase the angle of incidence still further and observe the reflected. Is there a
reflected ray?

Applications of total internal reflection

Periscopes and binoculars: a periscope is constructed using two angled prisms. The light rays
hit the inside surface of the prims at angles greater than to the critical angle. Therefore the
light rays are internally reflected. Binoculars make use of the prism to reduce the length of
the instrument and produce an erect image. These light rays are bent through 180° by each
prism.

Optical fibres: An optic fibre is made of a core of high refractive index glass or plastic. Alight
ray entering the fibre will be internally reflected at the surfaces. Optical fibres are used in
telecommunications. They are cheaper and can carry more telephone signals. As no light
can escape, it is difficult to intercept the signals as they travel.

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THIN CONVERGING AND DIVERGING LENSES

Lenses can be divided into two types, depending on their shape:

 Converging lenses are fatter in the middle than at the edges;

 Diverging lenses are thinner in the middle than at the edges.

Features of lenses:

1. The optical centre, C – the point midway between the lens surfaces on its principal
axis.
2. The principal axis – the line passing symmetrically through the optical centre of the
lens.
3. The principle focus, F – all rays close to and parallel to the principle axis will
converge after refraction by the lens at a point known as the principle focus. Also
known as the focal point.
4. The focal length, f – distance between the optical centre and the principle focus.
5. The focal plane – the plane which passes through F and P. The focal plane is
perpendicular to the principle axis.

Converging Lenses

 An incident ray through the optical centre C passes without bending.

 An incident ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted by the lens to pass through F.
 An incident ray passing through F is refracted parallel to the principal axis.

Diverging Lens

A diverging lens causes parallel rays to spread out. A diverging lens only produces virtual
images.

 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will refract
through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction such that its
extension will pass through the focal point).
 Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the centre of the lens will in affect continue in
the same direction that it had when it entered the lens.

50
An image produced by a lens can be larger or smaller than the object, i.e. it can be
magnified or reduced.

The linear magnification, m is defined as:

Linear magnification, m = height of image hi ÷ height of object ho

m = image distance ÷ object distance, m = v ÷ u

Uses of a single lens:

Magnifying glass: a virtual image is produced which is upright and magnified

Camera/ eye: a real image is produced which is inverted and diminished

Projector/ photographic enlarger: a real image is produced which is inverted and magnified

Short Sight

A short sighted person is only able to focus on close objects and is not able to view objects
far away. This may be caused to the eyeball being too long or the lens too rigid and unable
to change its shape. The rays converge in front of the retina causing a blurred image. This
defect is corrected using a diverging lens which makes the parallel rays from the object
diverge. Then the strong action of the eye causes them to converge on the retina.

Long-sight

A long sighted person is only able to focus on distant objects and is not able to view objects
close to the eye. The eyeball may be too short or the lens cannot be made fat enough, so
the rays from one point of an object close to the eye come together behind the retina. This
defect can be corrected using a converging lens. The converging lens causes rays from a
close object to be less diverging and then the weekend action of the eye allows the rays to
be brought to a focus on the back of the retina and the person is able to focus on close
objects.

51
 4.15 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

The splitting up of white light into a spectrum is known as dispersion. White light is a
mixture of all the different colours of the spectrum. In a prism, as white light enters, it slows
down due to refraction which also means that its speed changes. Dispersion occurs because
each colour is refracted by a different amount. The colours of the spectrum include:

Red orange yellow green blue indigo violet

Acronym: Roy G Biv

Light can be represented as a wave. Red light has a greater wavelength then violet light .
This is because both lights travel at the same speeds but violet light has a greater frequency.
The waves that make up visible light have very high frequencies.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed and in a vacuum. They have the same
speed as light – (3 × 108 m/s). Like light, the speed of electromagnetic waves depend on the
material they travel through, and they travel the fastest in a vacuum.

The electromagnetic spectrum is continuous, which also means that there are no missing
frequencies in the range.

Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength ( and the highest frequency), and radio waves
have the longest wavelength with the lowest frequency.

Shortest wavelength Longest wavelength

Gamma rays X-rays ultraviolet visible light infrared microwaves radio waves

Highest Frequency Shortest Frequency

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APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Type of Wave Uses

Gamma Rays (medical imaging) In hospitals to see inside patients; kill
cancerous cells by directing a beam of X-rays
at a tumour. By engineers for detecting
cracks in metal. In airports as security
scanners.
X-rays (medical imaging) Same uses as gamma rays.
Ultra-violet (sunbeds) To sterilise medical equipment because it
kills micro-organisms. Fluorescent lights
produce ultraviolet radiation by passing an
electric current through mercury vapour; a
white coating on the inside of the tube
converts this radiation to visible light.
Light (optical fibres) An endoscope can be used by doctors to see
inside a patient’s stomach; one bundle
carries light into the body and another
carries an image up to the user. Telephone
signals are transmitted.
Infra-red (household electrical appliances) Remote controls which send out a beam of
radiation carrying a signal with information.
Toasters use infrared radiation as thermal
energy. Intruder alarms send out beams of
infrared and detect changes in the reflected
radiation.
Microwaves (satellite television) They pass easily through the atmosphere
and send back to users on earth. Also used
for mobile phone signals between masts
Radio waves (radio and television Sent out from an aerial to be captured by an
telecommunications) aerial on the roof of a house

53
 4.16 SOUND

SOUND WAVES

Sound is a form of energy which travel as waves. Sound waves are produced by objects that
vibrate in a medium. The medium can be a gas, liquid or solid. A vibrating object produces
sound waves by the shifting layers of air particles. The vibrating object pushes and pulls on
the air which send the air vibrations in waves of compressions and rarefactions. These
waves are longitudinal because the air particles vibrate along the direction in which the
waves travel energy.

Compressions and rarefactions are changes in air pressure. Compressions are areas where
the air pressure is slightly higher than the surrounding air; rarefactions are areas where the
air pressure is slightly lower than the surrounding air. The wavelength λ, of a sound wave is
the distance between two consecutive rarefactions (or compressions). The maximum
pressure change gives the amplitude A, of a sound wave.

Transmission of sound

Sound waves are mechanical because they require a medium to travel and cannot travel in a
vacuum. This can be tested by listening to a bell in a bell jar. As the air is pumped out of the
bell jar the ringing sound fades away. Any medium with vibrating particles will transmit
sound, but the nature of the medium will affect the speed of the waves. Sound waves travel
fastest in solids and slowest in gases. Altering the physical conditions also in air also affect
the speed of sound.

Audibility

The range of frequencies audible to the human ear is approx. 20 Hz at the lower limit to
20 000 Hz at the upper limit. The ranges of audibility differ from person to person e.g. older
people have a lower range of audibility than younger people.

Reflection of sound

An echo is the reflection of sound heard when sound waves bounce back from hard, flat
surfaces. Multiple echoes of sound can be heard in an empty hall because of the many
reflection of the walls surfaces. The prolonged sound due to the many echoes is called
reverberation.

54
Uses : Ships and submarines transmit signals to detect shoals of fish and measure the depth.
Time interval is noted between signal emission and the arrival of the echo. Bats use echo-
sounding to detect obstacle sin their flight.

ULTRASOUND

Sound waves with frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasound, which exceeds the
audible range for humans.

Application

In medical : Ultrasound is used to observe the internal parts of the body, especially in the
development of a foetus. Ultrasound pulses are emitted into the body by a transmitter. The
echoes reflected by any surfaces within the body are received. Through times interval the
depth of the reflecting surfaces is calculated.

In cleaning: Transmission of high energy ultrasound may cause cavitation bubbles at sites of
rarefaction. These bubbles displace contaminant from surfaces. This effect also permits
fresh chemicals to come into contact with the contaminant remaining on the surface to be
removed.

Pitch, Loudness and Quality

A pitch is relative i.e. it is determined in relation to other sounds. It is related to the physical
quantity of frequency. The higher the frequency the higher the pitch. Doubling the
frequency increases the pitch by one octave.

55
 5 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

5.17 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

LAWS OF MAGNETISM

 magnetic materials are attracted to the two ends of a magnet, called the poles;
 magnets have two poles, the south and north pole, the north-seeking pole points to
the north and the south-seeking pole to the south;
 like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER

 A magnetic material is any material which feels a force when placed in a magnetic
field e.g. cobalt, nickel, and a few alloys such as steel.
 A non-magnetic material is any material which does not feel a force when placed in a
magnetic field e.g. brass, copper, wood and plastics.
 A magnetised-material is any material which has become magnetised by a
permanent magnet.

Electrical magnetisation:

The unmagnetised object is placed inside a cylindrical coil, called a solenoid, wound round a
cardboard roll. The solenoid must have several hundred turns of insulated copper wire.
When a direct current (d.c.) flows through the solenoid it becomes a magnet. By switching
the current on for a short while and then off again, the unmagnetised object becomes
magnetised when removed from the solenoid. The polarity of this magnet can be found in
two ways:

i. looking at the direction of the flow of current i.e. clockwise or anticlockwise, with
anticlockwise being a N-pole and clockwise a S-pole;
ii. gripping the solenoid with the right hand so that the fingers are in the direction of
the current, the end of the magnetised steel bar that the thumb points to is a N-pole.

A magnet can be demagnetised by placing it inside a solenoid connected to an alternating

current (a.c).

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Permanent Magnets

Any material e.g. magnetite that is able to keep its magnetism for a long time is called a
permanent magnet. Steel is a permanent magnet:

 harder to magnetise and demagnetise then steel;

 requires a strong magnetic field to magnetise.

Magnetic materials such as steel are hard to magnetise and retain their magnetism longer.
They are called hard magnetic materials. Steel is used to make permanent magnets and
bar magnets.

Uses:

Moving Coil Galvanometer: this is a current detector which is made up of a core suspended
in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. When a current flows through the coil, a
turning effect is produced in the coil. A pointer attached to the coil will then detect a
deflection on the scale.

Magnetic Door Catch: magnetic strips are used for the doors of freezers and refrigerators to
keep the doors air-locked.

Other Uses: operation in machines e.g. d.c. motors and a.c. generators; ring magnets as a
magnetic memory in computers; magnets are used to remove magnetic materials form
eyes; to reset the metal index in a maximum and minimum thermometer; moving coil
loudspeaker.

Temporary Magnet

Temporary magnets are those which act like a permanent magnet when they are within a
strong magnetic field, but lose their magnetism when the magnetic field disappears. Soft
iron is a temporary magnet:

 easily magnetised and demagnetised;

 can be magnetised by a weak magnetic field.

Magnetic materials like iron which are easily magnetised but do not maintain their
magnetism are called soft magnetic materials. Iron is used in electromagnetics,
transformer cores and magnetic shields.

Uses:

Electromagnetic cranes: current is switched on to energise the magnet and pick up the
scrap metal. When it is moved to the correct position, the electromagnet is switched off and
the metal drops.

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Magnetic Induction

When an unmagnetised magnetic material is brought near or touches the poles of a

permanent magnet, it is attracted or becomes a magnet. Magnetic induction is the process
of inducing magnetism into a an unmagnetised ferromagnetic material without any contact
with the magnet. E.g. when a permanent magnet is brought near to a soft iron bar, the
north pole of the permanent magnet induces a south pole into the end of the iron bar whilst
the far end of the iron becomes a north pole.

Magnetic Field and Plotting Compass

A magnetic field is the region where a magnetic force is exerted on any magnetic object
placed within the influence of the field. The earth’s magnetic field is most likely caused by
circulating electric currents within the earth’s core. These currents may be generated by
convection in the earth’s liquid core. Magnetic fields are also present in the interior of atoms
and in stars.

Experiment:

Apparatus: Bar magnet, plotting compass, plain paper

1) Place the magnet at the centre of the piece of paper, so that the south pole faces
south and the north pole face north.
2) Starting near one pole of the magnet, the positions of the ends, N and S, of the
compass needle are marked by pencil dots X and Y. The compass is then moved until
one end is exactly over Y and the position of the other end is marked with a new dot.
3) Repeat the process of marking the dot. Join the series of dots and this will give the
plot of the field lines of the magnetic field.

Precautions:

 Check that the compass is in good working condition.

 Ensure that there is no other magnetic field except the earths’ around the plotting
compass.

Magnetic Screening

Sometimes objects or places need to be screened for magnetism and therefore external
magnetic fields must be excluded e.g. the earth’s magnetic field. E.g. In a MRI scan where a
patients’ body is screened for tiny changes of magnetic fields.

58
Audio and video tape

These are synthetic tapes with a layer of ferromagnetic material. When recording the tape is
magnetised with an electromagnet . The recorded information is represented in electric
forms as varying currents. The currents will magnetise the tape according to the
information.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Patterns of Magnetic Fields

A magnet field is produced when a current flows through a wire i.e. a current-carrying
conductor produces a magnetic field.

Straight Wire:

Using a plotting compass the magnetic field pattern can be drawn. Place a wire upwards
through a small hole in a horizontal cardboard and placing the compass on the board. The
magnetic field lines are circles around the wire. The right-hand grip rule is used to predict
the direction of the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. The strength of the
magnetic field decreases further down the wire. The strength also depends on the
magnitude of the current. The larger the current the greater the strength.

A magnetic field will be generated when a current flows through a wire. The magnetic field
forms by straight wire are concentric circles around the wire as shown in the figure above. If
the direction of the current is inversed, the direction of the magnetic field line is also
inversed.

The plan view, a dot in the wire shows the current coming out from the plane whereas a
cross in the wire shows the current moving into the plane.

59
Grip the wire with the right hand, with the thumb pointing along the direction of the
current. The other fingers give the direction of the magnetic field around the wire.

The strength of the magnetic field form by a current carrying conductor depends on:

 the magnitude of the current; a stronger current will produce a stronger magnetic
field around the wire.

 the distance from the wire; the strength of the field decreases as you move further
out.

Flat coil:

Flat coil magnetic field pattern: the strength of the magnetic field is stronger along the
inside of the coil than the outside. More magnetic field lines per unit area lie on the inside
region of the coil and the field lines at the centre are straight and perpendicular to the plane
of the coil.

60
The direction of the field can be determined by the Right Hand Grip Rule. Grip the wire at
one side of the coil with your right hand, with thumb pointing along the direction of the
current. Your other fingers will be pointing in the direction of the field.

To increase the magnetic field strength at the centre of the coil:

 increase the current;

 increase the number of turns if the flat coil.

Solenoids:

A solenoid is said to have poles because its’ magnetic field pattern resembles that of a bar
magnet. The right-hand grip rule is used to predict the direction of the field and another
way is: when viewing one end of the coil, it will be the N-pole is the current is flowing in the
aNticlockwise direction, and a S-pole is the current is flowing an a clockwiSe direction.

A solenoid is a long coil made up of a numbers of turns of wire. The magnetic field of a
solenoid resembles that of the long bar magnet, and it behaves as if it has a North Pole at
one end and a South Pole at the other.

Imagine your right-hand gripping the coil of the solenoid such that your fingers point the
same way as the current. Your thumb then points in the direction of the field. Since the
magnetic field line is always coming out from the North Pole, therefore the thumb points
towards the North Pole.

The magnetic field is stronger inside the solenoid. It can be increased by:

 increasing the current;

 increasing the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid;
 using a soft iron core within the solenoid.

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Uses

A simple magnetic relay:

A switching device which uses an electromagnetic, and has two circuits, one dependent on
the other without direct electrical contact. The input circuit supplies current to the
electromagnet, and when a certain current level is reached, the electromagnet attracts one
end of the iron armature which is pivoted to make the other end act as a lever. The lever
opens or closes the contacts in the second circuit. Therefore, the low current/ voltage circuit
controls the higher current/ voltage circuit.

The reed switch:

Is a pair of soft iron strips inside a glass tube which contains an inert gas to prevent
contamination and oxidation. There is a small gap between the reeds. Movement of the
reed switch will make or break contact between the two terminals. When a magnetic field
of a permanent/ electro-magnet is brought near the reed switch, the reeds become
magnetised and attract each other closing the contact and activating the external circuit.

The circuit breaker:

Switches off the current when it becomes too large. The current flows along the springy
copper strip through the iron armature and solenoid. The electromagnet attracts the
armature if the current is too large, breaking the circuit.

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 5.18 STATIC ELECTRICITY

LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS

Matter is made up of particles called atoms which contain negatively charged particles
called electrons that orbit around a nucleus of positively charged protons and neutral
neutrons. An atom in its general state is balanced. An electrified state is that which is
unbalanced due to the removal or addition of electrons. An atom in this state is ionised.
These are two types of charges ( and the only ones ) which are produced by friction between
different materials. In charging by friction, some electrons from the surface atoms of one
object are transferred to the surface of another atom. Charge is not destroyed only
transferred.

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROSTATICS

Electrostatic Charging by Friction

Experiments:

 Rubbing a cloth and rod makes them electrically charged. This can be demonstrated
by holding both the items near the hair – they attract the hair. Static electricity is
generated by rubbing. Also, a charged object may attract an uncharged object. By
hanging the rod in a cradle and bringing the cloth near to it makes the rod move
towards the cloth
 Rubbing a second rod and bringing this near the hanging in the cradle will produce a
repulsive action by both the rods.

Conclusion:

 like charges repel;

 Unlike charges attract.

It is the force of friction which causes charging. When the two items are rubbed, friction
transfers tiny particles called electrons from one material to the other.

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Measurement of electric charge

Electric charge is measured in coulombs C, which is the SI unit for electric charge.

Electric charge (C) = current (amps) × time (sec)

Therefore, one coulomb is the amount of electric charge passing through a section in a
circuit in when a current of one ampere flows for one second. The charge of one electron or
proton is 1.6×10-19; and 6.25×1018 electrons are required to make up one coulomb.
Coulombs are large quantities and therefore mill coulombs (1 mC = 10-3 C) and micro
coulombs (1µC = 10-6C) are commonly used.

Electric Field

The force between electric charges act over a distance without the charges being in contact.
This force also exists across a vacuum. An electric field exists in a region of space where a
small positive charge experiences an electric force. The direction of a field is described as the
direction of the force on a small positive charge.

Lines of force:

Lines of force are used to show the direction of an electric field. The lines of force are
directed outwards for a positive charge and inwards for a negative charge. The strength of
the force is shown by the distance between the lines, with closer lines indicating a stronger
electric field. An electric field between two parallel oppositely charged plates is uniform at
the central region, with field lines starting from positive charges.

64
Induction

Induction is the process of charging a conductor without any contact with the charging
body.

a) To charge two conductors with equal and opposite charges

i. The two conductors (metallic spheres) on insulator stands are brought into
contact with one another.
ii. A negatively charged rod is brought into contact with sphere A, which causes the
electrons from sphere A to be repelled to the furthest side of sphere B. Now,
sphere A alone will have excess positive charge (electron loss) and sphere B will
have excess negative charge (electron gain).
iii. With the negative rod yet in place, the two spheres A and B are placed a distance
apart.
iv. The sphere A will now have induced positive charges while B will have induced
negative charges, and the charge on the rod will remain the same.
b) To charge a single conductor by induction
i. Bring a charged rod (e.g. positively charged) to the area of the conductor. Held
by an insulating stand.
ii. The free electrons in the conductors will be drawn towards the end of the
conductor nearer to the positively charged rod, whilst the other end will be
positively charged. However, the conductor remains neutral.
iii. Keeping the rod in place, the conductor to be charged is earthed, which can be
done by touching the conductor. This path will allow the electrons to flow to the
conductor to neutralise the excess positive charge on the other end of the
conductor. The conductor will carry an excess negative charge.
iv. When the rod is removed the electrons will redistribute on the surface of the
conductor to attain electrostatic equilibrium.

Insulators and Conductors

Insulators are materials which do not carry electrons , thus not able to conduct electricity.
Such materials inc. glass, silk, ebonite, hard rubber and fur. These materials can be
electrified by rubbing. The electrons are transferred from one material to another and
remain on the surface. They do not move within the material and are called electric
insulators.

65
Electric conductors do permit electrons to flow through them. They are not easily charged
by rubbing unless first insulated. Electric conductors inc. metals, electrolytes and ionised
gases which contain flowing positive and negative ions.

All electrons of electrical insulators are bound to their nuclei and the displacement of
electrons does not cause electrons to flow i.e. the charge is confined to the area where it
was produced or placed (e.g. rubbing). The valence electrons in in electrical conductors are
delocalised. If these materials gain electrons, the electrons can move about them. A loss of
electrons by conduction causes a redistribution of those left behind.

Neutralising charged insulators and conductors

Discharging is the neutralisation of charged bodies.

Charged insulators: to discharge a charged rod (glass) it can be heated. The heat causes the
surrounding air of the rod to be ionised into positive and negative ions. These negative ions
will neutralise the excess positive charges on the rod. Charged insulators also discharge
slowly when left in moist conditions. Water vapour in the air causes the excess charges on
the insulator to leak away slowly.

Charged conductors: a charged conductor e.g. a metal sphere with excess electrons, the
electrons can be removed by earthing it. To earth a charged conductor is to provide a path
for the electrons to flow away or towards the charged conductor and cause it to become
electrically neutral. For a positively charged sphere, earthing causes electrons from the
earth to flow towards the sphere and neutralise it. The human body can also act as a
conducting path for electrons.

APPLICATIONS AND HAZARDS OF ELECTROSTATICS

Applications

Flue-ash removal: using an electrostatic precipitator, flue-ash (smoke and dust) can be
removed from a coal power station. Flue-ash causes serious air pollution. A precipitator
consists of wires which are negatively charged and plates which are positively charged. The
wires charge ash particles when they pass and the plates attract these charged particles.
The plates are then mechanically shaken to remove the ash. This technique is widely used in
industries which release flue gases.

High voltage generators: the Van de Graaff generator is used in nuclear research to
accelerate sub-atomic particles. It sis a static charge generator with a voltage production of
up to 14 million volts.

66
Spray painting: Electrostatic spray painting is used in the production of cars, where the car
and the nozzle (paint) are oppositely charged which causes adhesion of the paint to the car
giving a uniform layer of paint.

Laser Printer, Photocopier:

At the heart of a printer is a metal drum coated with an insulating material . The drum
rotates and goes through a series of processes to produce an image on a piece of paper.

Hazards

Lightning: thunderclouds are charged due to the friction between water and air molecules.
Large quantities of electric charge produces flashes of lightning. When the charge on
thunderclouds is sufficient it ionises the air which provides a conducting path for the large
amounts of charge to be discharged to the nearest object on the ground. Lightning
conductors are placed on tall buildings to prevent damage, by providing a discharge path for
the electrons to flow into the earth.

Fires or Explosions: a fire or explosion can be caused by the massive build-up of electric
charges produced by friction. Electric charge accumulate on planes and trucks carrying
flammable liquids. Therefore preventive steps are taken e.g. an aircraft’s tyres are made of
a slightly conductive rubber which discharges the electric charge during touchdown.

67
 5.19 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT

An electric current is a flow of charge. When a torch is switched on electrons flow through
the torch bulb and cell. Metals contain delocalised electrons which move freely between the
metal ions. The electrons prevent the positive ions from repelling each other. Electrons flow
through the bulb because its filament is made of metal, and the electrons transfer energy
from the cells to the bulb.

The size of an electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge, which is the flow of
charge per second. The current depends on the quantity of electrons passing through a
component. An electric charge is measured in coulombs (C) and an electric current in
amperes (A). An electric current of one ampere is a rate of flow of charge of 1 coulomb per
second.

Current amps (A) = charge coulombs(C)/ time taken (s)

I = Q/t

The size of a current can be measured using a device called an ammeter.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

The electromotive force is described as the energy converted from non- electrical forms to
an electrical form, when one coulomb of positive charge passes through the cell. The e.m.f.
of a supply is the work done in moving one coulomb of charge around a circuit.

e.m.f. = work done / charge, E = W/Q

or,

volt = joule / coulomb, V= J/C

Batteries

A battery is made of one or two more cells connected together in series , which gives a
bigger e.m.f. so the current that flows will be greater. The e.m.f. in series add up. For three
1.5V cells in series.

Combined e.m.f. = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 V

68
In parallel, three cells of 1.5 V will only provide a combined e.m.f. of 1.5 V . But the
combination will provide the same current for a longer before it runs down than a single cell
can do on its own.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The potential difference (p.d) between two points is defined as the energy converted from
electrical to other forms when one coulomb of positive charge passes between the two
points.

potential difference = energy converted from electrical to other forms / charge,

V=W/Q

Or,

volt = joule / coulomb, V= J/C

RESISTANCE

A resistor determines the amount of energy capable of passing through, because the
resistors material restricts the movement of electrons in the material. The resistance, R of a
material is defined as the ratio V/I, where V is the potential difference across the material
and I is the current flowing through it.

R = V/I

Any conductor which provides a known value of resistance in a circuit is called a resistor.
There are variable resistors (rheostats) and fixed resistors. Types of fixed resistors are :

 Carbon fibre
 Carbon composition
 Tin oxide
 Wire wound

The resistance of a load can be found using a voltmeter and ammeter. The ammeter is used
to find the current through the load and the voltmeter the potential difference, with whose
values resistance can be calculated.

69
Experiment:

To determine the resistance of a resistance using a voltmeter and an ammeter.

Apparatus: voltmeter, ammeter, variable resistor, accumulator

1) Set up the apparatus according to the circuit diagram.

2) Adjust the variable resistor to allow the smallest possible current to flow in the
circuit.
3) Not the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading
4) Adjust the variable resistor to allow a larger current to flow in the circuit. Not the
values.
5) Repeat the above for five sets.
6) Find the average resistance; or plot a graph for V against I and find the gradient
which gives the resistance of the load.

Ohm’s Law

The SI unit for resistance is the ohm (Ω). One ohm is the resistance of a material through
which a current of one ampere flows when a potential difference of one volt is maintained.

R = V/ I, I ohm (Ω)= 1 volt (V) / 1 ampere (A)

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across its ends, provided that the physical conditions (e.g.
temperature) are constant.

The resistance ( R = V / I) of a metallic conductor is steady under constant physical

conditions. Non-metallic conductors which obey ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors.
Materials which do not obey ohm’s laws are ionic solutions, gases, superconductors and
thermionic devices. These are called non-ohmic conductors.

70
Resistivity: The resistance of a conductor depends on its temperature, length l, its cross-
sectional area A and the type of material. Thinner and/ or longer wires have a higher
resistance compared to short and /or thick wires.

 The larger the cross-sectional area of a wire, the smaller the resistance it has.
Therefore: R is inversely proportional to A when the length and type of the material
are constant, R ∝ 1/A.
 The longer the wire, the greater the resistance. Therefore, R is directly proportional
to the length when A and the type of the material are constant, R ∝ 1.

Therefore, R = I /A or R = where (a constant) is a property of the type of the

conductor called its resistivity.

Filament Bulb

A filament bulb is a non-ohmic conductor, so the current is not directly proportional to the
potential difference. The resistance of a bulb increases as the current increases, which
means with the increase of temperature the resistance increases. Beacuse the ions vibrate
more in the metal filament they resist the passage of electrons.

LDR

Resistance decreases with increase of light intensity.

71
 5.20 D.C. CIRCUITS

CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN CURCUITS

Symbol Device Symbol Device

Open switch Closed switch

Lamp A.C. mains

Cell Battery

Fuse Thermistor

Voltmeter Ammeter

Diode Light emmiting

diode (LED)

Resistor Variable resistor

Light dependent Transformer

resistor (LDR)

Coil Bell

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

In series

 The combined resistance is equal to the sum of the resistances

 The current is the same at all points around the circuit
 The potential difference of a power supply is shared between the resistors
i.e. V = V1 + V2 + V3

72
In Parallel

 The effective resistance is less than the resistance of either resistor, beacuse it is
easier for the current to flow i.e. 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

 The current from the source is greater than the current through either resistor,
beacuse the current splits, i.e. I = I1 + I2 + I3

73
 5.21 PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY

DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity can be dangerous in these situations:

 damaged insulation
 overheating of cables
 damp conditions

Damaged insulation:

All electrical appliances require two wires to complete a circuit, the live and neutral wires,
starting from the voltage supply to the appliance and back. These wires are insulated in
rubber. Wear and tear from of cables and appliances eventually expose the wires. If the
rubber insulation is also damaged, then there is a risk of attaining an electric shock.

Overheating of cables:

A short circuit or overloading causes a large current which overheat the cables. When a live
wire comes in contact with a neutral wire it produces an electric shock.

Damp conditions:

When a live wire comes in contact with water then the water provides a conducting path for
a current and maybe through a body. The human body can only withstand a current of up to
50mA.

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY AT HOME

Fuse:

The fuse is a devise which protects equipment from an excessive flow of current. When a
fuse becomes hot and the current flowing through it is greater than it’s rated value, it melts.
For safety precautions, fuses should have a rating which is slightly more than the current
drawn by the appliance. Fuses must be connected to the live wire so that after the fuse has
melted the appliance does not become live. The mains must be switched off when replacing
a use. The current rating of the fuse should be just above the value of the current that flows
when operating properly. The fuse rating is the maximum current that the fuse can carry
without melting. The fuse rating should be slightly higher than the normal working current
of an appliance.

74
Switches:

A switch breaks off or completes an electric circuit. The switch must be connected to the
live wire, so that it disconnects the high voltage from an appliance. When connected to the
neutral wire a shock may occur.

Plugs and sockets:

The life and neutral pin holes are blinded for protection and are opened by the earth pin.
Within a fused plug a fuse is fitted and when it blows, it isolates the appliance from others
plugged in the mains socket.

Earthing:

The earth wire provides an alternative path for the current to flow should the metal casing
accidently become life. It protects a user form an electric shock. The current that flows from
the loose live wire through the metal casing and the earth wire will blow the circuit fuse and
cut off the supply to the appliance.

Circuit breakers:

Mostly two circuit breakers are found in the consumer unit circuit breaker:

 the miniature circuit breaker (MCB);

 the earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB).

The MCB will break the circuit when a short circuit occurs or when a too large current flows
through the circuit. This type of breaker has a limiting current which when exceeded will trip
the circuit and cut off the power supply. The MCB can be switched on again but after the
faulty wire is rectified. The device can be reused by resetting the spring-loaded switch. The
ELCB detects leakages from the live wire to the earth wire. When a leakage is detected in an
earth wire the ELCB will switch off the electricity supply.

Double insulation:

This is used as a substitution for a earth wire. It provides two types of insulation. Firstly, the
electric cable is insulated from the internal components of the appliance; and secondly, the
internal metal parts which in case of a fault may become life are insulated from the external
casing. Appliances with this feature usually have non-metallic casings.

75
Need for Earth Wire and Metal Case

 Earth wire is connected to the metal casing of an electrical appliance. In case of a

leakage of current, the user may get an electric shock if the live wire is connected to
the metal casing. The earth wire allows the current to flow through it to the ground
and protects the user from a fatal electric shock.

 Double insulation protects the user of the appliance from an electrical shock by
preventing any possibility of the external casing becoming live, thus eliminating the
need for an earth connection. Firstly, the electric cable is insulated from the internal
components of the appliance. Secondly, the internal metal parts, which could
become live if a fault developed is also insulated from the external casing.

Wires

 Live wire carries electric current to the appliances.

 Neutral wire completes the circuit by forming a path for the current back to the
mains. It is usually at zero volts.
 Earth wire has very low resistance and is usually connected to the metal casing of
the appliances. It forms a safety outlet for current in case the appliance becomes
live.

Switches, fuses and circuit breakers must be fitted onto the live wire so that when the
switch is off or when the fuse/circuit breaker is broken, they disconnect the high voltage
from the appliances.

Mains Plug

Wire/ pin Colour Function

Live Brown Varying p.d between live and
Neutral Blue neutral makes current flow
through appliance
Earth Green / yellow Connects metal case to earth

76
 5.22 ELECTROMAGNETISM

FORCE ON A CURENT-CURRYING CONDUCTOR

Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

A current-carrying wire is surrounded by a magnetic field, and when this wire is placed in
another magnetic field the two magnetic fields may interact and produce a force on the
wire. This is called the motor effect.

A force mat act on current-carrying conductor when placed in magnetic field. The force
acts at right angles to both the current direction and the direction of the magnetic field.
When the direction of the current is reversed then so is the direction of the force on the
wire. Using Fleming’s Left-hand Rule the direction of the force on the wire can be found.

The effect of the force is reversed if:

 The current is reversed;

 The direction of the magnetic field is reversed

Experiments

A simple way to show the force on a current-carrying conductor.

Apparatus:

stiff copper wire, two steel rods, two magnadur magnets and yoke, low-voltage d.c. power
supply, two connecting wires, two crocodile clips, clamps

Procedure:

1) Clamp the two steel rods horizontally, parallel to one another.

2) Bend a length of copper wire as shown to form a ‘swing’, which can hang between
the steel rods.
3) Attach the two magnets to their yoke, ensuring that opposite poles are facing each
other. Place the magnets around the swing.
4) Connect up the ends of the steel rods to the power supply. The current should be
able to flow along one rod, through the swing and back through the other rod.
5) Switch on and observe whether a force acts on the swing.

77
Force on a Moving Charge on a Magnetic Field

When a beam of positive charges enter the region of magnetic field, the beam is deflected
to move in a circular path. This is because the moving charges experience a force
perpendicular to its velocity. The direction of the force can be predicted by Fleming’s Left-
hand Rule and taking the current to be in the direction of positive charges. When a beam of
protons enter a region of magnetic field directed out of the plane paper, the beam is
deflected downwards. When a beam of protons is directed into a plane of paper, the beam
of protons is deflected upwards

Moving Coil Loudspeaker: the permanent magnet used in a moving coil loudspeaker has a
cylindrical pole (S-pole) and a surrounding ring pole (N-pole) to create a strong radial
magnetic field in the gap between the poles. When an alternating current passes through
the coils, a force is produced which moves the coil forwards and backwards through a short
distance. By attaching a paper cone to the coil,. The air molecules in front of the coil and the
paper cone are set into motion as the coil and the paper cone move forwards and backwards
which creates sound waves in the air.

Two Parallel Current-carrying Wires

When two current carrying wires are placed parallel to each other the magnetic fields will
interact and a force will act on each of the wires. When the currents flow in opp. directions,
the wires repel and when the flow in mutual directions they attract. The magnetic field
pattern of a current carrying wire can be found by applying the right-hand grip rule.

78
Current-Carrying Rectangle Coil in a Magnetic Field

A current carrying rectangular coil in a magnetic field will experience a turning force.

To increase the turning effect on the coil:

 increase the number of coils on the coil;

 increase the current;
 place a soft iron-core within the magnetic field lines.

THE D.C. MOTOR

 The coil is connected to a split-ring commutator

 When current flows through the coil, the force acting on the coil will turn the coil in a
clockwise direction until the coil is in the vertical position

 There is no current flowing in the vertical position, but due to its momentum, the
coil continues to rotate past the vertical position

 This reverses the direction of current in the coil. Thus, the coil continues to rotate in
a clockwise direction

 The purpose of the split-ring commutator is to reverse the direction of current in

the coil whenever the commutator changes its contact from one carbon brush to
another, this ensures that the coil will rotate in a fixed direction

79
Turning effect of the wire coil increased when

 the number of turns of the coil of wire is increased

 the current is increased

 the coil of wire is wound on a soft-iron core

80
 5.23 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of inducing an e.m.f. into a circuit due to a

changing magnetic field.

Faradays’ experiments

i. Iron Ring Experiment: two coils of insulated copper wire are wound round a soft iron
ring. The ends of coil A are connected to a battery and a switch. When the switch is
closed, the current flowing in coil A sets up a magnetic field in the soft iron ring. A
compass is placed below the wire which is parallel to coil B. The compass needle only
deflects when the switch is turned on and off. There is no deflection of the needle
when there is a continuous supply of current to coil A. Therefore, there is only a
current present in coil B when the current in A is switched on and off. The current in
B is said to be induced. The induced current only arises when there is a change in the
magnetic field linking the ring to coil B. The iron ring experiment led to the
construction of transformers.
ii. Solenoid Experiment: when a permanent magnet is placed into solenoid which is
connected to a galvanometer, then the needle of the galvanometer deflects into one
direction, and when the magnet is removed, the needle moves into the opposite
direction. Only relative movement between the magnet and the solenoid induces an
electromotive force into the circuit.
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. depends on:
 the number of turns in the solenoid;
 strength of the magnet;
 speed with which the magnet is placed into the solenoid (or withdrawn).

The Laws of Magnetism

Faradays Law of Induction: the e.m.f generated in a conduction is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linking the circuit.

Lenz’s Law: the direction of the induced e.m.f. and therefore the induced current in a circuit
is always as to oppose the change in magnetic flux opposing it.

81
Experiment:

Demonstrating Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws.

Apparatus: 2.0 m insulated wire with bare ends, sensitive galvanometer, bar magnet

Procedure:

1) Coil the wire to make a solenoid approximately 5 cm in diameter. (The coil can be
flat like in the diagram rather than long.) Alternatively, use a ready-made solenoid.
2) Connect the ends of the coil to the terminals of the meter.
3) Bring one pole of the bar magnet towards and into the centre of the coil. Observe
the deflection on the meter.
4) Now investigate how the deflection on the meter changes in different
circumstances:
• Use the opposite pole of the bar magnet.
• Move the bar magnet out of the coil.
• Hold the bar magnet stationary at different distances from the coil.

Factors affecting magnitude of induced e.m.f

Induced e.m.f. increased when

1. the magnet moves at a faster speed in and out of the coil

2. a stronger magnet is used
3. the number of turns in the coil is increased

Making a magnet by electrical method - most efficient method

 a steel bar to be magnetised is placed inside a solenoid

 direct current is passed through the solenoid, it becomes a magnet

- polarity of the magnet determined by

 viewing from one end of the solenoid

o if current flows in an anticlockwise direction, that end will be the
North pole
 viewing from one end of the solenoid
o if current flows in a clockwise direction, that end will be the South
pole

82
THE A.C. GENERATOR

Electromagnetic induction is used in the generation of electricity. The alternating current

generator is an electromagnetic devise which transforms mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

Simple a.c. generator

Consists of a rectangular coil of wire that is mounted on an axle. By rotating the axle, the
rectangle is made to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet. As the coil rotates
the magnetic field through the coil changes and therefore induces an e.m.f. between the
ends of the coil. The induced current does not flow unless the ends of the coil are connected
to an external circuit with an electrical load such as a resistor. The slip rings permit the
transfer of the alternating e.m.f. induced in the rotating coil to the external circuit. Each ring
is connected to one end of the coil wire and electrically connected by a conducting carbon
brush ( against which it slips) to the rest of the generator circuit.

The slip rings (or commutator) connect the same carbon brush to the same end of the coil
so that current can flow to an external load.

To determine the direction of induced current in the coil (Generators)

Factors affecting the magnitude of induced e.m.f.

The induced e.m.f. of the ac generator can be increased by

 increasing the speed of rotation of the coil

 increasing the number of turns of the coil

 winding the coil on a soft iron core

 using stronger magnets

83
TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a device that changes a high alternating voltage at a low current to a low
alternating voltage at a high current or vice versa. It is a useful device used for:

 electrical power transmissions from power stations to the consumer loads;

 regulating voltages for proper operations of electrical appliances.

Closed core transformer

Consists of two coils of wires, the primary and the secondary, with the necessary number of
turns. The coils are wound on a laminated soft-iron core which consists of thin sheets of
soft-iron insulated from each other by a coat of lacquer. The insulation reduces heat loss
due to induced currents.

Principle of Operation: this transformer transfers electricity supplied by from the primary coil
to the secondary coil by electromagnetic induction between the two coils. At the primary
coil, the applied alternating voltage sets up a changing magnetic field which induces an
e.m.f. in the secondary coil. A step-up transformer is one in which the e.m.f. in the primary
coil is smaller than the secondary coil. A step-down transformer is the opposite. For a step-
up transformer the number of turns in the secondary coil needs to be greater than in the
primary coil. And for a step-down transformer the opposite.

Power Transfer in a Transformer: in an efficient (100%) transformer, the power supplied to

the primary coil is fully transferred to the secondary coil. So, by the Law of Conservation of
Energy:

power in the primary coil = power in the secondary coil

Transmission of Electrical Power: During transmission of electricity, a huge amount of power

is lost as joule heating in the grid cables. To minimise heat loss, the cables are made thick to
create a lower resistance. There is a limit to the thickness of the cables because the thicker
the heavier, creating more costs. Reducing the current in transfer also reduces heat loss.
This is done by transformers to step-up the voltage at which electrical power is transmitted.
A high voltage is used in electrical power transmission to reduce power loss, because a
greater current would otherwise have to deliver the same amount of power.

84
 Installation InstallationEnvironment Environment Maintenanc
COMPARISO - cost - ease of al impact - al impact - e and
N visual impact the land itself reliability
Overhead lower, relatively considerable, slight - much more
power lines simple easy, miles of foundations of needed and
erection of simple pylons and pylons much less
pylons and erection job cables reliable -
linking stretching weather
cables across the damage eg
carrying the countryside - from frost,
high controversial snow,
voltage in designated corrosion of
current areas of structure
outstanding
natural beauty
Underground much much more minimal, not considerable, much less
cables higher, work, all really seen at but temporary and more
costly that all - digging reliable, not
trenches digging and trenches is affected by
and filling! disturbing the weather
insulated land, but no BUT not as
cables lasting easy to trace
damage and access if
fault
develops

85
 5.24 INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

THERMIONIC EMISSION

A metals atom contains outer electrons which move freely through the metallic material.
These delocalised electrons are bound to the metal because of the attractive force of the
atoms nuclei. However, when heated the electrons gain sufficient energy to escape from
the surface of the metal. This is known as thermionic emission. By passing a current through
a tungsten filament, thermionic emission is produced.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRONS

The electron gun

The electron gun produces a fine beam of electrons. It consists of a glass tube at a very low
pressure. Electrons are produced by thermionic emission from a tungsten filament heated
by a 6 V supply. A high positive potential is connected to a cylindrical anode (+). The
electrons will accelerate to a high speed and shoot straight through the hole of the anode in
a fine beam of electrons. The electron beams are sometimes called cathode rays because
they are emitted from the cathode.

Deflection by electric field

When a potential difference is applied across to parallel plates placed horizontally and some
distance apart, an electric field is produced. When an electric beam is passed between these
plates, the beam will deflect towards the positive plate due to the attraction force between
opposite forces. The greater the electric field strength, the larger the degree of deflection of
the electric beam.

Deflection by magnetic field

A magnetic field is applied at right angles to the beam of electrons by placing two poles of a
magnet. The electron beam is deflected by its’ magnetic field. Electrons are negative and
therefore a beam of electrons would be equal to a positive or conventional current in the
opposite direction, and by applying Fleming’s Left-hand Rule, the deflection would be
downwards. This experiment provides a strong evidence that cathode rays are negatively
charged electrons.

86
CATHODE RAY TUBE – RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O.)

The cathode ray oscilloscope consists of the following components:

 the electron gun;

 the deflecting plates;
 a fluorescent screen.

The electron gun: the electron gun is the same as the basic electron gun but with a grid,
which is connected to a negative potential. The greater the negativity the more electrons
that would be repelled from the grid and fewer electrons that will reach the anode and the
screen. The brightness of the light is determined by the number of electrons that reach the
scree, which makes the negative potential of the grid a control for brightness. The anode at
the positive potential accelerates the electrons and the electrons are focused to a fine beam
as they pass through an anode.

The deflecting plates: two pairs of plates are placed in the C.R.O. Voltages that are applied
deflect the electron beam. The Y-plates will cause a vertical deflection and the X-plates will
cause a horizontal deflection.

The fluorescent screen: the screen is coated with a fluorescent salt e.g. zinc sulphide which
causes a flash of light when the electrons hot the screen.

The C.R.O.

The time base: switching on a time base applies a saw tooth voltage to the Y-plates. The saw
tooth voltage makes the electron beam sweep across the screen at a constant speed. In
each cycle the electron beam would be moved from the extreme left to the extreme right.
Knowing the cycle period, the speed of the sweeping beam is found. Therefore, the time
base is measure of time for the oscilloscope.

Measuring Voltages: through the Y-input terminals, the voltage to be measured is applied to
the Y-plates. The time base is switched off. An electric field is set up when between the
plates a voltage is applied. The gain of the Y-input determines the sensitivity of the
oscilloscope. E.g. a gain of 0.5/div means 1.5 volts creates a deflection of 3 divisions.

Displaying Voltage Waveforms: when the time base is switched on a suitable frequency is
selected for it, the voltage waveform can be displayed by the C.R.O. The input at the Y-
terminals is the voltage waveform.

Short intervals of time: the C.R.O. with the time base on can be used to measure short
intervals of time. E.g. the time taken for sound to travel a certain distance. By finding the
time taken and the distance travelled, the speed of sound can be calculated.

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CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Resistor

The resistor is used to measure the control the amount of current that flows through a
circuit. The value and tolerance of the resistor is given by the four coloured bands on the
resistor. The colours of the first three bands indicate the first digit, the second digit and the
number of zeros that follow the first two digits. The fourth band indicates the tolerance of
the resistor: brown = ± 1%, red = ± 2%, gold = ± 5%, silver = ± 10%, none = ± 20%.

The power rating of a resistor is the maximum rate of dissipation of electrical energy as heat
before it is damaged. A rating of 0.25 W to 1W is the most common.

Potential Divider

A potentiometer is a variable potential divider. It consists of a resistor connected across a

voltage source.

Thermistor

Is a device whose resistance is affected by temperature. Its’ resistance decreases with

increasing temperature. It is used in applications such as temperature control, temperature
measurement and fire alarms.

Light dependent resistor

The resistivity of a L.D.R. depends on the light intensity acting on it. The resistance
decreases with an increase of light.

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 6. ATOMIC PHYSICS

6.26 RADIOACTIVITY

DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY

The Gold Leaf Experiment

For this experiment a positively charged electroscope with a gold lead in a diverged position
is used. A radium source is brought near to the cap of the electroscope. The radiation
emitted ionises the surrounding air; as the cap is positively charged the positive ions repel
and the negative ions are attracted to the cap. On reaching the cap the positively charged
electroscope is neutralised by the negative ions and therefore, the gold leaf collapses.

The diffusion cloud chamber

Air containing alcohol vapour in a chamber is cooled by dry ice placed below a thin black
metal plate. When a radioactive source is placed inside the chamber, so that the radioactive
radiation passes through the vapour, tracks are produced in the alcohol vapour due to
condensation of the alcohol vapour on the ions formed. The tracks can be seen by looking
through the transparent plastic lid. They appear white against the black base plate of the
chamber.

The Geiger-Muller (G-M) tube

When the ionising radiation enters the tube by penetrating the mica window the argon
atoms become ionised into electron and argon-ion pairs. The free electrons will then
accelerate towards the anode wire along the axis of the cylindrical cathode. The electrons
will then cause further ionisation of the argon atoms by colliding with them, producing a
cluster of electrons which will collect almost immediately at the anode. The positively
charged ions will collect at the cathode. The electrons and argon ions at the electrodes
produce a current pulse. This current pulse is amplified and then either fed into a rate meter
or a scalar. A rate meter has a meter marked in counts by seconds (or per minute) from
which the average pulse rate is read. A scalar counts the pulses and displays the total
received in a certain time.

When the radioactive source is removed, the G-M tube usually registers a count of between
20 to 50 per minute. This is phenomenon is called background count which is due to
background radiation. The background radiation may be caused by the radioactive

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contamination of the defector or its’ surroundings, or because of cosmic radiation entering
earth from space.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE TYPES OF EMISSION

Radioactive Decay

Radiation is emitted by the nucleus of an atom. Un unstable nucleus emits radiation in an

attempt to become more stable. This is known a radioactive decay.

Nature of the radiation

An alpha particle is a positively charged helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two
neutrons. It is a stable particle.

Beta radiation is identified as a stream of high energy electrons i.e. a beta particle is in
principle a negatively charged electron. It is formed by a nucleus decay process.

Gamma radiation is identified as high frequency electromagnetic radiation i.e. they are
electromagnetic waves of very short length.

Ionising power

When a particle, such as an alpha or beta, moves at a high speed and collides with an atom,
an electron may be ejected from the atom producing a charged ion. Alpha particles have the
greatest ionising power followed by beta particles and gamma rays. α > β > γ

Penetrating power

Gamma rays are the most penetrating, having a range of a few hundred meters and can
only be withheld by a 2cm- thick lead shield.

Beta particles come second which have a range of a several in air but can be stopped by a
5mm- thick aluminium sheet.

Alpha particles can easily be stopped by a sheet of paper with a range of only a few
centimetres in air. γ > β > α

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Deflection by electric and magnetic fields

The deflection by electric fields show that alpha particles are positively charged, beta
particles are negatively charged and gamma rays are neutral.

HALF-LIFE

Radioactive decay

Radioactive emission of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays take place due to
radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is the process of unstable nuclei disintegrating to
attain more stability. This process is not affected by:

 chemical combinations or reactions;

 any changes in physical conditions such as temperature, pressure, electric or
magnetic fields etc.

Therefore, radioactive emission is a random process, the rate of decay is proportional to the
number of unstable nuclei present. When a radioactive element decays, a constant fraction
of the larger number of unstable nuclei will decay in a certain time. A measure of the rate of
decay is the half-life of the radioactive element:

The half-life of a sample of radioactive element is defined as the time taken for half of the
unstable nuclei to decay.

Each radioactive element has its’ own half- life. E.g. the half-life of radioactive sodium is 15
years, whereas that of radium is 1600 years. To measure the half-life of a radioactive
substance, the rate of decay (activity) has to be measured at different times, which can
easily be found finding the count rate using a G-M tube and a rate meter.

USES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES INCLUDING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Uses of radioactive material

Tracers: the ability of detectors to measure small quantities of radioactive materials is made
use of in tracer applications. Tracers are widely used in medicine, industry and agriculture.

Penetrating radiation: gamma rays are used to penetrate deep into weldings to detect
faults. They also photograph the inside of an engine to detect any cracks. Radioactive

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sources are also used to check the thickness of steel plates. Gamma rays are also used to
sterilise pre-packages food.

Power sources: uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear power stations. Satellites rely on
radioactive decay as their power source in space. Some fire alarms contain alpha emitting
substances which keep the surrounding air a little ionised and detects any change to the
ionisation levels e.g. smoke.

Medical treatment: proper shielded gamma rays can be brought to bear on deep cancerous
growth. The radiation kills the cells of the tumour in the patients. These machines are called
gammatrons and are used in radiotherapy.

Archaeological dating: radioactive carbon is found in the atmosphere and plants that absorb
this carbon dioxide become slightly radioactive. This enables the levels of radioactivity of
plants over time to be monitored. Because radioactive substances decay at a rate that we
can determine.

Hazards of radiation

Overexposure to radiation may cause radiation burns. Extreme exposure to radiation can
cause radiation sickness and in some cases be fatal. Precautions:

i. workers need to wear film badges to monitor the amount that they are exposed to
over time;
ii. the walls of rooms where radioactive substances are stores must be of lead bricks
and over 1m thick. The rooms must be labelled ‘radioactive material’;
iii. During an on-going experiment involving radioactive material, the radiation material
must be displayed;
iv. People working with radioactive substances must wear protective clothing and not
touch any substances directly;
v. During interaction with radioactive substances food and drink is prohibited.

Background Radiation

The air is radioactive; it contains a radioactive gas called radon, which originates from
uranium rocks underground. The ground also contains radioactive substances. Food and
drink is also contaminated. Radiation also enters the earth from space in the form of cosmic
rays. Most of the radiation is stopped by the earth’s atmosphere. Radiation is also produced
by performing X-rays.

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Dating

When a living organism dies, the carbon- 14 in its body decays. As time passes, the amount
remaining decreases. By measuring the amount remaining, we can work out when the
organism was alive. There are two ways to measure the amount of carbon- 14 present in an
object:

 By measuring the activity of a sample using a detector such as the Geiger counter.
 By counting the number of carbon- 14 atoms using a mass spectrometer.

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 2.27 THE NUCLEAR ATOM

THE ATOMIC MODEL

An atom contains three particles: electrons, and protons and neutrons which are located in
the nucleus.

The Geiger-Marsden Experiment

In this experiment a beam of alpha particles is aimed at a thin piece of gold foil. A zinc
sulphide screen mounted on a rotatable microscope is used to detect the alpha particles.
This experiment must be carried out in a dark room in order to see a small flash of light
which can be seen whenever an alpha particle strikes the zinc sulphide screen. A majority of
the particles will pass straight through the gold foil. A small fraction will bounce back to the
source.

Rutherford’s model of the atom

Based on the G-M experiment, Rutherford made a model of the atom with a very dense core
(or nucleus). All the positively charged particles and most of the mass of the atom are
concentrated in this atom. As the atom is neutral, this model suggested an equal number of
electrons to the protons that orbit around the nucleus. The nucleus and electrons occupy 1 ×
10-12 of the volume of an atom which would mean that most of the atom is unoccupied. This
explains why most of the alpha particles pass, and only a small number is affected by a
strong repulsive force when they come near or head on to the positively charged nucleus.
This repulsion causes the particles to deviate.

THE NUCLEUS

The total number of components of a nucleus is known as the nuclear or mass number (A). A
nucleon is a proton or neutron. The number of protons are known is known as the proton
number or atomic number (Z).

Nuclide Notation

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If X represents an element containing A nucleons and Z protons than an atom of the
element can be indicated symbolically. This notation is used in writing nuclear equations
during nuclear changes.

Isotopes

Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the same proton number but different
nucleon numbers. Isotopes have identical chemical properties.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Radioactive decay can be displayed in nuclear equation in which a parent nuclide X

(unstable) changes into a daughter Y (stable) with the emission of an alpha or beta particle
or gamma rays. To represent these types of radioactive decay there are three types of
equations; Alpha-decay, Beta-decay and gamma-decay.

Radioisotopes

Naturally occurring radioactive elements such as radium and uranium have high nuclear
numbers. By means of a nuclear reactor, it is possible to make artificial radioactive isotopes
by colliding lighter nuclides with protons, neutrons or alpha particles. Radioisotopes have
many important applications in medicine, industry and agriculture.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Einstein suggested that mass and energy are equivalent E = mc2. A change in energy,
increase or decrease, will lead to corresponding change in mass, ∆m = ∆E/ c2

Nuclear fission

The process whereby heavy unstable nuclide break up to produce energy.

Nuclear fusion

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The process whereby lighter nuclides fuse together to form a heavier nucleus with the
release of energy.

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